Less Is More: The Physiological Basis for Tapering in Endurance, Strength, and Power Athletes

Abstract

Taper, or reduced-volume training, improves competition performance across a broad spectrum of exercise modes and populations. This article aims to highlight the physiological mechanisms, namely in skeletal muscle, by which taper improves performance and provide a practical literature-based rationale for implementing taper in varied athletic disciplines. Special attention will be paid to strength-and power-oriented athletes as taper is under-studied and often overlooked in these populations. Tapering can best be summarized by the adage " less is more " because maintained intensity and reduced volume prior to competition yields significant performance benefits.

Full text

Sports 2015, 3, 209-218; doi:10.3390/sports3030209
sports
ISSN 2075-4663
www.mdpi.com/journal/sports
Review
Less Is More: The Physiological Basis for Tapering in
Endurance, Strength, and Power Athletes
Kevin A. Murach 1,2,* and James R. Bagley 2
1 Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Sciences and Center for Muscle Biology,
University of Kentucky, MS-508 Chandler Medical Center, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40508, USA
2 Department of Kinesiology, College of Health and Social Sciences, San Francisco State University,
1600 Holloway Avenue-Gym 101, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA; E-Mail: jrbagley@sfsu.edu
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: kmu236@g.uky.edu;
Tel.: +1-859-257-2375.
Academic Editor: Lee E. Brown
Received: 10 July 2015 / Accepted: 17 August 2015 / Published: 21 August 2015
Abstract: Taper, or reduced-volume training, improves competition performance across a
broad spectrum of exercise modes and populations. This article aims to highlight the
physiological mechanisms, namely in skeletal muscle, by which taper improves performance
and provide a practical literature-based rationale for implementing taper in varied athletic
disciplines. Special attention will be paid to strength- and power-oriented athletes as taper is
under-studied and often overlooked in these populations. Tapering can best be summarized
by the adage “less is more” because maintained intensity and reduced volume prior to
competition yields significant performance benefits.
Keywords: taper; reduced-volume training; periodization; skeletal muscle; fiber type
1. Introduction
Taper can be defined as a structured reduction in training volume (as compared to peak training load)
for a specific period of time prior to athletic competition as a means to enhance performance. In simpler
terms, taper is formalized recovery training that occurs after a heavy training block. Rest as an integral
aspect of training is not a recent concept. The importance of obligatory recovery time during training
was recognized as early as the ancient Olympic games [1]. However, the role of adequate rest in
OPEN ACCESS

Sports 2015, 3 210
optimizing performance has been more widely publicized in the last 60 years with the concept of
periodization [2,3], or varied training (i.e., mode, time, intensity) for a specific goal.
Endurance athletes have systematically practiced relative rest via reduced-volume training as a means
to improve performance for at least 50 years. However, Costill and colleagues [4] in 1985 were the first
to experimentally evaluate the physiological effects of a specific tapering protocol using competitive
swimmers. Since that time, taper’s efficacy has been well documented in swimming, cycling, running,
triathlon, rowing, strength training, and team sports to name a few. The effects of tapering are apparent
from the whole body (macro) [4] to the cell and gene (micro) [5,6] levels and even include psychological
improvements [7]. Despite the multitude of data supporting taper’s effectiveness, some athletes and
coaches still fail to acknowledge its importance and implement the practice. The purpose of this article
is to highlight how taper is experimentally shown to enhance athletic performance across multiple
exercise modes and populations. An overview of tapering in endurance-type athletes will be provided, but
special attention will be paid to strength- and power-oriented athletes for whom tapering is generally less
emphasized. Additionally, the discussion will highlight taper-mediated skeletal muscle improvements
and provide broad literature-based guidance for tapering. We hope to underscore the necessity for
coaches and athletes to employ well-controlled taper regimens during their training programs.
2. How to Taper
An effective taper regimen can be conducted in numerous ways. The duration and type of taper
generally varies by sport but the common theme among endurance tapering protocols is a substantial
reduction in training volume prior to competition. The literature suggests that an effective taper could
be as short as four days [8] and involve reductions in training volume of up to 90% [9,10]. An improperly
conducted taper where endurance exercise volume is only reduced by 25% and high- intensity work is
increased to compensate will not yield favorable results [11]. Increasing training volume instead of tapering
affords no benefits and may hinder performance [12,13]. For most endurance-oriented activities, a taper
lasting two to three weeks characterized by a 40%–70% reduction in volume from peak training with
maintained intensity will produce significant performance benefits. For a more in-depth review of specific
endurance tapering protocols, refer to Mujika et al. [14], Bosquet et al. [15], and Wilson et al. [16].
The nature of taper is less defined in the literature regarding intermittent type athletic disciplines such
as strength-focused weightlifting, power-focused Olympic-style weightlifting, and track and field or team
sports where both strength and power are emphasized. However, a recent review on tapering in strength
sports suggests (similar to endurance athletics) that performance is improved with a 30%–70% reduction in
volume (via reduced intra-session volume or less overall training frequency) for up to four weeks with
maintained or slightly increased intensity [17]. The tapering literature specific to power athletes is
particularly limited. However, a recent investigation found a 25%–40% reduction in resistance training
volume (sessions per week) with maintained intensity improved throwing performance after two weeks
in track and field athletes [18]. Another study found enhanced maximal power output with a three week
taper characterized by a ~75% resistance-training volume reduction, a slight increase in intensity, and
maintained sport-specific training in elite rugby players [19]. Similar to endurance athletes, reduced
volume with maintained or slightly increased intensity appears to be the key elements for tapering in
strength- and power-focused athletes.

Sports 2015, 3 211
3. Magnitude of Performance Benefits with Taper
A properly conducted taper improves race performance across a broad spectrum of athletic activities
and populations (Figure 1). It enhances performance in shorter race events (i.e., 50 meter swim, <10 km
cycling time trial [TT], 2000 m row) [4,7,13,20–22] as well as middle distance swimming, biking, and
running competition [4,5,9,13,20,22–24]. Taper also improves performance indices in longer-duration
events such as the duathlon [25], 40 km cycling TT [26], and triathlon [27,28]. For any distance event,
it is reasonable to expect that taper will increase performance on the order of 2%–3%. This is no small
change when considering that a 3% improvement in a collegiate 8 kilometer runner’s performance could
account for a 50 s faster race time [5]. Moreover, meaningful performance benefits are not exclusive to
endurance and race events with tapering. A 2%–3% improvement in the bench press and squat in strength
athletes [29] and a 5%–6% increase in throwing distance can occur in competitive track and field athletes
following a taper period [18].
Figure 1. Reported performance benefits from taper in different athletic events and populations.
Data were derived from the following studies in order from left to right:
Swim-Mujika et al. 2002 [30], Costill et al. 1985 [4], D’Acquisto et al. 1992 [9]. Bike-Berger et
al. 1999 [7], Neary et al. 2003 [24], Neary et al. 2003 [26]. Run-Luden et al. 2010 [5], Houmard
et al. 1994 [23]. Row-Steinacker et al. 2000 [21]. Throw-Zaras et al. 2014 [18].
m = Meter; M = Male; F = Female; HS = High School; TT = Time Trial; T + F = Track and Field.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
% ∆ in Performance
Swim Bike Run Row Throw

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4. Fitness Is Not Lost with Taper
A common misconception among athletes and coaches is that less training always equates to a loss
of fitness. However, the literature indicates that fitness in endurance athletes (measured as aerobic
capacity, or VO
2max
) is not lost following the taper period and five studies have actually shown an
increase in fitness with less training [18,21–23,25]. Reducing training volume for as long as four
weeks [7] by >85% (in the last week) [6,19] still yields gains in performance without a loss of fitness.
Considering the robust adaptations observed with short-duration high-intensity interval training, even in
already highly trained individuals [26,27], it should come as no surprise that a well-designed taper of
reduced volume and quality high intensity work can preserve fitness for up to a month. In strength
athletes, short-term complete rest (≤1 week) does not reduce force-producing capacity while tapering
only seems to improve strength [17]. To our knowledge, there is little to no evidence in the literature
showing that a properly conducted taper does not improve fitness indices in endurance, strength, power,
or team sport athletes.
5. Taper and Muscle Energy Usage
If an athlete consistently trains rigorously and with high volumes, one could expect muscle energy
stores (i.e., carbohydrate, or glycogen) to be chronically lowered. Logically, a reduction in training
volume during taper with proper diet reverses this condition (Figure 2) [10,24]. Initial muscle glycogen
levels do not seem to affect short-term high-intensity performance (i.e., a sprint) [31,32]. Indeed, the
performance decrements from overtraining [33] and the performance benefits from taper [26] can occur
independent of muscle glycogen levels during shorter duration activities. However, initial glycogen
levels do affect performance during repeated high-intensity efforts [34,35] as well as endurance efforts
lasting ~60 min or more [36,37]. Expanded muscle glycogen stores may therefore be a desirable
taper-induced adaptation for endurance athletes, team sport athletes, and during activities requiring
multiple individual efforts in quick succession. Other measures related to muscle energy usage such as
lactate [4,9,10,13,23,38,39] and aerobic enzymes [8,10,26] are less affected by tapering. Taper-mediated
muscle glycogen replenishment enhances performance in some circumstances but does not fully account
for the beneficial effects of tapering.
Figure 2. Illustration of training volume, accumulated fatigue, and skeletal muscle glycogen
content in response to training with and without taper (assuming proper diet). Concept
derived from Sherman et al. [37] and Halson et al. [40].

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6. Taper Improves Muscle Power in Endurance Athletes
Numerous studies spanning various exercise modes and subject populations [21,41–43] have since
corroborated the original findings [4] of increased muscle power with taper in endurance athletes
(Figure 3). Taper-derived muscle power gains may occur in two phases (early and late) which reinforces
that a taper should be of adequate length (generally ≥2 weeks) [43]. One might predict the main effect of
tapering in endurance athlete’s muscle would be targeted to the highly aerobic slow-twitch muscle fibers.
However, it is the less abundant and 5–8 times more powerful fast-twitch fibers that drastically
respond [5,22,26,28]. These fibers grow at an alarmingly fast rate with taper [5,22,26], improving power
output without a measurable change in body mass [5,22]. Improved fast-twitch fiber function may allow
for a harder “push” to the finish line or improve economy (faster speed with the same amount of effort).
It has recently been shown that favorable regulation of molecular hypertrophy markers, specifically in
fast-twitch fibers, may support the high rate of growth in these fibers with tapering [6]. Although taper
has a positive effect down to the molecular level, taper-mediated growth is only realized when volume
is adequately reduced [11]. To our knowledge, data on the mechanisms of performance enhancement with
tapering in strength or power athletes are not available at the muscle cell level. However, strength and power
training can selectively hypertrophy fast-twitch muscle fibers [6], potentially maximizing growth
adaptation before tapering ensues. Thus, tapering likely augments performance in intermittent-type
athletes by a different mechanism than in endurance athletes.
Figure 3. Skeletal muscle improvements from taper across different exercise modes and
muscles. Data were derived from the following studies in order from left to right:
Fast-Twitch Size-Luden et al. 2010 [5], Neary et al. 2003 [26], Trappe et al. 2000 [22].
Fast-Twitch Force-Luden et al. 2010 [5], Trappe et al. 2000 [22]. Whole Muscle
Power-Steinacker et al. 2000 [21], Jeukendrup et al. 1992 [41], Costill et al. 1985 [4].
CSA = Cross Sectional Area; mN = Millinewtons.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Run Bike Swim Run Swim Row Bike Swim
% Change
Fast-Twitch Size
(CSA)
Fast-Twitch Force
(mN)
Whole Muscle Power
(Watts)

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7. How Tapering Improves Performance in Strength and Power Athletes
In the early phases of resistance training, neuromuscular mechanisms largely contribute to strength
increases independent from cellular mechanisms [44,45]. It follows that strength augmentation in the
early phase of taper (≤1 week) after heavy resistance training could be attributable to a reversal of
neuromuscular fatigue, specifically in highly-conditioned muscle [46]. Strength improvements could
also be mediated by general recovery from wear and tear caused by intense resistance training. This is
evidenced by reduced circulating markers of muscle damage with taper after progressive resistance
training in team sport athletes [47]. Increased muscle strength generally equates to improved power
production [29,48] since power is the product of strength and speed. However, the mechanism of
improved muscle function is not particularly well-documented in dedicated power athletes (e.g.,
competitive Olympic-style weightlifters). Regardless, total work, average peak power, repeated sprint
ability, vertical jump height, and maximal power output in power-oriented athletes is observed with 10
days to three weeks of tapering [18,19,49,50]. These findings support the “rest-related augmentation” or
“super-compensation” concept familiar to strength- and power-focused athletes who employ a long-term
periodized training model that favors intensity over volume as competition approaches [51]. While
additional mechanisms responsible for tapering’s positive effect in strength, power, and team sport
athletes remain to be elucidated, performance benefits are clear and tapering should be part of their
training programs just as with endurance-type athletes.
8. Summary and Perspectives
The full complement of physiological effects from tapering are numerous and extend beyond the
scope of this article (see Mujika et al. [52] and Pritchard et al. [17] for thorough reviews). However, the
take-home points from the literature are: 1) fitness is not lost with reduced-volume training; 2) the
profound effects of taper on whole muscle and fast-twitch fiber power are what appear to most greatly
contribute to performance enhancement in endurance athletes; and 3) tapering is effective for improving
performance in strength, power, and team sport athletes, but likely for different reasons than in endurance
athletes. It should also be noted that psychological research on taper reveals that tapering improves mood
state [7,21,53] and decreases perception of effort [54,55] in conjunction with improved performance.
While more difficult to quantify, the psychological benefits that taper may afford prior to competition
should not be understated. Nearly every well-controlled study to date on the topic of taper has shown
some degree of performance enhancement so long as training volume is adequately reduced and intensity
is maintained.
9. Practical Applications
The signals for adaptive processes occur during acute exercise bouts, but the actual adaptations take
place during the proceeding rest periods. It follows that after a long period of chronic high-volume
training that an extended period of relative rest and recovery is necessary to reap maximal performance
benefits. Generally speaking, the problem with most athletes is not a lack of training rigor but
demonstrating discipline and “pulling back” on training when necessary. This is evidenced by the recent
findings that: 1) some elite and world-champion athletes do not adhere to the optimal tapering protocols

Sports 2015, 3 215
outlined by the scientific literature and likely do not achieve true peak performance [56,57]; and 2)
functional over-reaching, a common practice among recreational and elite athletes alike, may undercut
the benefits of tapering [58]. Thus, tapering is adequately described by the adage “less is more” because
maintained intensity with less volume yields significant performance benefits.
Author Contributions
Kevin A. Murach made substantial contributions to overall conception, drafting, and critically
revising the manuscript. James R. Bagley made substantial contributions to drafting and critically
revising the manuscript. Both authors approved of the final version to be published.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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