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Sexual Prejudice and Hiring Recommendations in the Fitness Industry
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nose who identify as gay male or lesbian must make decisions about whether to disclose their sexual orientation in work environments that may be discriminatory. As part of a larger Web-based survey of love, work, and health in gay male and lesbian couples, the authors examined the predictors of individuals' workplace disclosure status in 118 couples. Findings indicated that, at the individual level, having a workplace nondiscrimination policy and less internalized homophobia were positively associated with the extent to which an individual was out at work. Beyond these individual effects, an individual's disclosure status at work was also positively associated with her or his partner having a workplace nondiscrimination policy and less internalized homophobia. The implications for counseling and for wider interventions at the policy level are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of weight discrimination on perceived attributions, person-job fit, and hiring recommendations. Three experiments were undertaken to investigate these issues with people applying for positions in fitness organizations (i.e., aerobics instructor and personal trainer). In all three studies qualified people who were overweight, relative to their qualified and sometimes unqualified thin counterparts, were perceived to have less desirable attributes (e.g., lazy), were thought to be a poorer fit for the position, and were less likely to receive a hiring recommendation. These relationships were influenced by applicant expertise and applicant sex in some cases. Implications for the fitness industry are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to examine factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of African Americans in head coaching positions. In Study 1, qualitative data were collected from assistant football (n = 41) and men's basketball (n = 16) coaches to examine why coaches sought head coaching positions, barriers to obtaining such positions, and reasons for leaving the coaching profession. In Study 2, assistant football (n = 259) and men's basketball coaches (n = 114) completed a questionnaire developed from Study 1. Results indicate that although there were no differences in desire to become a head coach, African Americans, relative to Whites, perceived race and opportunity as limiting their ability to obtain a head coaching position and had greater occupational turnover intentions. Context moderated the latter results, as the effects were stronger for African American football coaches than they were for African American basketball coaches. Results have practical implications for the advancement of African American football coaches into head coaching roles.
In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress— explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications.
Gender research in sport management has been dominated by liberal feminist theory, which does little to challenge or alter dominant gendered discourses and power structures within sport organizations. In this paper, the limitations of three existing conceptual frames for understanding gender equity are discussed. A fourth frame is proposed that builds on the work of Ely and Meyerson (2000a), Meyerson and Kolb (2000), and Rao, Stuart, and Kelleher (1999). We argue that the fourth frame, based on poststructural feminist theory, provides an important alternative, addressing the complexities of gender relations in sport organizations through the processes of critique, narrative revision, and experimentation. We extend the fourth frame by considering two additional elements: (a) the intersection of gender with other aspects of diversity and (b) a deconstruction of the traditional discourses that pit gender equity against organizational effectiveness using Bauman's (2001) concept of moral sensitivity. The implications of the fourth frame are then discussed in relation to sport management teaching, research, and practice.
Two studies are presented that examine the role of attractiveness and expertise in the “match-up hypothesis.” Much “match-up hypothesis” research has focused on physical attractiveness. Study One examined physical attractiveness as a match-up factor and its impact on brand attitude, purchase intent and key brand beliefs. In a 2 × 2 experiment, endorser attractiveness and product type are manipulated. Results indicated a general “attractiveness effect” on brand attitude and purchase intent but not the match-up predicted in previous literature. Study Two considered expertise as the match-up dimension. The second experiment manipulated product and endorser type. A match-up effect was found as the athlete was most effective as an endorser for the energy bar in increasing brand attitude, but not purchase intent. The variable “fit,” or “belongingness,” was shown to play an important role in match-up effects.
Invisible social identities influence social interaction in distinct ways and create unique dynamics in terms of identity management. We integrate research from the sexuality, illness, and racial diversity literature, as well as the stigma, disclosure, and identity literature, to create a generalized model of invisible identity management. We focus specifically on revealing and passing strategies of identity management and conclude by discussing the implications of invisible differences for diversity research.
One of the Boys: Masculinity, Homophobia, and Modern Manhood takes a fresh look at the formation of modern male sexual identities. You will find that homophobia is not only widespread, but that it takes diverse forms and has far-reaching behavioral and social consequences. The new concept of “homophobic passage,” which is part of the development of all young men, will enlighten you as to the proposed “causes” of homosexuality and heterosexuality.
One of the Boys will help you discover how the passage of young males from childhood to adulthood plays an important role in formation of the modern adult male self in gay and straight men. As a result, this knowledge will allow you to offer relevant services to clients who are struggling with societal stereotypes and identity issues.
From this informative book, you will discover how homophobia plays a role in the increase in violence experienced by gay men and lesbians in our culture today. To help you offer improved services, One of the Boys discusses why homophobia is widespread, takes diverse forms, and has far-reaching behavioral and social consequences by:
examining the school playground and its many effects on children’s peer groups to discover how profoundly names like “crybaby” and “poofter” can impact a child’s development
learning that children often cannot escape harmful labels and stereotypes at home and realizing how it impacts a child’s developing sense of self
discovering the media’s influence on role models and realizing the important role television and magazines play in providing information about homosexuality and homophobia
realizing the heavy pressure homophobia exerts on men and how it shapes their relationships with women and other men, how emotionally close they allow themselves to get to people, how affectionate they are, and with whom they have sexual relations
Through One of the Boys, you will gain valuable insight into the masculinity of the men interviewed and how it was shaped in order for you to develop a greater understanding of men and the many influences of society as a whole. This unique study investigates the development of homophobia and the meanings and significances people associate with it to help you understand how and where homophobia originates in our society.
The current research studies discrimination from the perspective of people in stigmatized roles in actual employment settings. Confederates, who were portrayed as being homosexual or not, applied for jobs at local stores. Measures of formal bias (e.g., job offers), interpersonal behavior (e.g., length of interactions), and perceptions of bias (e.g., anticipated job offers by applicants) were assessed. Although confederates portrayed as homosexual were not discriminated against in formal ways relative to confederate applicants not presented as gay, they were responded to significantly more negatively in interpersonal ways. Moreover, there was a stronger relationship between interpersonal treatment and anticipated employment actions for confederates than there was between interpersonal responses and actual job offers by employers. These findings reveal the dynamics of the development of different impressions and expectations by stigmatizers and targets. Theoretical and practical implications are considered.
Studying what triggers homophobic expressions such as “poofter” and “faggot” reveals that homophobia has significance far beyond it being a simple prejudice against homosexuality—homophobia is deeply implicated in the gender order and its influence on contemporary masculinities and male identity is comprehensive. Although clearly related to misogyny, antigay bias, and heterosexism, homophobia means much more. For young Australian males, homophobia is used to police the boundary between “ successful manhood” and those who, according to their peers, fail to “measure up.” From this perspective, the complex and problematic relationship between homophobia and men's sport becomes much clearer. A key factor that emerges is the pivotal importance of the discrediting power of homophobia, making it respected and feared (homophobiaphobia). The data reveal this to be a key mechanism though which homophobia exerts its extraordinary purchase on all men, gay and straight.
The intergroup contact hypothesis is tested with self-reports of 3,806 survey respondents in seven 1988 national probability samples of France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and West Germany. With seven key variables controlled, the hypothesis is confirmed-especially for intergroup friendships and affective prejudice. Nonrecursive models indicate that the predicted friends-to-less-prejudice causal path is larger than the prejudice to-fewer-intergroup friends path. These effects generalize in two ways: to immigration polity preferences and a wide variety of out-groups. To explain this generalization, three mediating processes are proposed that can override the many cognitive barriers to generalization: empathy and identification with the out-group and reappraisal of the in-group (deprovincialization). A situation's "friendship potential" is hence indicated as an essential condition for optimal intergroup contact.
In a two-wave national AIDS telephone survey, a probability sample of English-speaking adults indicated their attitudes toward gay men at Wave 1 (1990-91; n = 538) and toward both gay men and lesbians approximately one year later (n = 382 at Wave 2). At Wave 1, heterosexuals reporting interpersonal contact (31.3%) manifested more positive attitudes toward gay men than did those without contact. Their attitudes were more favorable to the extent that they reported more relationships, closer relationships, and receiving direct disclosure about another's homosexuality. At Wave 2, these findings were generally replicated for attitudes toward lesbians as well as gay men. Cross-wave analyses suggest a reciprocal relationship between contact and attitudes. Theoretical and policy implications of the results are discussed, with special attention to the role of interpersonal disclosure in reducing stigma based on a concealable status. Psychologists have devoted extensive study to majority-grou p attitudes toward members of stigmatized minority groups. Much research in this area has been guided by the contact hypothesis which, as originally described by Allport (1954), asserts that many forms of prejudice can be reduced by equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. A large body of empirical data supports Allport's hypothesis,
A gender role analysis of sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuality is based on the assumption that heterosexuals' evaluations of gay men and lesbians are rooted in a broader belief system about women, men, and their appropriate roles. This belief system has two consequences relevant to attitudes toward homosexuality. First, gender-associated beliefs appear to be inextricably linked, that is, people expect others' gender-associated characteristics to form a coherent package. The second consequence of the gender belief system as relevant to antigay prejudice stems from people's evaluations of those who contradict traditional gender roles. These two aspects of the gender belief system may work to produce men's greater intolerance of homosexuality compared to women's. This chapter discusses psychodynamic processes in attitudes towards homosexuality, the sexualization of lesbianism by heterosexual men and offers a meta-analysis of sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of the current study was to examine the influence of perceived demographic dissimilarity and interaction on customer-service satisfaction. Data were collected from 301 spectators at a professional men's tennis tournament. Results indicate that perceived demographic dissimilarity was negatively associated with customer service satisfaction. Further, this relationship was moderated by the amount of interaction between the employee and customer, such that the negative relationship was strongest when interaction was high. Results are discussed in terms of the theoretical implications related to relational demography and practical implications in terms of the “business case” for diversity.
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A longitudinal field study examined Pettigrew's (1998) intergroup contact theory and Gaertner et al.'s (2000) Common Ingroup Identity Model (CIIM). In Pettigrew's model, the contact-prejudice relation is mediated by changing behavior, ingroup reappraisal, generating affective ties, and learning about the outgroup. Pettigrew's integration of the three chief models of contact generalization into a time-sequence holds that contact first elicits decategorization, then salient categorization, and finally recategorization. In CIIM, these three levels of categorization-plus a fourth, dual identity-are thought to be mediators in the contact-prejudice relation. Results underline the crucial mediating role of behavior modification in Pettigrew's model and interpersonal and superordinate levels in CIIM. An attempt to partially integrate the two models is presented.
The purpose of this paper is to introduce the Special Issue on gender and sex diversity in sport organizations. In doing so,
we first provide a brief outline of the extant literature, emphasizing the research and theoretical developments at the macro,
meso, and micro level of analysis. Based on this framework and review, we allude to the communalities and intricacies in the
existing understanding of sex and gender in the sport workplace. Further, we highlight how the contributions in the Special
Issue address these voids and can serve as a catalyst to continued scholarly work in the area.
We compared the relationship between gender role beliefs and antigay prejudice in Chile and the United States. Participants
were Chilean and American university students. In Study 1, Chileans were more prejudiced than Americans, and men were more
prejudiced than women. In Study 2, gender role beliefs mediated cultural and sex differences in prejudice. Chileans held more
traditional gender role beliefs and were more antigay than Americans. Men were more prejudiced than women, particularly in
their attitudes toward gay men. Further, sex differences in attitudes toward lesbians and gay men were completely mediated
by gender role beliefs. Nationality differences in attitudes toward lesbians were completely mediated, and nationality differences
in attitudes toward gay men were partially mediated, by gender role beliefs.
This study drew from the match-up hypothesis and associated learning theory to examine the effects of athlete attractiveness and athlete expertise on (a) endorser-event fit, (b) attitudes toward an event, and (c) intentions to purchase tickets to an event. Students (N = 173) from three universities participated in an experiment to test the study’s hypotheses. Results indicate that (a) athlete attractiveness and athlete expertise were both positively related to endorser-event fit and (b) the effects of expertise on fit were significantly stronger than those of attractiveness. Further, attitudes toward the event partially mediated the relationship between endorser-event fit and intentions to purchase tickets to the event, while identification moderated the relationship. Results are discussed relative to associative learning theory and the match-up hypothesis as well as ramifications they present for marketers and promoters of women’s sport.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of friendship potential on perceptions of dissimilarity among persons in diverse groups. The author gathered data at the beginning and end of a 15-week semester from college students enrolled in physical activity classes. Structural equation modeling indicated that friendship potential was negatively related to perceptions of deep-level dissimilarity at the end of the semester. This relation was moderated by perceptions of such dissimilarity at the beginning of the semester. The author found the perceived dissimilarity to be negatively associated with affective reactions to the class. The author discusses findings in terms of contributions and implications for diverse groups.
This study focused on attitudes and sexual prejudice as part of a larger project on inclusive practice in sport and physical activity settings. Questionnaires were administered to a large sample of undergraduate students and to selected samples of upper-level preprofessional students and a campus pride group to investigate attitudes toward gays and lesbians, and other minority groups. Attitude scores were in the middle range, with females more positive than males toward gay men. Evaluation Thermometer scores were generally positive, but markedly lower for gay men and lesbians than for other minority groups. Upper-level preprofessional students were more positive than other undergraduates, but still expressed negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. These results confirm persistent sexual prejudice, suggest that attention to sexual minorities is particularly important for effective diversity management, and underscore the need for continuing research and educational programs to enhance cultural competence among sport management professionals and future professionals.
Sexual prejudice refers to negative attitudes toward an individual because of her or his sexual orientation. In this article, the term is used to characterize heterosexuals' negative attitudes toward (a) homosexual behavior, (b) people with a homosexual or bisexual orientation, and (c) communities of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. Sexual prejudice is a preferable term to homophobia because it conveys no assumptions about the motivations underlying negative attitudes, locates the study of attitudes concerning sexual orientation within the broader context of social psychological research on prejudice, and avoids value judgments about such attitudes. Sexual prejudice remains widespread in the United States, although moral condemnation has decreased in the 1990s and opposition to antigay discrimination has increased. The article reviews current knowledge about the prevalence of sexual prejudice, its psychological correlates, its underlying motivations, and its relationship to hate crimes and other antigy behaviors.
This study applies a framework of diversity initiatives as a basis of exploration into top management beliefs and diversity management strategies of Division IA intercollegiate athletic organizations. This framework utilizes issues of power, demographic and relational differences, and past literature regarding specific diversity strategies to empirically assess these organizations' outlooks regarding employee diversity. Results of the study suggest that Division IA intercollegiate athletic organizations operate in cultures that value similarity. Demographic variables predicted a significant amount of variance in employees' perceptions of diversity management strategies. In addition, demographic differences (being different from one's leader) accounted for an even greater amount of variance in these perceptions. Top management's beliefs in the benefits of diversity were related to perceptions of different diversity practices. That is, high beliefs resulted in higher levels of diversity management practice. Discussion of the findings relative to current theory in sport and implications for sport managers are noted.
Chapter 1 Defining the Problem Chapter 2 Three Approaches to Demographic Analysis in Organizations Chapter 3 Research on Demographic Diversity Chapter 4 The Multiple Meaning of Demography Chapter 5 Understanding Vertical and Horizontal Pairs from a Demographic Point of View Chapter 6 Understanding Demographic Diversity in Groups Chapter 7 Understanding Demographic Diversity in Organizations Chapter 8 Demographic Diversity in the International Arena: The Chinese Case Chapter 9 An Integrative Framework of Demographic Diversity in Organizations Chapter 10 Managing Demographic Diversity Chapter 11 Directions for Future Research Chapter 12 Conclusion
Malcolm Gladwell; род. 3 сентября 1963, Хэмпшир) — канадский журналист, поп-социолог. В 2005 году «Time» назвало Малкольма Гладуэлла одним из 100 самых влиятельных людей. Книги и статьи Малкольма часто касаются неожиданных последствий исследований в социальных науках и находят широкое применение в научной работе, в частности в областях социологии, психологии и социальной психологии. Некоторые из его книг занимали первые строки в списке бестселлеров «The New York Times». В 2007 году Малкольм получил первую премию Американской Социологической ассоциации за выдающиеся достижения по отчетам в социальных вопросах. В 2007 году он также получил почетную степень доктора филологии Университета Ватерлоо. Малькольм Гладуелл описывает эксперименты, которые показывают, что человеку с поврежденными эмоциональными центрами крайне трудно принимать решения. Он рассказывает про одного такого пациента, которому было предложено прийти на прием либо во вторник, либо в пятницу. И пациент два часа решал во вторник ему прийти или в пятницу — в столбик выписывал плюсы и минусы, их сравнивал, группировал по разному, всяко переставлял. И в жизни своих домашних он просто убивал вот этим. Если его спрашивали, ты что хочешь: омлет или салат? — это задача минут на сорок. Обычный человек очень просто поступает. Он видит омлет, что-то чувствует и говорит: Хочу! Все. Выбор сделан легко и быстро.
Two studies examined the relationships of gender-role variables to attitudes toward homosexuality. Study 1, a meta-analysis, found that endorsement of traditional gender-role beliefs, modern sexism, and hypermasculinity were related to attitudes, but that gender-role self-concept was not. Study 2 examined the relationships of endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, modern sexism, hypermasculinity, and hyperfemininity to attitudes toward homosexuality and self-reported antigay behaviors in a college student sample. The best predictors of attitudes were participant gender, endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, benevolent sexism, and modern sexism. The best predictors of antigay behavior were participant gender and hyper-gender-role orientation; attitudes toward women and modern sexism were also predictors for men but not for women.
The use of celebrity endorsers is a popular executional device, but it is not without risk. The authors report three studies examining how negative information about a celebrity can affect the brand the celebrity endorses. Using an associative network model of memory as a theoretical framework, they considered four moderating variables: the size of the association set for the brand, the size of the association set for the celebrity, the timing of the negative celebrity information, and the strength of the associative link between the brand and the celebrity. In the first two studies, they used a fictitious but realistic celebrity endorser and in the third they used an actual celebrity. Negative information about a celebrity resulted in a decline in attitude toward the endorsed brand only for the fictitious celebrity. That general relationship was moderated in varying degrees by association set size, timing of the negative information, and the strength of the link between brand and celebrity.
Diversity in sport, especially in relation to those who hold positions of power in interscholastic, intercollegiate, and professional sport, seems to be some what of an oxymoron. There is ample evidence that those who are not similar to the status quo that has long dominated such sport settings (i.e., white, heterosexual, male) are far less represented within positions of power in sport than they are in the population at large (Acosta & Carpenter, 1996; Washington. 1998). Furthermore, some suggest that the maintenance of the status quo goes beyond demographics and that homologous reproduction exists in attitudes. values, and leadership priorities among those in leadership positions in sport (Boutlier & San Giovanni, 1994). Because diversity and valuing diversity have received a greal deal of attention in the corporate world, this paper utilizes the business literature in an attempt to obtain a fresh perspective regarding the lack of diversity in one of the most criticized areas of sport, Division IA intercollegiate athletic organizations. A review of the literature resulted in a framework comprised of three dimensions: 1) noncompliance/compliance. 2) reactive diversity management; and 3) proactive diversity management. The framework is presented and described and its application to kinesiology, physical education. and sport is provided.
According to Steven Seidman, analysts of institutionalized heterosexuality have ‘focused exclusively on its role in regulating homosexuality’ and, while queer approaches theorize how ‘homosexuality gains its coherence in relation to heterosexuality, the impact of regimes of normative heterosexuality on heterosexuality has largely been ignored’ (2005: 40). Over the last decade and more, however, feminists have been analysing how normative heterosexuality affects the lives of heterosexuals (see Wilkinson and Kitzinger, 1993; Richardson, 1996; Jackson, 1999; Ingraham, 1996, 1999). In so doing they have drawn on earlier feminists, such as Charlotte Bunch (1975), Adrienne Rich (1980) and Monique Wittig (1992), who related
heterosexuality to the perpetuation of gendered divisions of labour and male appropriation of women’s productive and reproductive capacities. Indeed, Rich’s concept of ‘compulsory heterosexuality’ could be seen as a
forerunner of ‘heteronormativity’ and I would like to preserve an often neglected legacy of the former concept: that institutionalized, normative heterosexuality regulates those kept within its boundaries as well as marginalizing and sanctioning those outside them. The term ‘heteronormativity’ has not always captured this double-sided social regulation. Feminists have a vested interest in what goes on within heterosexual
relations because we are concerned with the ways in which heterosexuality depends upon and guarantees gender division. Heterosexuality, however, is not a singular, monolithic entity – it exists in many variants. As Seidman points out there are hierarchies of respectability and good
citizenship among heterosexuals, and what tends to be valorized as ‘normative’ is a very particular form founded on traditional gender arrangements and lifelong monogamy (see Seidman, 2005: 59–60; see also Seidman, 2002). Thus the analysis of heteronormativity needs to be rethought in terms of what is subject to regulation on both sides of the
normatively prescribed boundaries of heterosexuality: both sexuality and gender. With this in mind, this article re-examines the intersections between gender, sexuality in general and heterosexuality in particular. How these
terms are defined is clearly consequential for any analysis of linkages between them. There is no consensus on the question of definition, in large part because gender, sexuality and heterosexuality are approached from a variety of perspectives focusing on different dimensions of the social. It is not a case of some having a clearer view than others, but rather that the social is many-faceted and what is seen from one angle may be obscured from another. Sexuality, gender and heterosexuality intersect in variable ways within and between different dimensions of the social – and these intersections are also, of course, subject to historical change along with cultural and contextual variability. Hence before I go any further some conceptual clarification is needed to explain, first, how I am using the terms gender, sexuality and heterosexuality, and then what I mean by different dimensions of the social. I will then go on to outline some of the intersections that should be explored further if we are to appreciate the complexity of heteronormative social relations. In so doing I am certainly not claiming some privileged all-seeing perspective, but merely making some tentative suggestions on what might be seen from different vantage points.
This research provides the first look into the experiences of openly gay male team sport athletes on ostensibly all-heterosexual teams. Although openly gay athletes were free from physical harassment, in the absence of a formal ban against gay athletes, sport resisted their acceptance and attempted to remain a site of orthodox masculine production by creating a culture of silence surrounding gay athleticism, by segmenting gay men's identities, and by persistently using homophobic discourse to discredit homosexuality in general. Sports attempt to tolerate gay male athletes when they contribute to the overarching ethos of sport—winning—but try to taint the creation of a gay identity within sport that would see homosexuality and athleticism as compatible. Still, by proving themselves successful in sport, and meeting most other mandates of hegemonic masculinity except for their sexual identity, gay male athletes show that hegemony is not seamless and that there is a possibility of softening hegemonic masculinity in the sporting realm.
L'A. examine l'evolution aux Etats-Unis des attitudes par rapport a l'homosexualite. Il analyse les resultats des enquetes menees dans ce pays depuis le debut des annees 1970. Il souligne que, dans l'opinion publique americaine, l'homosexualite apparait de plus en plus comme etant d'origine genetique. Il etudie la maniere dont les americains envisagent les droits des homosexuels et la possibilite pour ces derniers de servir dans l'armee
Media representations of sport are particularly powerful in naturalizing and normalizing hegemonic meanings about the body and social relations. While there is a considerable body of research that analyses how gender differences are constructed in media coverage of sport, much of this research does not question the hegemony of heterosexual relations. This article extends this research by exploring how print media representations of sport contribute to the denial of lesbian sexuality and social relations. Specifically, the article will demonstrate how choices in language and visual representations work to engage in a process of normalization whereby these female rugby union players playing a `man's game' are constituted in terms of hegemonic versions of heterosexual femininity.
Lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) employees constitute one of the largest, but least studied, minority groups in the workforce. This article examines what we know, and what we need to know, about the career and workplace experiences of this understudied population. The construct of sexual identity is defined, followed by a review of the research on sexual orientation in the workplace. Then an analysis of the differences between LGB employees and other stigmatized groups is presented. Three unique challenges facing LGB employees are identified, and conceptual models are developed that explain underlying processes. Finally, career theories are critically analyzed, and an identity-based longitudinal theory of LGB careers is presented.
More women than ever before are participating in a diverse array of sports. However, at the same time, this popularity accentuates the femininity of these sportswomen, protecting the "image" of women's sports. The underlying message is that athleticism and femininity are contradictory, and females have to go out of their way to show that they can be athletic and be socially accepted. Kolnes' (1995) concept of heterosexuality as an organizing principle in women's sport provides the foundation for understanding the social construction of females in sport. Generally, women who appear heterosexually feminine are privileged over women perceived as masculine. Consequences of nonconformity to hegemonic femininity in sport often include sexist and heterosexist discrimination. This leads many sportswomen to emphasize feminine characteristics to avoid prejudice and discrimination. However, females perceived as too feminine are then sexualized and trivialized, leaving women to carefully balance athleticism with hegemonic femininity. However, in less traditional sport settings, females are resisting, challenging, and transforming expectations of hegemonic femininity. © 2001 National Association for Physical Education in Higher Education.
Two studies were conducted to assess whether recruiters form distinguishable perceptions of applicant person-job (P-J) and person-organization (P-O) fit. The first study used repertory grid methodology with actual recruiters and mock applicants to demonstrate that knowledge, skills, and abilities are relied on more frequently to assess P-J fit, and values and personality traits more often to assess P-O fit. Study 2, which involved actual recruiters making decisions on applicants in a field setting, supported P-J and P-O fit perceptions as 2 discernable factors. Study 2 also found that both types of perceived fit offer unique prediction of hiring recommendations. Taken together, these results present compelling evidence that recruiters discriminate between applicants' P-J and P-O fit during early interviews.
In this paper, we introduce the social identity (SI) perspective to enhance our understanding of the experiences of lesbians in sport. This perspective attempts to explain individual and social behavior through perceptions of group membership. It examines the interactions among social forces, self-concept, self-and collective (e.g., team) esteem, and identity development. We apply the SI perspective to create a social psychological framework for examining lesbians' experiences in sport. Context plays a central role in SI perspective, and the sport environment is unique in creating mechanisms that frame sport experiences for lesbians. We employ the major components of SI perspective (social and self-categorization, social comparison, individual mobility, and social change) to explain and describe how attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and about lesbians in sport are initiated, instituted, and sustained. © 2003 National Association for Physical Education in Higher Education.
This article explores theoretical and applied questions that are relevant to social scientists' efforts to understand and confront sexual stigma. A framework is presented for conceptualizing such stigma as a cultural phenomenon with structural and individual manifestations. The latter include enacted stigma and felt stigma, as well as internalized stigma, which encompasses self-stigma among sexual minorities and sexual prejudice among heterosexuals. Insights suggested by the model for reducing sexual prejudice are discussed. At the structural level, the framework highlights processes whereby heterosexism legitimates and perpetuates sexual stigma and the power differentials that it creates. Social and behavioral scientists, roles in working to eliminate heterosexism are discussed, and psychologists' contributions to court cases challenging state sodomy laws are described. It is argued that confronting sexual stigma will not only address an important social problem but will also enrich scientific understanding of human behavior.
Feminist and hegemony theorizing are used to explicate how sport and its ancillary organizations and occupations have managed to reproduce its masculinized nature despite the gains of second wave feminism that characterizes the broader culture. The author shows that contemporary sporting institutions largely originated as a political enterprise to counter the first wave of feminism, and describe how gender-segregation and self-selection permits sports' gatekeepers to near-exclusively draw upon a relatively homogenous group of hyper-masculine, over-conforming, failed male athletes to reproduce the institution as an extremely powerful gender-regime. The author suggests that, because orthodox notions of masculinity are institutionally codified within sport, it will take more than affirmative action programs to bring gender equality off the pitch; it will also require gender-integration on the pitch.
This article utilizes the work found within the special issue to note that sport as an institution still serves to produce,
reinforce, and perpetuate male hegemony. However, it additionally argues that the collective works point to progress in some
areas of sport. It highlights the ideas for future research regarding sex and gender diversity in sport and notes that these
concerns are often situated in multi-level, sometimes subtle, and usually taken-for-granted structures, policies, and behaviors
embedded in sport organizations. It concludes with a call for continued work in this area.
Using in-depth interviews and participant observations, I examine how two groups of heterosexual high school US football players
alter differently the construction of heterosexuality and masculinity after joining collegiate cheerleading. First, I show
that informants from both groups make masculinity accessible to gay men before next describing how they reconcile heterosexuality
with limited forms of same-sex sex. Forty-percent of the heterosexual men I interview confirm engaging in same-sex sex, although
they differently frame the requirements for it. I suggest these findings have various meaning for the relationship between
sexuality and masculinity, as both groups somewhat strengthen and contest the borders of heterosexuality and masculinity.
These findings beckon consideration as to how the relationship among sport, sexuality, and homophobia is changing.
In this article, discourse analysis, combined with lesbian feminist politics, are used to explore subtle forms of heterosexism in language, a social phenomenon that I have termed “mundane heterosexism,” because of its everyday nature. Drawing on feminist understandings of subtle sexism and discursive psychology I analyse three forms of mundane heterosexism derived from (predominantly) tape-recorded antiheterosexism training session data: (1) prejudice against the heterosexual, (2) nonheterosexuality as a deficit and (3) refusing diversity. Two levels for challenging mundane heterosexism are discussed: interactional counterarguments, and broader societal campaigns. I conclude by advocating the necessity of further detailed analyses of the construction of mundane heterosexism, and stress the importance of heterosexism for feminist research.
The ACT theory of factual memory is presented. According to this theory, information is encoded in an all-or-none manner into cognitive units and the strength of these units increases with practice and decays with delay. The essential process to memory performance is the retrieval operation. It is proposed that the cognitive units form an interconnected network and that retrieval is performed by spreading activation throughout the network. Level of activation in the network determines rate and probability of recall. With these assumptions in place, the ACT theory is shown to predict interference results in memory, judgements of associative relatedness, impact of extensive practice on memory, the differences between recognition and recall, effects of elaborative processing, and effects of reconstructive recall.
A sample of 236 undergraduates (most of whom were White women) rated resumes in which gender, masculinity/femininity, and sexual orientation were manipulated while qualifications were kept constant. Overall, participants rated lesbian and gay male applicants less positively than heterosexual male applicants, but more positively than heterosexual women. Religiosity, beliefs in traditional gender roles, beliefs in the controllability of homosexuality, and previous contact with lesbians and gay men were related to attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, which was in turn related to beliefs about employing them. Several factors were hypothesized to moderate the relationship between beliefs about employing lesbians and gay men and discrimination, although the expected relationships were not found. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Using data from a 1999 national RDD survey ( N = 1,335), this article examines gender gaps in heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians, gay men, and a variety of topics related to homosexuality. Attitudes toward lesbians differed from attitudes toward gay men in several areas, and significant differences were observed between male and female heterosexual respondents. Survey participants generally were more likely to regard gay men as mentally ill, supported adoption rights for lesbians more than for gay men, and had more negative personal reactions to gay men than to lesbians. Overall, heterosexual women were more supportive than men of employment protection and adoption rights for gay people, more willing to extend employee benefits to same-sex couples, and less likely to hold stereotypical beliefs about gay people. Heterosexual men's negative reactions to gay men were at the root of these gender differences. Of all respondent-by-target combinations, heterosexual men were the least supportive of recognition of same-sex relationships and adoption rights for gay men, most likely to believe that gay men are mentally ill and molest children, and most negative in their affective reactions to gay men. Heterosexual men's response patterns were affected by item order, suggesting possible gender differences in the cognitive organization of attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. The findings demonstrate the importance of differentiating lesbians from gay men as attitude targets in survey research.