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The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability
Abstract
A pesar de la relativamente corta historia de la Psicología como ciencia, existen pocos constructos psicológicos que perduren 90 años después de su formulación y que, aún más, continúen plenamente vigentes en la actualidad. El factor «g» es sin duda alguna uno de esos escasos ejemplos y para contrastar su vigencia actual tan sólo hace falta comprobar su lugar de preeminencia en los modelos factoriales de la inteligencia más aceptados en la actualidad, bien como un factor de tercer orden en los modelos jerárquicos o bien identificado con un factor de segundo orden en el modelo del recientemente desaparecido R.B.Cattell.
... The answer is not trivial because when we use IQ scores for quantifying changes that presumably result from the action of some environmental factor, we cannot conclude if the observed IQ changes do impact g or the specific abilities tapped by the administered IQ battery. IQ is computed from the summation of the scores obtained at the test level; therefore, we cannot tell which of the levels of the intelligence hierarchy are involved (Colom et al., 2009(Colom et al., , 2013Jensen, 1998;Román et al., 2014). Finding the proper answers requires adequate methodological approaches (Estrada et al., 2015). ...
... Others choose for them. Nevertheless, Jensen (1997) highlighted a message that is important to keep in mind in this regard: "the evolutionary process has ensured normal development to the vast majority of every species by biologically programming the ontogeny of their crucial characteristics, at the same time maintaining enough genetic diversity in certain traits for adaptation to changing environmental conditions. In humans, intelligence and ability to learn are such characteristics. ...
... 80). Jensen's (1997) message is highly consistent with the cautionary note raised by Moreau et al. twenty years later: "acknowledging the role of factors that are difficult to change is important because it enables the allocation of resources where they can have a real impact, taking into account individual needs, to allow meaningful improvements" (Moreau et al., 2019, p. 4). Therefore, brain and intellectual development will take place properly, most of the time, regardless of the environment. ...
... To address this issue, the general factor of intelligence, or g-factor, appeared as a relevant construct. The g-factor measures overall cognitive ability, capturing common core features of cognitive ability across different cognitive tasks (Jensen, 1998;Spearman, 1904). It is considered as the single higher-order factor at the apex of the hierarchical intelligence models built upon the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence (Carroll, 1993(Carroll, , 2003Cattell & Horn, 1978;Schneider & McGrew, 2012). ...
... It is considered as the single higher-order factor at the apex of the hierarchical intelligence models built upon the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence (Carroll, 1993(Carroll, , 2003Cattell & Horn, 1978;Schneider & McGrew, 2012). Computationally, the g-factor can be defined as the first component of a principal component analysis (PCA) performed on an individual's cognitive test scores (Jensen, 1998). The g-factors derived from different test batteries have been demonstrated to be highly correlated (Johnson, Bouchard, Krueger, McGue, & Gottesman, 2004, 2008, supporting the existence of a single global intelligence factor and the consistency of its computation, provided the test batteries assess sufficiently diverse cognitive abilities (Dickinson, Goldberg, Gold, Elvevåg, & Weinberger, 2011). ...
Background. Cognitive impairment constitutes a prevailing issue in the schizophrenia spectrum, severely impacting patients' functional outcomes. A global cognitive score, sensitive to the stages of the spectrum, would benefit the exploration of potential factors involved in the cognitive decline.
Methods. First, we performed principal component analysis on cognitive scores from 768 individuals across the schizophrenia spectrum, including first-degree relatives of patients, individuals at ultra-high risk, who had a first-episode psychosis, and chronic schizophrenia patients, alongside 124 healthy controls. The analysis provided 10 g-factors as global cognitive scores, validated through correlations with intelligence quotient and assessed for their sensitivity to the stages on the spectrum using analyses of variance. Second, using the g-factors, we explored potential mechanisms underlying cognitive impairment in the schizophrenia spectrum using correlations with sociodemographic, clinical, and developmental data, and linear regressions with genotypic data, pooled through meta-analyses.
Results. The g-factors were highly correlated with intelligence quotient and with each other, confirming their validity. They presented significant differences between subgroups along the schizophrenia spectrum. They were positively correlated with educational attainment and the polygenic risk score (PRS) for cognitive performance, and negatively correlated with general psychopathology of schizophrenia, neurodevelopmental load, and the PRS for schizophrenia.
Conclusions. The g-factors appeared as valid estimators of global cognition, enabling discerning cognitive states within the schizophrenia spectrum. Educational attainment and genetics related to cognitive performance may have a positive influence on cognitive functioning, while general psychopathology of schizophrenia, neurodevelopmental load, and genetic liability to schizophrenia may have an adverse impact.
... Despite differences in the test batteries and variety of tasks used, a positive correlation matrix is found (Carroll 1993;Johnson et al. 2004). When variable-reducing techniques, like principal component analysis (PCA) (WM), short-term memory (STM), processing speed, attention, and associative learning (Conway et al. 2002;Deary 2000;Jensen 1998;Kaufman et al. 2009;Sheppard and Vernon 2008). It is likely that the tasks included in FSIQ tests, particularly complex tasks that load highly onto g, require support from multiple cognitive domains (Chuderski 2013). ...
... With this theory, g primarily reflects differences in one cognitive ability, but it is unclear which. These theories are helpful for understanding the more specific cognitive processes that are involved with intelligence tests and how those processes are used across a large number of tasks (Conway et al. 2002;Deary 2000;Jensen 1998;Kaufman et al. 2009;Sheppard and Vernon 2008). Future research is still needed, however, to fully understand if there is a relationship between these cognitive processes that could impact the positive correlation matrix (Frischkorn et al. 2019). ...
A well replicated result in humans is that performance, whether good or bad, is consistent across a wide variety of cognitive tasks. Factor analysis extracts one factor that can account for approximately half of the variance in performance. This factor is termed g and almost all cognitive tasks positively load onto this factor. While some neurobiological correlates of g have been identified in humans, causal experiments are only feasible in animals. When mice and some avian species are assessed with cognitive test batteries, performance positively correlates, and the first component extracted has similar properties to g. There are some limitations to the species tested thus far, including comparability in the cognitive domains assessed. The pigeon is an ideal subject to overcome these issues since pigeons, humans, and other primates are frequently given similar tasks and many neural correlates of performance have been identified in the pigeon. We created a test battery that assessed different domains, including associative learning, memory, cognitive flexibility, and reaction time. When all tasks were included, there was evidence for a two-component structure that was influenced by subjects’ age. When the reaction time task was excluded, there was a g-like component. The implications for these results when constructing future test batteries and comparing across species are discussed.
... Socially, "g" has a positive correlation with traditional success measures like income (Jensen, 1998), academic performance (Izzaty et al., 2017), job success (Zimmer & Kirkegaard, 2023), and career prestige (Psynso, n.d.). On the other hand, "g" shows a negative correlation with negative life outcomes such as dropping out of school (Rosada & Lestari, 2022), unplanned pregnancies (Enthoven et al., 2022), and poverty (Hair et al., 2015). ...
... The reliability of "g" is a crucial aspect of measuring human intelligence. As noted by Jensen (1998), the reliability of "g" is higher than that of height and weight measurements taken in a doctor's office. Although g has been studied for more than a century, some of its properties remain unresolved. ...
The study aimed to analyze variations in intelligence (IQ) across demographic factors, including gender, age, education, and geographical location, to explore their influence on IQ scores. Utilizing a cross-sectional quantitative research design and convenience sampling, data were analyzed using descriptive and cross-tabulation methods. The results showed no significant difference in IQ scores between males and females, challenging the initial hypothesis regarding gender differences. Additionally, no significant differences were found between age groups, contradicting the expectation that age would influence IQ, specifically through fluid and crystallized intelligence. In contrast, educational level showed a significant positive correlation with IQ scores, confirming the role of education in shaping intelligence. Geographical origin, particularly environmental factors such as access to education and nutrition, did not significantly affect IQ scores, likely due to the homogeneous socioeconomic conditions among the predominantly Java-based sample. These findings highlight the complexity of intelligence determinants and question prior assumptions about demographic influences on IQ
... GMA is a psychological construct inferred via a battery of cognitive tests that are intended to measure a person's latent mental abilities relative to others in the population (Jensen 1998). The score from a GMA battery is recognized as a generally valid predictor of job performance and training proficiency across multiple occupations and cultures (Sackett et al. 2022). ...
... Several studies that have investigated the presence of sex differences in intelligence have shown mixed results. Some claim no or negligible differences (Halpern and LaMay 2000;Jensen 1998), while the metaanalysis of Lynn and Irwing (2004) found a small but consistent score advantage for males after the age of 15. Feingold (1992) found no noticeable sex differences in the mean or variance on an abstract non-verbal reasoning measure, while Strand et al. (2006, non-verbal reasoning) and Keith et al. (2011, figural matrices) found little differences in means, but they found that male performance has a greater variance. ...
Figural matrices tests are common in intelligence research and have been used to draw conclusions regarding secular changes in intelligence. However, their measurement properties have seldom been evaluated with large samples that include both sexes. Using data from the Norwegian Armed Forces, we study the measurement properties of a test used for selection in military recruitment. Item-level data were available from 113,671 Norwegian adolescents (32% female) tested between the years 2011 and 2017. Utilizing item response theory (IRT), we characterize the measurement properties of the test in terms of difficulty, discrimination, precision, and measurement invariance between males and females. We estimate sex differences in the mean and variance of the latent variable and evaluate the impact of violations to measurement invariance on the estimated distribution parameters. The results show that unidimensional IRT models fit well in all groups and years. There is little difference in precision and test difficulty between males and females, with precision that is generally poor on the upper part of the scale. In the sample, male latent proficiency is estimated to be slightly higher on average, with higher variance. Adjusting for measurement invariance generally reduces the sex differences but does not eliminate them. We conclude that previous studies using the Norwegian GMA data must be interpreted with more caution but that the test should measure males and females equally fairly.
... Kognitivní vývoj se podle Piageta (1972) uskutečňuje ve stadiích, kterých se dosahuje pomocí ekvilibrace (vyvažováním). Mnoho teoretiků kognitivní psychologie se však s názorem Piageta (1972) neztotožňuje (Case, 1992;Halford, 1993;Jensen, 1998;Morra, 2000). Řada těchto autorů zastává názor, že kognitivní vývojové fáze fungují mnohem flexibilnějším způsobem a záleží především na typu problému i mnoha jiných okolnostech (například jaký způsob myšlení dítě použije). ...
... Na odborné úrovni panuje shoda v tom, že muži a ženy se obecně v inteligenci neliší (Neisser et al., 1996;Jensen, 1998;Hyde, 2007;Halpern, 2007). Za stěžejní vlastnost inteligence však považujeme myšlení, ačkoliv se při zvládání různých situací uplatňují i další poznávací procesy (paměť a pozornost). ...
... Consequently, numerous studies in education and psychology have focused on identifying the major predictors of academic achievement. The main findings from this extensive research area have uncovered a remarkable truth: even though general cognitive ability is the predominant determinant of academic achievement (Colom & Flores-Mendoza, 2007;Jensen, 1998;Kuncel et al., 2004), it is not the sole predictor of it (Rohde & Thompson, 2007). A multitude of psychological factors other than cognitive ability could contribute to students' school success, such as motivation (for a review, see Hattie, 2009). ...
... The authors underline that the strength of the relationship between general cognitive ability and academic achievement may diminish as the grade level increases. In other words, while the contribution of general cognitive ability to academic achievement is stronger at primary and secondary level schools, it weakens at high school and university levels (Bilalić et al., 2022;Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2006), due to the restricted range of general cognitive ability (Jensen, 1998). Therefore, this finding is particularly important, since the data were obtained from a representative sample (i.e. ...
While the individual roles of general cognitive ability and motivation in predicting academic achievement are well established, how they interact with one another and the extent of their combined effect on students' learning outcomes leave much to be explained. The present study investigates the relationships among general cognitive ability, selected motivational constructs (i.e., academic self‐efficacy, academic self‐concept, self‐esteem and student engagement) and academic achievement within a structural model. A total of 346 (M = 52%, F = 48%; Mage = 12.98 ± 0.98) middle school students completed Primary Abilities Test 6–8, Myself as A Learner Scale, Academic Self‐Efficacy Scale, School Short‐Form of the Coopersmith Self‐Esteem Inventory and Student Engagement Scale. Path analysis revealed that general cognitive ability had a direct effect on academic achievement and significant indirect effects on academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy, as well as on student engagement through both academic self‐efficacy and academic self‐concept. Moreover, academic self‐efficacy had significant direct effects on both academic achievement and student engagement. Additionally, self‐esteem and academic self‐concept had significant direct effects on student engagement, as well as indirect effects on both academic achievement and student engagement through academic self‐efficacy. The present study contributes to the understanding of dynamics between cognitive and motivational variables in shaping academic achievement and provides valuable insights for educators and policymakers to develop effective pedagogical designs and strategies for improving student learning outcomes.
... This architecture overlaps with the currently dominant psychometric model of the human mind, the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, sharing the hierarchical conception of the mind. Both models assume the combined use of task-specific, domain-specific, and general processes in understanding (Carroll, 1993;Haier, 2017;Jensen, 1998). ...
... In psychometric theories of intelligence, learning is associated with general cognitive ability, g, which defines the upper level of complexity and abstraction that can be reached across processes. IQ is an accurate index of g (Jensen, 1998). In cognitive developmental theory, learning is associated with developmental level, akin to psychometric theory. ...
We present a theory of atypical development based on a developmental theory of the typical mind integrating developmental, cognitive, and psychometric theory and research. The paper comprises three parts. First, it outlines the theory of typical development. The theory postulates central cognitive mechanisms, such as relational integration, executive and inferential processes, and domain-specific processes underlying different environmental relations, such as visuospatial or quantitative relations. Cognitive development advances in cycles satisfying developmental priorities in mastering these systems, such as executive control from 2–6 years, inferential control from 7–11 years, and truth control from 12–18 years. Second, we discuss atypical development, showing how each neurodevelopmental disorder emerges from deficiencies in one or more of the processes comprising the architecture of the mind. Deficiencies in relational integration mechanisms, together with deficiencies in social understanding, yield autism spectrum disorder. Deficiencies in executive processes yield attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Deficiencies in symbolic representation yield specialized learning difficulties, such as dyslexia and dyscalculia. Finally, we discuss clinical and educational implications, suggesting the importance of early diagnosis of malfunctioning in each of these dimensions and specific programs for their remediation.
... This architecture overlaps with the currently dominant psychometric model of the human mind, the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, sharing the hierarchical conception of the mind. Both models assume the combined use of task-specific, domain-specific, and general processes in understanding (Carroll, 1983;Haier, 2017;Jensen, 1998). ...
... In psychometric theories of intelligence, learning is associated with general cognitive ability, g, which defines the upper level of complexity and abstraction that can be reached across processes. IQ is an accurate index of g (Jensen, 1998). In cognitive developmental theory, learning is associated with developmental level, akin to psychometric theory. ...
We present a theory of atypical development based on a developmental theory of the typical mind integrating developmental, cognitive, and psychometric theory and research. The paper comprises three parts. First, it outlines the theory of typical development. The theory postulates central cognitive mechanisms, such as relational integration, executive and inferential processes, and domain-specific processes underlying different environmental relations, such as visuospatial or quantitative relations. Cognitive development advances in cycles satisfying developmental priorities in mastering these systems, such as executive control from 2-6 years, inferential control from 7-11 years, and truth control from 12-18 years. Second, we discuss atypical development, showing how each neurodevelopmental disorder emerges from deficiencies in one or more of the processes comprising the architecture of the mind. Deficiencies in relational integration mechanisms, together with deficiencies in social understanding, yield ASD. Deficiencies in executive processes yield ADHD. Deficiencies in symbolic representation yield specialized learning difficulties, such as dyslexia and dyscalculia. Finally, we discuss clinical and educational implications, suggesting the importance of early diagnosis of malfunctioning in each of these dimensions and specific programs for their remediation.
... The interpretation of the results of the primary and tertiary factorisation is associated with the well-known Ch. Spearman's 'Gfactor' theory, whose main postulates remain unrefuted even in modern psychology and neuroscience (Jensen 1999). The 'mathematical' and 'verbal' achievement indices constructed in the study represent a kind of equivalence of mathematical intelligence and verbal intelligence, although one should not put a sign of complete equality between school tests and IQ tests. ...
The results of total testing from the years 2015–2022 on the mathematical and verbal achievement of Lithuanian pupils ( N ≈ 250,000) are presented. These are the standardised tests from grades 4 to 12. The K‐Means method has discovered six types of achievement. The highest achievement type is dominated by girls (61.1%) who perform well on both mathematical and verbal tasks. The lowest achievement type is dominated by boys (57.4%) who solve both mathematical and verbal tasks extremely poorly. Each of these types makes up 1/5 of the population, and the gap between the means of their groups is about 2.5 standard deviations. The remaining four types of achievement are in the 20th to 80th percentile and make up about 60% of the population. Differences in means within the same type between mathematic and verbal achievement average 0.85 standard deviations or span one quartile. Gender differences are clearly visible in this subgroup: boys solve mathematical tasks better and verbal tasks worse; girls solve verbal tasks better and mathematical tasks worse. Big data may form a mixed distribution. It is appropriate to first discover the basic types of achievement and only then look for gender‐specific differences. Such a type‐building approach is heuristically superior to the conventional approach of working only with the mixed dataset.
... First, SPM offers a set of non-trivial problems engaging a range of human cognitive abilities with welldefined correct response and limited number of possible solutions. Second, an individual's IQ score is an elegant measure of one's mental abilities and is a good predictor of behavior and performance in a broad spectrum of contexts including job and academic performance, creativity, health-related behaviors and social outcomes [10,11,18,28]. Third, the Crowd IQ score provides a convenient quality measure of the crowd's aggregated decision. ...
We show how the quality of decisions based on the aggregated opinions of the crowd can be conveniently studied using a sample of individual responses to a standard IQ questionnaire. We aggregated the responses to the IQ questionnaire using simple majority voting and a machine learning approach based on a probabilistic graphical model. The score for the aggregated questionnaire, Crowd IQ, serves as a quality measure of decisions based on aggregating opinions, which also allows quantifying individual and crowd performance on the same scale. We show that Crowd IQ grows quickly with the size of the crowd but saturates, and that for small homogeneous crowds the Crowd IQ significantly exceeds the IQ of even their most intelligent member. We investigate alternative ways of aggregating the responses and the impact of the aggregation method on the resulting Crowd IQ. We also discuss Contextual IQ, a method of quantifying the individual participant's contribution to the Crowd IQ based on the Shapley value from cooperative game theory.
... ments in the US Bench et al. (2015); Bordalo et al. (2019); Exley and Kessler (2022) found overconfidence among men in domains (mathematics and science) traditionally regarded as "male" from as early as middle school in conformity with gender stereotypes. That said, a few studies have shown that women exhibit a gap between self-assessments of ability and actual ability -which influences education and employment aspirations (De Martino et al., 2022) -and may be driven by everyday sexism and the internalized belief that women are less capable (Correll, 2004;Seron et al., 2016). 2 Women have been shown to rank lower than men on self-assessments of intelligence across 12 countries (Von Stumm et al., 2009) while no gender difference was observed in objective assessment (Jensen, 1999). Men's overestimation and women's underestimation of their own ability has been shown to be due in part to implicit gender stereotypes (Reuben et al., 2014;Exley and Kessler, 2022). ...
... The MI model was embraced by educational professionals, yet was not without criticism for its lack of empirical support (Gottfredson, 2004;Waterhouse, 2006), its failure to provide practical applications for practitioners (Collins, 1998), and Gardner's seemingly selective literature review to support the theory (Jensen, 1998). Gardner, various other systemic models of giftedness have emerged that offer alternative perspectives on intelligence and talent. ...
The study assessed the quality and effectiveness of Integrated or Regular School, Gifted
School, and Dedicated Classroom approaches in Saudi Arabia. By gathering survey data from
300 gifted secondary students in grades 10-12 and their parents, the study assessed and
compared the quality and effectiveness of Integrated or Regular School, Gifted School, and
Dedicated Classroom approaches in Saudi Arabia. The research questions explored stakeholder
views regarding the provision of gifted education and perceptions of gifted teachers across
these approaches. The data were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Additionally, a content analysis was conducted on open-ended responses from the participants
to gain deeper insights into their perceptions and suggestions for improvement regarding gifted
education in Saudi Arabia. The findings suggest that full-time gifted programs, such as those
implemented through gifted schools, may be most effective in meeting the needs of these
students. Furthermore, the study identifies the social and emotional needs of gifted students as
an area requiring greater attention in gifted education programs across Saudi Arabia. The
participants provided improvement suggestions that varied by approach. Students in gifted
schools emphasised the need for improved instructional strategies and extracurricular
activities, those in dedicated classes called for a better school environment and more academic
enrichment opportunities, and students in regular schools believed that teachers needed more
training. The study also found that personal characteristics were more highly valued by gifted
students across the three approaches, which may relate to the students’ perceived unmet social
and emotional needs. The study highlights the importance of tailoring gifted education to the
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unique needs of students and their families and provides insights into effective approaches to
support their academic, social, and emotional growth.
... For the aforementioned reasons, reverse causation (occupation causing intelligence) is not a major concern. Additionally, Jensen (1998) provides an overview of evidence concerning IQ and job performance, revealing that IQ is positively associated with learning speed, the rate at which employees acquire new skills, and supervisor-rated job performance. The general factor of intelligence (g) is also positively associated with math, reading, and writing abilities (Caemmerer et al. 2018;Rohde & Thompson 2007). ...
... Howard Gardner propounded MI theory (Gardner, 1983) and defined intelligence (Gardner, 1983(Gardner, , 1993 as "… the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings." Gardner (1983) contrasts the view of intelligence as an innate trait that can only change marginally (Herrnstein & Murray, 2010;Jensen, 1980Jensen, , 1998 with his theory that advocates intelligence as "… a combination of heritable potentials and skills that can be developed in diverse ways through relevant experiences" as put by Davis et al. (2011). MI theory suggests nine dimensions of intelligence that each individual possesses to some degree (Davis et al., 2011;Gardner, 2011). ...
... Among the six natural ability domains, the intellectual domain appears uniquely associated with the emergence of outstanding academic achievements; decades of research have shown that no other aptitude domain, not even creativity, entertains a substantial causal relationship with academic achievement. Correlations between IQ scores and K-12 academic results commonly hover between 0.50 and 0.60; they decrease at the high school level but still generally range between 0.40 and 0.50 (Jensen, 1998;Macintosh, 2011). This is why educators and parents spontaneously associate the 'gifted' label with high intelligence, usually measured through tests of cognitive (natural) abilities, the well-known-and controversial-IQ tests. ...
... ments in the US Bench et al. (2015); Bordalo et al. (2019); Exley and Kessler (2022) found overconfidence among men in domains (mathematics and science) traditionally regarded as "male" from as early as middle school in conformity with gender stereotypes. That said, a few studies have shown that women exhibit a gap between self-assessments of ability and actual ability -which influences education and employment aspirations (De Martino et al., 2022) -and may be driven by everyday sexism and the internalized belief that women are less capable (Correll, 2004;Seron et al., 2016). 2 Women have been shown to rank lower than men on self-assessments of intelligence across 12 countries (Von Stumm et al., 2009) while no gender difference was observed in objective assessment (Jensen, 1999). Men's overestimation and women's underestimation of their own ability has been shown to be due in part to implicit gender stereotypes (Reuben et al., 2014;Exley and Kessler, 2022). ...
Individuals' socio-emotional skills (SES), and their perceptions of their skill levels, matter for labor market outcomes and other welfare outcomes. Men appear to have higher levels of SES than women, but this gender gap is typically documented in self-reported measures. Few studies use measures beyond self-reports-or seek to measure SES granularly and rigorously in large samples, especially in low-and middle-income countries. This paper deploys novel sets of self-reported and behavioral measures of 14 SES in a sample of more than 4,000 male and female youth not in full-time education, employment or training, in urban and peri-urban Tanzania. The findings show that men score higher than women on all 12 positively-worded self-reported measures. In contrast, gender gaps in behav-ioral measures are only observed for a few skills, and are far smaller in magnitude. The paper provides suggestive evidence that this pattern reflects men's overestimation of their own skills, rather than women's underestimation. In particular, there is a larger gap between self-reported and behavioral measures among men. Men's self-reports, and the gap between their self-reported and behavioral measures , are strongly correlated with measures of their social desirability and gendered beliefs about abilities-but this does not hold for women.
... Psychologists examine Human Capital from the perspective of assessing employees' cognitive abilities and their relationship with job performance (Wright, Kacmar, McMahan & Deleeuw, 1995;Gottfredson, 1997;Jensen, 1998;Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). They also emphasize organizational techniques, such as human resource practices used to develop employees' human capital (Ford & Fisher, 1997;Bell & Kozlowski, 2008). ...
... If we must define general intelligence (GI), one is to use the "g factor," which refers to the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, and learn quickly across a wide range of domains [30,5,41,10,9]. GI then involves higher-order cognitive processes that go beyond specific skills or knowledge domains [16,17]. ...
We explore the hypothesis that LLMs, such as GPT-3.5 and GPT-4, possess broader cognitive functions, particularly in non-linguistic domains. Our approach extends beyond standard linguistic benchmarks by incorporating games like Tic-Tac-Toe, Connect Four, and Battleship, encoded via ASCII, to assess strategic thinking and decision-making. To evaluate the models' ability to generalize beyond their training data, we introduce two additional games. The first game, LEGO Connect Language (LCL), tests the models' capacity to understand spatial logic and follow assembly instructions. The second game, the game of shapes, challenges the models to identify shapes represented by 1s within a matrix of zeros, further testing their spatial reasoning skills. This "show, don't tell" strategy uses games instead of simply querying the models. Our results show that despite their proficiency on standard benchmarks, GPT-3.5 and GPT-4's abilities to play and reason about fully observable games without pre-training is mediocre. Both models fail to anticipate losing moves in Tic-Tac-Toe and Connect Four, and they are unable to play Battleship correctly. While GPT-4 shows some success in the game of shapes, both models fail at the assembly tasks presented in the LCL game. These results suggest that while GPT models can emulate conversational proficiency and basic rule comprehension, their performance in strategic gameplay and spatial reasoning tasks is very limited. Importantly, this reveals a blind spot in current LLM benchmarks that we highlight with our gameplay benchmark suite ChildPlay (https://github.com/child-play-neurips/child-play). Our findings provide a cautionary tale about claims of emergent intelligence and reasoning capabilities of LLMs that are roughly the size of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4.
... The ideal test of this hypothesis is the natural experiment provided by the most intensive intervention programs which targeted low-income Black families and provided them with all materials needed (including cognitive stimulation and enhanced healthcare) to enhance their social outcomes. But a close examination of the data reveals that the cognitive gains did not last and quickly faded out despite the children showing some improvement in their later socio-economic outcomes (Besharov, 2011;Jensen, 1998;Protzko, 2015;Spitz, 1986). ...
This study investigates whether the magnitude of the Black-White difference in average SAT scores decreases as parental education increases, consistent with the prediction of the environmental hypotheses. Based on various datasets (BPS, NPSAS:UG, ELS:02, NELS:88) quite the opposite was found. The differences magnify as parental education increases, and this pattern is consistent across datasets. These findings corroborate earlier findings about the larger Black-White IQ gap observed with higher levels of parental education. Another finding of interest is that both Asian and White students with poorly educated parents (high school only or no high school) often achieve higher SAT scores than Black students with highly educated parents (advanced degree or doctoral degree). Possible factors are discussed. The pattern of an increasing Black-White gap is still unclear.
... Conventional perspectives on intelligence and giftedness, spanning from general factors and associated methodologies (Spearman, 1904;Cattell, 1987;Jensen, 1998) to more distinct models (Thurstone, 1938;Guilford, 1967;Carroll, 1993;Feldhusen, 1998), perceive these constructs as inherent to the individual. While many of these theories acknowledge the influence of the environment on intelligence development, the primary focus remains on the individual as the locus of control and the primary point of interest. ...
Those who teach mathematically gifted high school students play a key role in both their identification and cultivation. Teachers who teach the Mathematical Olympiad in China work long hours and teach difficult content; they are under a significant amount of work-based pressure, and that is worthy of further study. This study analyzed the sources of stress for 33 Chinese teachers who teach the Mathematical Olympiad, collected data through semi-structured in-depth interviews, and adopted a subject analysis method based on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system that considers the influences that the complexity of socio-cultural and environment have on individual emotions. It is divided into five structural or environmental systems in which human beings develop, namely the macroscopic, external, meso, micro, and chrono systems. The research results show that the greatest influences on these teachers’ stress come from the mesosystem and microsystem levels, and that the key players are students and school leaders. Educational policy and culture are found to be key factors from the macrosystem. Overall, long-term stress was seen to affect both teachers’ moods and their physical health. Finally, the results offered implications for education policy and school management and suggestions for the cultivation and management of mathematics teachers who teach the gifted. Limitations of the study are discussed, and directions for future research are proposed.
... Given our bias toward Dynamism, our adopted definition of intelligence will also be based on similar rhetorics. Historically, there is a plethora of work on defining intelligence, especially in psychometrics [621,47,232,203,226,79,296,217]. And when it comes to AI, Legg and Hutter [340], Hernández-Orallo [260], Pei Wang [612], Cohen and Howe [105], and Chollet [95] have spearheaded commendable efforts in defining this phenomenon. ...
The critical inquiry pervading the realm of Philosophy, and perhaps extending its influence across all Humanities disciplines, revolves around the intricacies of morality and normativity. Surprisingly, in recent years, this thematic thread has woven its way into an unexpected domain, one not conventionally associated with pondering "what ought to be": the field of artificial intelligence (AI) research. Central to morality and AI, we find "alignment", a problem related to the challenges of expressing human goals and values in a manner that artificial systems can follow without leading to unwanted adversarial effects. More explicitly and with our current paradigm of AI development in mind, we can think of alignment as teaching human values to non-anthropomorphic entities trained through opaque, gradient-based learning techniques. This work addresses alignment as a technical-philosophical problem that requires solid philosophical foundations and practical implementations that bring normative theory to AI system development. To accomplish this, we propose two sets of necessary and sufficient conditions that, we argue, should be considered in any alignment process. While necessary conditions serve as metaphysical and metaethical roots that pertain to the permissibility of alignment, sufficient conditions establish a blueprint for aligning AI systems under a learning-based paradigm. After laying such foundations, we present implementations of this approach by using state-of-the-art techniques and methods for aligning general-purpose language systems. We call this framework Dynamic Normativity. Its central thesis is that any alignment process under a learning paradigm that cannot fulfill its necessary and sufficient conditions will fail in producing aligned systems.
... Given our bias toward Dynamism, our adopted definition of intelligence will also be based on similar rhetorics. Historically, there is a plethora of work on defining intelligence, especially in psychometrics [621,47,232,203,226,79,296,217]. And when it comes to AI, Legg and Hutter [340], Hernández-Orallo [260], Pei Wang [612], Cohen and Howe [105], and Chollet [95] have spearheaded commendable efforts in defining this phenomenon. ...
The critical inquiry pervading the realm of Philosophy, and perhaps extending its influence across all Humanities disciplines, revolves around the intricacies of morality and normativity. Surprisingly, in recent years, this thematic thread has woven its way into an unexpected domain, one not conventionally associated with pondering "what ought to be": the field of artificial intelligence (AI) research. Central to morality and AI, we find "alignment", a problem related to the challenges of expressing human goals and values in a manner that artificial systems can follow without leading to unwanted adversarial effects. More explicitly and with our current paradigm of AI development in mind, we can think of alignment as teaching human values to non-anthropomorphic entities trained through opaque, gradient-based learning techniques. This work addresses alignment as a technical-philosophical problem that requires solid philosophical foundations and practical implementations that bring normative theory to AI system development. To accomplish this, we propose two sets of necessary and sufficient conditions that, we argue, should be considered in any alignment process. While necessary conditions serve as metaphysical and metaethical roots that pertain to the permissibility of alignment, sufficient conditions establish a blueprint for aligning AI systems under a learning-based paradigm. After laying such foundations, we present implementations of this approach by using state-of-the-art techniques and methods for aligning general-purpose language systems. We call this framework Dynamic Normativity. Its central thesis is that any alignment process under a learning paradigm that cannot fulfill its necessary and sufficient conditions will fail in producing aligned systems.
... Heterosis occurs when novel and advantageous gene combinations emerge from the mating of more distantly related individuals (Kaeppler, 2012). Arthur Jensen (1923Jensen ( -2012 was the first to speculate that heterosis might be making a small contribution to the FE (Jensen, 1998). Michael Mingroni, however, is most strongly associated with this theory, having greatly elaborated the case for it in a series of publications (he has maintained, e.g., that heterosis accounts for parallel secular trends in height and brain size and a variety of other phenotypes-see Mingroni (2014) on the "rule of parallel change"). ...
It has been argued that reduced inbreeding depression and associated increased heterosis (hybrid vigor), due to greater gene flow between human subpopulations, is the cause of the Flynn effect (rising IQ-test performance over time). Using genotypic data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, three estimates of genome-wide runs of homozygosity (ROH) are generated for a subsample of unrelated individuals of European descent. These estimates are used in a between-generation regression model to predict offspring advantage over parents in educational attainment (EA; years of schooling). After controlling for a variety of covariates, it is found that a variable combining both the numbers and lengths of ROH is a statistically significant positive predictor of the offspring EA advantage. Maternal, rather than paternal, differences are found to drive the effect when these parental influences are examined separately. Since the heterosis hypothesis (HH) explicitly predicts that this analysis would yield the opposite finding, the result constitutes substantial evidence against the HH. By contrast, the life history model of the Flynn effect (LHM) satisfactorily explains the current findings, positing that slowing life history speed increases maternal investment (MI) into offspring exhibiting greater coefficients of genetic relatedness as a means of raising inclusive fitness. According to the LHM, the Flynn effect stems, at least in part, from MI enhancing opportunities for the cultivation of narrow cognitive abilities (e.g., through greater exposure to highly predictable environments, such as in good schools). The significant independent effect of assortative mating observed here is also consistent with the LHM, as are other patterns found in these data.
... Merging both facets into the global trait of "grit" was claimed to exceed the predictive power of intelligence for performance in professional domains and success in school and university (Duckworth 2013(Duckworth , 2016see Datu, 2021). This claim clearly contradicts the results of decades of intelligence research (e.g., Gottfredson, 2002;Jensen, 1998;Kuncel & Hezlett, 2010;Rost, 2009Rost, , 2013Roth et al., 2015;Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). Furthermore, Credé and Tynan (2021, p. 38) pointed out that "some of the original published statements about the predictive validity of grit made by Duckworth and colleagues . . . ...
The allegedly new volitional-motivational personality construct “grit” is seen as both theoretically and empirically relevant for a host of educational and life outcomes. In a recent debate, however, it has been argued that the construct should be considered as the amalgam of its two assumed subdimensions of Perseverance of Effort (PE) and Consistency of Interest (CI). Opponents of this argument note that the distinction between the two dimensions may merely be the result of different wording (positive and negative) in associated questionnaires. We systematically investigated this notion based on a sample of N = 881 high school students. Participants responded to one of four versions of the short grit scale (Grit-S) asking about their grit in math, foreign language English, and history. The items for PE and CI were each worded either positively or negatively, with all combinations realized. Our results support a strong wording effect but still support the notion of two correlated but distinguishable subdimensions. Finally, our results highlight the importance of differentiating between subjects when investigating grit.
... Holding the level of socioeconomic status fixed, students with a higher within-cohort rank tend to have better outcomes in terms of depression and cognitive ability. Particularly, the effect on the latter may seem surprising given that a common perception held in the literature is that cognitive ability is formed in early life and remains stable after the age of 10 (Elsner and Isphording, 2017;Jensen, 1998;Kiessling and Norris, 2022). On the other hand, cognitive functioning has been shown to be negatively affected by an individual's mental health state (Currie and Stabile, 2009;Ridley et al., 2020). ...
I provide evidence on the causal effects of a student's relative socioeconomic status during high school on their mental health and human capital development. Leveraging data from representative US high schools, I utilize between-cohort differences in the distributions of socioeconomic status within schools in a linear fixed effects model to identify a causal rank effect. I find that a higher rank during high school improves a student's depression scores, cognitive ability, self-esteem and popularity. The rank effects are persistent with long-lasting consequences for adult depression and college attainment. Additional analyses emphasize the role of inequality in exacerbating these rank effects.
... The second winner of this award was Arthur Jensen whose emphasis was upon the 'g' factor of cognitive ability as a higher level latent variable that could organize and explain the structure of cognitive ability (Jensen, 1998). Jensen emphasized the g factor of cognitive ability in terms of the effect of early childhood interventions (Jensen, 1969). ...
This study evaluates the psychometric properties of the spatial ability test using the three-parameter logistic model within item response theory. The final version of the scale comprised 29 dichotomous items, administered to a sample of 2,694 male and female students from grades 5 and 6 across schools in the Arab Gulf region. The test adhered to the three-parameter model, satisfying the assumptions of unidimensionality and local independence. The item difficulty parameters ranged from -1.541 to 1.735, discrimination parameters spanned from 0.419 to 5.252, and guessing parameters varied between 0.00 and 0.346. With a marginal reliability coefficient of 0.86, the scale demonstrated strong stability. These findings indicate that the test items align with established measurement principles, supporting the spatial ability test as a valid and reliable assessment tool for measuring spatial abilities in the Gulf region. The results have important implications for educational assessment in the Arab Gulf and could guide the development of similar assessments in other educational contexts. Further research is recommended to improve the test’s precision and explore its application in diverse educational settings.
Collective Intelligence: A Resource for Teachers, Parents & Policymakers has
been crafted with the intention of addressing the growing need for a
comprehensive understanding of how collective intelligence can be harnessed
in educational settings. This edited volume aims to provide a multidisciplinary
perspective on collective intelligence, drawing on the insights of educators,
researchers, and practitioners who have explored its potential in various
contexts.
The concept of collective intelligence has gained significant attention in recent
years, particularly in the fields of education and policymaking. As societies
become increasingly interconnected, the ability to leverage the collective
knowledge, skills, and experiences of individuals within a group has become
essential. This book has been developed to offer practical guidance and
theoretical insights on how collective intelligence can be effectively utilized to
improve educational outcomes and support the holistic development of
students.
The idea for this book arose from the recognition that while much has been
written about collective intelligence in the context of business and technology,
there has been a relative lack of resources that focus specifically on its
application in education. Therefore, this volume has been conceived to fill that
gap, providing educators, parents, and policymakers with a resource that
bridges the theory of collective intelligence with its practical applications in
schools, homes, and policy environments.
The chapters included in this book have been carefully selected to reflect a
diverse range of perspectives on collective intelligence. Each contributor has
brought their unique expertise and experiences to bear on the topic, offering
insights that are both academically rigorous and practically relevant. The
content has been organized to guide readers through a progression of ideas,
beginning with an exploration of the theoretical foundations of collective
intelligence, followed by case studies and practical examples of its application
in educational settings.
هدفت الدراسة لمعرفة صلاحية اختبار المصفوفات المتتابعة العادي للاستخدام مع الفئة العمرية (38 -50 ) بمنطقة الجبل الأخضر. طبق الاختبار على عينة مكونة من (520) مفحوصا(260 ذكراٌ ،260 انثى)، تم اختيارها بالطريقة الطبقية العشوائية. لقد استخدام برنامج الحزم الإحصائية للعلوم الاجتماعية ( SPSS ) في التحليل الاحصائي في الدراسة الحالية، وقد تم حساب معاملات الثبات باستخدام طريقة (معادلة ألفا لكرونباخ كودر- ريتشاردسون 20 (KR-20) لكل من الذكور و الأناث كل على حدة في كل مرحلة عمرية وكذلك للعينة الكلية وقد بينت النتائج تمتع الاختبار بدرجة جيدة من الثبات حيث تراوحت قيم معاملات الثبات ألفا لمجموعات الاختبار بين (.801) مع عينة الذكور في عمر (41) سنة الى (.957) مع العينة الذكور لعمر 48 سنة، وعند استخدام طريقة التجزئة النصفية (سبيرمان وبراون) لإيجاد ثبات الاختبار تبعاً لنوع (ذكور- اناث) و للأعمار الزمنية وللعينة الكلية قد بيّنت النتائج أن قيم معاملات الثبات تتراوحت ما بين (849.) في عينة الاناث لعمر 47 سنة الى ( .979) للعينة الاناث لعمر 38 سنة. وعن صدق اختبار SPM فقد بيّنت نتائج التحليل العاملي أن مجموعات الاختبار* الخمسة تكون عاملا واحدا فقط هو القدرة العقلية العامة كما وضحت النتائج تمتع الاختبار بصدق البناء (الاتساق الداخلي لكل مجموعة فرعية مع الدرجة الكلية للاختبار، وعن تمتع هذه المجموعات والدرجة الكلية للاختبار بصدق التكوين الفرضي وذلك باختيار متغير المستوى التعليمي كمحك خارجي، وكذلك كانت معاملات الصدق الذاتي قيم كبيرة ومرتفعة تشير بقوة إلى الصدق الذاتي لدرجات مجموعات الاختبار والدرجة الكلية.
هدفت الدراسة لمعرفة صلاحية اختبار المصفوفات المتتابعة العادي للاستخدام مع الفئة العمرية (23 -36 ) بمنطقة الجبل الأخضر، طبق الاختبار على عينة مكونة من (560) مفحوصا(280 ذكراٌ ،280 انثى)، تم اختيارها بالطريقة الطبقية العشوائية. لقد استخدام برنامج الحزم الإحصائية للعلوم الاجتماعية ( SPSS ) في التحليل الاحصائي في الدراسة الحالية، وقد تم حساب معاملات الثبات باستخدام طريقة (معادلة ألفا لكرونباخ كودر- ريتشاردسون 20 (KR-20) لكل من الذكور والأناث كل على حدة في كل مرحلة عمرية وكذلك للعينة الكلية وقد بينت النتائج تمتع الاختبار بدرجة جيدة من الثبات حيث تراوحت قيم معاملات الثبات ألفا لمجموعات الاختبار بين (.81) مع عينة الذكور في عمر (36) سنة الى (.95) مع العينة الذكور لعمر 31 سنة، وعند استخدام طريقة التجزئة النصفية (سبيرمان وبراون) لإيجاد ثبات الاختبار تبعاً لنوع (ذكور- اناث) و للأعمار الزمنية وللعينة الكلية، وقد بيّنت النتائج أن قيم معاملات الثبات تتراوحت مابين (86.) في عينة الذكور لعمر 36 سنة الى (.97) للعينة الاناث لعمر 33 سنة.
Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II (MAB-II) adalah salah satu tes yang telah digunakan secara luas untuk menilai kemampuan intelektual. Penelitian ini bertuuan untuk menguji efektivitas Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II yang telah diadaptasi sebagai tes kecerdasan untuk siswa SMA, SMK dan MA. Penelitian ini menggunakan desain metode campuran dengan menggabungkan elemen utama dari tiga metode penelitian secara hierarki dan berkesinambungan, yaitu penelitian eksploratif, deskriptif-verifikatif, dan pengembangan. Penelitian dilakukan di beberapa SMA, SMK dan MA di Kota dan Kabupaten Tasikmalaya, dengan subjek penelitian siswa kelas X, XI dan XII yang dipilih menggunakan teknik probability sampling, yaitu stratifield random sampling. Instrumen penelitian yang digunakan adalah Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa secara empiris, Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II layak digunakan sebagai alat ukur kecerdasan untuk siswa SMA, SMK dan MA di Kota dan Kabupaten Tasikmalaya berdasarkan uji empiri menggunakan analisis Rasch Model dengan sampel yang telah ditentukan. Kata kunci: multidimensional aptitude battery-II, intelegensi, RASCH model
The goal of this paper was to describe the context within which the PASS theory of intelligence was conceived and the reasons why this theory was used to guide the construction of the Cognitive Assessment System and the several versions of the Cognitive Assessment System, 2nd Edition. We also discuss validity issues such as equitable assessment of intelligence, using PASS scores to examine a pattern of strengths and weaknesses related to academic variability and diagnosis, and the utility of PASS scores for intervention. We provide summaries of the research that informs our suggestions that intelligence testing should be theory-based, not constrained by the seminal work of test developers in the early 1900s, and neurocognitive processes should be measured based on brain function.
We review ethnic group differences on high-stakes General Mental Ability (GMA) tests based on 21 st century UK data. Thereafter, we meta-analyse scores on 23 occupational, public sector, educational, military, or general-public selection tests, with a sample size exceeding two million. Relative to White GMA, the grand meta-analytic effect sizes (Cohen's d) by major ethnic groups were: Mixed d = .14 (k = 24, N = 67,114), Blacks d = .65 (k = 32, N = 112,975), Asians d = .33 (k = 32, N = 311,695), and Other d = .49 (k = 24, N = 42,846). Further, although Chinese residents outscored White British residents (d = −.15, k = 20, N = 18,897), all other Asian ethnic groups scored slightly to substantially lower. For example, South Asians as a whole averaged d = .37; k = 13, N = 67,566. By subgroups, these averages were: Indians (d = .17, k = 10, N = 28,236), Pakistanis (d = .49, k = 9, N = 19,371), and Bangladeshi (d = .55, k = 7, N = 19,772). Implications for practice and theory are discussed. ARTICLE HISTORY
Psychological science is divided into two distinct methodological traditions. One tradition seeks to understand how people function at the individual level, while the other seeks to understand how people differ from each other. Methodologies that have grown out of these traditions typically rely on different sources of data. While both use statistical models to understand the structure of the data, and these models are often similar, Molenaar (2004) showed that results from one type of analysis rarely transfer to the other, unless unrealistic assumptions hold. This raises the question how we may integrate these approaches. In this paper, we argue that formalized theories can be used to connect intra- and interindividual levels of analysis. This connection is indirect, in the sense that the relationship between theory and data is best understood through the intermediate level of phenomena: robust statistical patterns in empirical data. To illustrate this, we introduce a distinction between intra- and interindividual phenomena, and argue that many psychological theories will have implications for both types of phenomena. Formalization provides us with a methodological tool for investigating what kinds of intra- and interindividual phenomena we should expect to find if the theory under consideration were true.
The Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment - II (NEPSY-II) is a widely used assessment battery in pediatric settings, but its internal structure has not been adequately examined. This study employed a rational, empirical approach to examine the construct validity of 23 NEPSY-II subtest scores from children ages 7-12 (M = 9.99, SD = 2.76) in the NEPSY-II norming sample (N = 600; 50% girls). Competing higher-order models based on prior research, hypothesized NEPSY-II domains, and conceptual subtest classifications were evaluated via confirmatory factor analysis and a sequential approach to model comparisons. The results supported the multidimensionality of NEPSY-II subtests and the organization of subtests by hypothesized neuropsychological domains. The best fitting model included a general factor and four first-order factors. Factor loadings from the general factor to first-order factors were very strong. However, general factor loadings for most subtests were less than .50 (range = .21-.69, M = .44), and domain-specific effects for all subtests, independent of the general factor, were even lower (range = .00-.45, M = .44). Interestingly, all subtests demonstrated strong subtest-specific effects, but it is not clear what construct(s) the subtest-specific effects represent. Findings support NEPSY-II authors' emphasis on subtest-level interpretations rather than composite-level interpretations and highlight that NEPSY-II subtest scores should be interpreted carefully and with caution.
Intelligence is the most studied construct in psychology and cognitive neuroscience. In Brazil, the administration of intelligence tests is needed for a number of social rights, including driving privileges. Such requirements have led to a large testing industry but the vast majority of intelligence tests require extended administration times and language skills. In this study, we sought to investigate the psychometric properties and normative results of a new non-verbal intelligence test, the General Matrix of Intelligence (GMI). The GMI is comprised of 28 matrix-based items and can be administered in as little as six-minutes. In this initial pilot test, the GMI was administered to 1,326 participants, ages 15-64 years old (M = 25.65 years, SD = 9.6 years), from all regions in Brazil. These data were analyzed using a 2PL Item Response Theory model, regression analyses were conducted to determine the role of sociodemographic factors, and preliminary norms were computed. Results indicated a unidimensional solution that reproduced the g factor theory, invariance across genders, evidence that cognitively demanding items involving movement or three-dimensional shapes were more difficult than items with less cognitive load, a normal distribution for results, and an interaction between education level and age group in predicting performance. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed and all data and codes are provided at https://osf.io/kvu42/
Note: This comment has been published at Qeios: John Fuerst, Russell Warne.
(2024). Review of: "Heritability within groups is uninformative about differences among groups: Cases from behavioral, evolutionary, and statistical genetics". Qeios. doi:10.32388/VLNL1F.
Developing countries achieve surprisingly weak results in international cognitive competence studies. The results are about one to two standard deviations below the average norm-values obtained in Western countries. The results are so low that they are sometimes difficult to believe. For example, in the World Bank collection, Nigeria scored 262 student assessment points (SASQ, about two and a half standard deviations below the norm 500, equivalent in the IQ-scale to 64 points); in the Lim et al. collection, Yemen scored 336 SASQ (equivalent to IQ 75). These results have triggered opposition, factual-scientific criticism, but also ethical debates and political-ideological objections. We crosscheck the values here by comparing different sources of information, statistical analysis, and on-site reports. Results of the different test paradigms seem to be similar for country groups. However, there are sometimes major differences for individual countries. The same is true for comparing different test collections: results of grouped countries are similar, but single countries differ. Using education, GDP per capita and politics to predict test scores shows somewhat higher results for the Global South (5 IQ points), especially for Latin America (rising from 78 to 86 points in an IQ metric). Finally, observational studies of schools and every day life in several countries of the Global South point to problems in the scope and quality of instruction as well as of thinking. To improve outcomes and competences, it is recommended to expand education (e.g., kindergarten, extension of schooling) and better train teachers. Where there are large discrepancies between predictions and test results, the potential seems to be large.
Intelligence is by far the most important human trait. This holds true at the level of individuals as well as at the level of nations. The average cognitive performance of their inhabitants is the most important determinant of the social, cultural, and economic development of nations. The article considers cognitive ability of nations from the perspective of psychometric intelligence research, international student assessment studies, and Piaget’s developmental psychology. Based on up-to-date data, the national IQ of 205 countries is estimated. Then it is shown that national IQs are closely related to a wide range of variables from different domains of life. Overall, it is demonstrated that the central findings of psychometric intelligence research hold unchanged. A special feature is the consideration of non-linear relationships. Using a specific threshold model derived from Piagetian developmental psychology, it is shown that the importance of national IQs is greater than previously known.
Resumen El test de matrices progresivas de Raven es una prueba altamente utilizada para evaluar la inteligencia de un sujeto, sin embargo, los baremos utilizados mayormente en Argentina fueron construidos en el año 2000 en la Ciudad de la Plata. Surge de ello la inquietud por revisar el estado actual de las construcciones de baremos en nuestro medio. Con el objetivo de relevar dicha información se realizó una búsqueda sistemática sobre los usos del Test de Raven en la Argentina. Se tomó en cuenta la localidad donde fue realizada la muestra, el sexo y la edad, la construcción o no de baremos, el año de publicación y la versión del test utilizada. La búsqueda se concretó entre diciembre de 2022 y enero de 2023. Fueron relevadas cuarenta y dos plataformas científicas. Entre los meses de mayo a julio de 2023 se extendió la investigación a los países iberoamericanos. Fueron descartados los artículos duplicados o que presentaban información incompleta. Se reconoció toda investigación del año 2000 al año 2023. A partir de la búsqueda sistematizada se logró visualizar la necesidad de construir nuevas normas para la interpretación de puntajes de Raven. Palabras clave Raven-Baremos-Argentina Abstract The Raven progressive matrices test is a widely used test to evaluate the intelligence of a subject, however, the scales used mostly in Argentina were built in the year 2000 in the City of La Plata. From this arises the concern to review the current state of the construction of scales in our environment. With the objective of gathering this information, a systematic search was carried out on the uses of the Raven Test in Argentina. The location where the sample was carried out, sex and age, the construction or not of scales, the year of publication and the version of the test used were taken into account. The search took place between December 2022 and January 2023. Forty-two scientific platforms were surveyed.
This book is about differences in intellectual capacity among people and groups and what those differences mean for America's future.(preface) The major purpose of this book] is to reveal the dramatic transformation that is currently in process in American society---a process that has created a new kind of class structure led by a "cognitive elite," itself a result of concentration and self-selection in those social pools well endowed with cognitive abilities. Herrnstein and Murray explore] the ways that low intelligence, independent of social, economic, or ethnic background, lies at the root of many of our social problems. The authors also demonstrate the truth of another taboo fact: that intelligence levels differ among ethnic groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(jacket)
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