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MRI scanning during Zen meditation: The picture of enlightenment?

  • January 2003
Authors:
Rients Ritskes at Zen.nl Nederland
Rients Ritskes
  • Zen.nl Nederland
Merel Ritskes-Hoitinga at Radboud University Medical Centre (Radboudumc)
Merel Ritskes-Hoitinga
H. Stodkilde-Jorgensen
H. Stodkilde-Jorgensen
H. Stodkilde-Jorgensen
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Klaus Bærentsen at Aarhus University
Klaus Bærentsen
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MRI Scanning During Zen Meditation
85
Constructivism in the Human Sciences,
Vol. 8 (1), 2003, p. 85-89.
MRI Scanning
During Zen Meditation:
The Picture of Enlightenment?
Rients Ritskes1, Merel Ritskes-Hoitinga2,
Hans Stødkilde-Jørgensen1,
Klaus Bærentsen,1,3 and Tue Hartman1,3
Skejby, Denmark
Author Contact: 1 MRI Research Centre, Aarhus University Hospital,
Skejby, Denmark. email: rients@zentrum.dk
2 Biomedical Laboratory, University of Southern Denmark
3 Institute of Psychology, University of Aarhus, Denmark
A group of 11 (8 male and 3 female) experienced Zen meditation
practitioners were scanned with fMRI during the conscious switch
from normal consciousness to a meditative state of mind. This
switching has been hypothesized to be realized by a dedicated
“neural switch”1. In the literature increased activity is reported
to occur in the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia during
meditation2. On the basis of other publications, deactivation in
the gyrus occipitalis was expected4. The present study
demonstrated a simultaneous occurrence of patterns of brain
activation and deactivation in the aforementioned mentioned
structures. Moreover, the present study showed a deactivation
of the anterior cingulate, an area associated with our will. It is
hypothesized that this combination of four events may reveal
the neural basis of the experience of enlightenment in Zen.
Constructivism in the Human Sciences, Vol.8 (1), 2003
86
Methods
The group consisted of 8 males and 3 females. These subjects
had on average 8 (range 15 –25) years of daily Zen-meditation
experience. Participants were all right handed, with a mean
age of 48 (range 32 – 62). During fMRI scanning a blocked on-
off design was used, in which 3 periods of 45 seconds
meditation were alternated by 3 periods of 45 seconds of
random thoughts. During the meditation blocks, all 11 subjects
focussed on counting their breaths (silently counting from one
to ten), as they were accustomed to doing during their daily
Zen-meditation practice. All fMRI scans were made on a GE
Signa MRI scanner, which one of the most technologically
current fMRI systems available today. Data ware analyzed with
Statistical Parametric Mapping Software (SPM99 – http://
www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/ ).
Results
Three periods of 45 seconds scanning during meditation were
compared to 3 periods of 45 seconds of random thoughts (“on-
off”). After the scanning period, all subjects reported that they
had been able to meditate well in the lying position in the
scan, and that it had been relatively easy to enter their normal
meditative state of mind. These results are consistent with
subject’s reports that they were able to shift their state of
mind in this on/off experiment. The fMRI images show a
significant increase in the activity of the prefrontal cortex (gyrus
frontalis medius, right side, Brodman area 10) during Zen
meditation (ill.1-1) and are consistent with similar findings by
Hirai2, who did EEG studies in Zen priests. Ryding5
has compared
the effects of counting loud and silently using a PET scanning
methodology, and also found an increased activity in the
prefrontal cortex during silent counting. Additionally, the basal
ganglia became more active during the meditation periods in
our study (ill. 1-2). Current conceptualizations of the role of
the basal ganglia consider that their function is to facilitate
behaviour and movements, which are required and considered
appropriate in any particular context, and to inhibit unwanted
or inappropriate behaviours or movements9.
Simultaneously, with the activation of the above-mentioned
areas, significantly less activity was found in two other areas:
the gyrus occipitalis superior (ill. 1-4) and the anterior cingulate
(Brodman area 32) (ill. 1-3). The gyrus occipitalis is related to
general visual orientation and orientation ability, whereas the
anterior cingulate, is associated with conscious activities that
are directed by the will.
MRI Scanning During Zen Meditation
87
Legend to figure: fMRI image of 11 subjects during the initial
phase of Zen meditation as compared to random thoughts.
From top to bottom, left to right:
Cranial, caudal, right lateral, left lateral, central and dorsal view.
1 gyrus frontalis medius
2 anterior cingulate
3 basal ganglia
4 gyrus occipitalis superior
Figure 1
Constructivism in the Human Sciences, Vol.8 (1), 2003
88
Discussion
This study demonstrates, consistent with earlier findings, that
a higher activity in the gyrus frontalis medius arises during
the initial phase of Zen meditation. The gyrus frontalis medius
is part of the frontal lobe; this area, sometimes called the
Attention Association area, is held responsible for more
complex human feelings. Austin6 concludes, based on studies
of people with frontal lobe lesions, that increased activity in
this area is thought to be associated with enhanced insights
and attentiveness, heightened interests, sharper mental
focussing, and deepened emotional resonances. In the famous
case report on Phineas Gage7 , it is reported that the gyrus
frontalis medius in the prefrontal cortex was damaged due to
an accident. Consequently, he lost his personality, developed
blunted emotions and lost social interest. Presumably, this
outcome can be summarized as a loss of compassion. Other
research has shown that electrical stimulation of the prefrontal
cortex is associated with positive feelings8. This study reports
that one-quarter of the group that received electrical
stimulation of this area of the brain, reported positive changes
in the mood as well. Additionally, a PET-study10 has
demonstrated decreased frontal-lobe activity in murderers
(there may after all have been a good scientific reason for the
New York State prison to have started a Zen meditation group
in 1984 - an example that is followed by many prisons world
wide). Increased activity in the basal ganglia during meditation
conforms to what one would expect during certain Zen
practices. For example, the tea-ceremony and Zen-archery are
just two examples of rituals that need optimal use of the main
functions of the basal ganglia, namely the making of precisely
controlled movements. Moreover, activation of the basal
ganglia appears to be stimulated by counting the breadth,
thereby possibly resulting in improved control of movements
by the conscious breathing process. Decreased activity in the
gyrus occipitalis superior and the anterior cingulated suggests
that, during meditation, there is less interference of our will
and less awareness of where we are. In summary, current
research is suggestive of a state of mind, which may have
resemblances to the experience of an enlightenment state,
where time and place limits have disappeared, and a great
feeling of love/unity is experienced.
MRI Scanning During Zen Meditation
89
References
1. Travis, F. et al. (1999) Autonomic and EEG Patterns during Eyes-
Closed Rest and Transcendental Meditation (TM) Practice: The
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2. Hirai, T. (1989) Zen Meditation and Psychotherapy. Japan Publications,
Inc.
4. Newberg, A., Alavi, A., Baime, M., Mozley P.D., and d’ Aquili E. (1997).
The measurement of cerebral blood flow during the complex
cognitive task of meditation using HMPAO-SPECT imaging.
5. Ryding, E., Bradvik, B. and Ingvar, D.H. (1995). Silent speech activates
prefrontal cortical regions asymmetrically, as well as speech-related
areas in the dominant hemisphere. Brain and Language 52:435-
451. 1996.
6. Austin, J.H., Zen and the Brain. (1998) The MIT Press Cambrige
London/Massachusetts England.
7. Damasio, H., Grabowski, T., Frank, R., Galaburda, A.M., Damasio,
A.R. (1994) Science 264: 1102-1105.
8. Sem-Jacobsen, D. (1976). Electrical stimulation and self-stimulation
in man with chronic implanted electrodes: Interpretation an pitfalls
of results. Bran-Stimulation Reward, Amsterdam, North Holland,
505-520.
9. Crossman, A.R., Neary, D. (2000) Neuroanatomy, An Illustrated Colour
Text, 125.
10. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M.S., Stanely, J. (1994). Selective reductions
in prefrontal glucose metabolism in murderers. Biological Psychiatry
29:14-25.
Constructivism in the Human Sciences, Vol.8 (1), 2003
90
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... Various studies on meditative practices like Soham (Guleria et al., 2013), Buddhist tradition of Samatha (Wallace, 2001), Kundalini yoga (Yang et al., 2016), Zen (Ritskes et al., 2003), and Transcendental Meditation (Mahone et al., 2018) practices have shown differences in their brain activation centers (Mishra et al., 2017). Following various meditation techniques, activity is relatively commonly seen in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dl-PFC) (Ritskes et al., 2003), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Tang et al., 2015b;Mahone et al., 2018), and left prefrontal cortex (PFC) (Baerentsen et al., 2010). ...
... Various studies on meditative practices like Soham (Guleria et al., 2013), Buddhist tradition of Samatha (Wallace, 2001), Kundalini yoga (Yang et al., 2016), Zen (Ritskes et al., 2003), and Transcendental Meditation (Mahone et al., 2018) practices have shown differences in their brain activation centers (Mishra et al., 2017). Following various meditation techniques, activity is relatively commonly seen in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dl-PFC) (Ritskes et al., 2003), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Tang et al., 2015b;Mahone et al., 2018), and left prefrontal cortex (PFC) (Baerentsen et al., 2010). Brain network connectivity has been shown to be impacted by meditation (Brewer et al., 2011;. ...
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... Individuals who were more mindful of the present had greater gray matter volume in the ACC (Lu et al., 2014). The activation of ACC was observed in breath-focused mindfulness tasks (Lazar et al., 2000;Hölzel et al., 2007), deep meditation (Craigmyle, 2013), and decreased in experienced meditators when converting to a state of mindfulness (Ritskes et al., 2003). Mindfulness effects were detected with the decoupling of resting-state FC (rs-FC) between subgenual ACC and amygdala (Taren et al., 2015) or other craving-related regions (caudate, ventral striatum, premotor cortex, and insula) (Westbrook et al., 2013). ...
... As to the connection within SN, greater SN connectivity in pIC (but not aIC) and intrinsic connectivity of all insular functional subdivisions to SN regions (including the anterior insula, orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and midbrain) correlated with a greater interoceptive accuracy (Chong et al., 2017). In the current study, alleviated activation of ACC in the resting state also duplicated that decreased pattern in experienced meditators (Ritskes et al., 2003). Besides, the negative affect score was positively correlated with the activation of ACC, which may indicate the role of this region in mindfulness-related emotional improvement. ...
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... Various studies on meditative practices like Soham (Guleria et al., 2013), Buddhist tradition of Samatha (Wallace, 2001), Kundalini yoga (Yang et al., 2016), Zen (Ritskes et al., 2003), and Transcendental Meditation (Mahone et al., 2018) practices have shown differences in their brain activation centers (Mishra et al., 2017). Following various meditation techniques, activity is relatively commonly seen in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dl-PFC) (Ritskes et al., 2003), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Tang et al., 2015b;Mahone et al., 2018), and left prefrontal cortex (PFC) (Baerentsen et al., 2010). ...
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... Each of these occipital areas deactivated in the current study have been widely implicated in visual recognition, processing and perception, i.e., lateral occipital complex (Grill-Spector et al., 2001), fusiform gyri (Weiner and Zilles, 2016), angular gyri (Seghier, 2013), occipital pole, calcarine area and lingual gyri (Swenson and Gulledge, 2017). Deactivations in the visual occipital cortex observed herein are consistent with majority of the extant fMRI literature on focused attention meditation (Baron Short et al., 2010;Dickenson et al., 2013;Farb et al., 2013;Hasenkamp et al., 2012;Hölzel et al., 2007;Ritskes et al., 2004;Scheibner et al., 2017). Occipital deactivations likely result from perceptual decoupling of non-target visual stimuli (e.g., fixation cross) presented during focused attention meditation fMRI trials, as participants likely tried to focus their attention on breathing sensations (target stimulus) while keeping their eyes open as instructed. ...
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... Similarly, Zen meditation practitioners have been scanned by fMRI during the conscious switch from normal consciousness state to a meditative state of mind. the study also demonstrated a deactivation of the anterior cingulate, an area associated with our will [48]. Thirty-one experienced meditators were experimented during sustained meditation. ...
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... A total of 28 studies were included for synthesis in the review (Baron Short et al., 2010;Bauer et al., 2019;Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007;Brewer et al., 2011;Dickenson et al., 2013;Doll et al., 2016;Escrichs et al., 2019;Farb et al., 2013;Garrison et al., 2013;Garrison et al., 2015;Hasenkamp et al., 2012;Hiroyasu and Hiwa, 2017;Hölzel et al., 2007;Josipovic et al., 2012;Kashkouli Nejad et al., 2015;Kemmer et al., 2015;Kim et al., 2019;Manna et al., 2010;Martínez et al., 2021;May et al., 2016;Miyoshi et al., 2019;Mooneyham et al., 2017;Pagnoni, 2012;Ritskes et al., 2004;Scheibner et al., 2017;Tomasino and Fabbro, 2016;Weng et al., 2020a;Weng et al., 2020b) to map brain regions and networks showing fMRI-inferred activation/deactivation during focused attention meditation. A subset of 10 studies were eligible for an objective coordinate-based meta-analysis, another subset of 10 studies for a systematic review of functional brain differences between experts and novices, and a subset of 11 studies for associations between brain function and behavioural measures. ...
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... Jus1n Brewer has also found a similar default mode reduc1on in people medita1ng (Brewer et al. 2011). Zen medita1on studies (Pagnoni et al 2008, Ritskes et al 2003) in which subjects are asked to switch from a verbal task to contempla1on show transient ac1vity consistent with the default circuit which is more quickly suppressed by experienced meditators more effec1vely inhibi1ng verbal thought. Tibetan Buddhists performing compassion medita1on for other people's suffering show specific ac1va1on in limbic regions including cingulate cortex and insula, consistent with an empathic response to another's pain (Lutz et al 2008). ...
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  • Jun 2021
Since it's inception in mid 2021, Symbiotic Existential Cosmology has become a major work of over 600 pages, which I strongly recommend you download in full now, as this abstract has become inadequate to represent its evolution over nearly two years of vast expansion of the original concept. The pdf is fully illustrated and live linked as a research resource of definitive impact on our view of life, the universe and everything, including our survival as a species. It represents the deepest tectonic ground shift in cosmology in the cultural history of Homo sapiens. ..................................................................................................................................... The work, presents an augmentation of physical cosmology to admit subjective conscious volition acting on the physical world, invoking a biologically, psychically and cosmologically symbiotic universe, rising to conscious climax which resolves the central enigma of existential cosmology – the nature and role of subjective experience – thus providing a direct solution to the "hard problem of consciousness" and the problem of autonomous volitional will. This is essential for human ability to consciously affect the physical world, personal responsibility and scientific consistency with criminal and civil law on intent. The cosmology is thus entirely consistent with quantum cosmology and empirical neuroscience. Where it differs, is in refuting the assumption of physical causal closure in the brain which is scientifically unprovable in the quantum universe. 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... A large number of fMRI studies have been conducted to identify brain regions affected by meditation. Although the results are not consistent from study to study, fMRI generally shows increases in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), [37,38] the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and left prefrontal cortex. [39] The increase in DLPFC has been associated with greater regulation of emotions by meditators. ...
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Selective reductions in prefrontal glucose metabolism in murderers
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This study tests the hypothesis that seriously violent offenders pleading not guilty by reason of insanity or incompetent to stand trial are characterized by prefrontal dysfunction. This hypothesis was tested in a group of 22 subjects accused of murder and 22 age-matched and gender-matched controls by measuring local cerebral uptake of glucose using positron emission tomography during the continuous performance task. Murderers had significantly lower glucose metabolism in both lateral and medial prefrontal cortex relative to controls. No group differences were observed for posterior frontal, temporal, and parietal glucose metabolism, indicating regional specificity for the prefrontal deficit. Group differences were not found to be a function of raised levels of left-handedness, schizophrenia, ethnic minority status, head injury, or motivation deficits in the murder group. These preliminary results suggest that deficits localized to the prefrontal cortex may be related to violence in a selected group of offenders, although further studies are needed to establish the generalizability of these findings to violent offenders in the community.
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Silent Speech Activates Prefrontal Cortical Regions Asymmetrically, as Well as Speech-Related Areas in the Dominant Hemisphere
Article
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Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was measured simultaneously over the right and left hemispheres by 2 x 32 detectors in 30 healthy volunteers with a two-dimensional iv xenon-133 technique, during (1) rest and during (2) audible and (3) silent counting (101, 102,...). Mean hemisphere CBF increased significantly in both hemispheres during the activations. Audible speech activated rolandic and temporoparietal regions mainly on the right side. This pattern covers auditory and para-auditory as well as motor (tongue/larynx) regions. Most likely those regions are involved in auditory feedback and voice control. Silent speech (internal speech) gave a clearly different activation pattern involving (1) left-sided regions related to speech perception and speech motor control (including the SMA) and (2) a right dorsolateral prefrontal area that may be related to attention mechanisms. The silent speech pattern appears to demonstrate aspects of internal (cognitive) feedback activity in which prefrontal cortical regions are activated significantly. Audible and silent counting may represent two principally different types of cerebral feedback systems, one for overt sensory-motor activity and one for a pure internal cognitive feed-back.
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Autonomic and EEG Patterns during Eyes-Closed Rest and Transcendental Meditation (TM) Practice: The Basis for a Neural Model of TM Practice
Article
  • Oct 1999
In this single-blind within-subject study, autonomic and EEG variables were compared during 10-min, order-balanced eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation (TM) sessions. TM sessions were distinguished by (1) lower breath rates, (2) lower skin conductance levels, (3) higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia levels, and (4) higher alpha anterior-posterior and frontal EEG coherence. Alpha power was not significantly different between conditions. These results were seen in the first minute and were maintained throughout the 10-min sessions. TM practice appears to (1) lead to a state fundamentally different than eyes-closed rest; (2) result in a cascade of events in the central and autonomic nervous systems, leading to a rapid change in state (within a minute) that was maintained throughout the TM session; and (3) be best distinguished from other conditions through autonomic and EEG alpha coherence patterns rather than alpha power. Two neural networks that may mediate these effects are suggested. The rapid shift in physiological functioning within the first minute might be mediated by a "neural switch" in prefrontal areas inhibiting activity in specific and nonspecific thalamocortical circuits. The resulting "restfully alert" state might be sustained by a basal ganglia-corticothalamic threshold regulation mechanism automatically maintaining lower levels of cortical excitability.
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