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L’homme de Tautavel. Un Homo erectus européen évolué. Homo erectus tautavelensis

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Cent quarante-huit restes humains ont été découverts au cours des fouilles effectuées de 1964 à 2014 dans la Caune de l’Arago à Tautavel dans les Pyrénées-Orientales. Ils ont été recueillis dans un contexte stratigraphique précis qui a permis d’individualiser 15 unités archéostratigraphiques avec présence humaine dont l’âge est compris entre 550 ka pour l’unité Q à la base et 400 ka pour l’unité C au sommet (SIO 14 à 10). Pendant cette longue période de temps, l’Homme a connu deux périodes de climat froid et sec (ensemble stratigraphique I et III) séparées par une période tempérée-humide (ensemble stratigraphique II). La majorité des restes humains a été recueillie dans les unités F et G de l’ensemble stratigraphique III du complexe moyen dans un environnement steppique, froid et venté. Les restes humains étaient mêlés individuellement au matériel archéologique et aux déchets de faune chassée et consommée. L’inventaire des restes humains met en évidence une majorité d’éléments crâniens et en particulier, la portion antérieure d’un crâne, Arago XXI, découvert le 22 juillet 1971, qui a fait connaître pour la première fois, l’aspect physique des premiers européens. L’ensemble, 5 mandibules, 123 dents sur arcade alvéolaire ou isolées, quelques fragments de squelette post-crânien : 9 éléments du membre supérieur, 19 éléments du membre inférieur, permet de repérer 30 individus décédés, soit 18 adultes et 12 enfants. L’étude de ces fossiles permet de les rapprocher des formes d’Homo erectus connues en Asie et en Afrique avec lesquels ils partagent des caractères communs. Cette constatation entraîne le questionnement de l’existence de ce groupe en Europe. Ainsi, l’apport de la collection de fossiles humains de l’Arago présente un triple intérêt, paléontologique, populationnel, comportemental. La multiplicité des restes permet d’avoir une estimation de la biodiversité et de la composition de cette petite population. L’attention est attirée par son originalité vis-à-vis de Mauer, l’ancêtre classique européen Homo heidelbergensis. Les fossiles de l’Arago présentent des caractères archaïques, non retrouvés sur la mandibule de Mauer, en particulier, la grande extension antéro-postérieure de l’arcade convexe en avant, la prédominance des dents prémolaires et de la M2, le corps mandibulaire à indice de robustesse élevé, le planum alvéolaire sub-horizontal et la ligne mylohyoïdienne saillante peu inclinée. D’autre part, le crâne n’a pas encore réduit sa face au profit du cerveau, processus qui sera mis en évidence ultérieurement. Le crâne est bas, avec un frontal à grande extension, une face très prognathe et un appareil masticateur puissant avec des crêtes temporales et un torus angularis saillants, qui lui donnent en coupe coronale, une forme pentagonale, contrairement à la convexité régulière observée sur les crânes de La Sima de los Huesos et des Néandertaliens. Une analyse comparée avec la population bien documentée découverte dans La Sima de los Huesos permet de constater un stade plus évolué chez cette dernière qui la rapproche de la forme néandertalienne sans l’éloigner de la mandibule de Mauer. En présence des fossiles humains européens, dont nous disposons, le scénario peut se résumer ainsi. Homo georgicus, une forme proche du groupe habilis-rudolfensis porteur des industries préoldowayennes et oldowayennes, est présent aux portes de l’Europe, il y a 1,8 Ma environ. À partir de 1,2–0,8 Ma, les documents, quoique fragmentaires d’Atapuerca, Elefante, Gran Dolina-TD6, pourraient être rattachés à cette lignée première. Les premiers Homo erectus porteurs des cultures à bifaces qui ont quitté le berceau africain arrivent aux portes de l’Europe, il y a environ 1,2 Ma, comme l’atteste la découverte de la calotte crânienne de Kocabaş en Anatolie, proche des fossiles de Buia en Erythrée et de Daka en Éthiopie, datés eux-mêmes de 1 Ma environ. À partir de 0,55 Ma avec l’ensemble des 148 restes humains et en particulier avec le crâne Arago XXI, nous sommes en présence d’une nouvelle forme (indépendante de Mauer) bien documentée que nous proposons de rattacher au taxon Homo erectus tautavelensis, en attribuant à cette sous-espèce une connotation géographique. Les caractéristiques morpho-fonctionnelles et culturelles d’Homo erectus tautavelensis signent la souche d’une longue lignée européenne, à l’origine de la néandertalisation.

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... The Caune de l'Arago is situated near the village of Tautavel (Pyrénées-Orientales, France). It is a major Middle Pleistocene archaeological site [de Lumley et al., 2014, de Lumley, 2015, located in a cave opening into the Corbières massif 88 m above the bed of the Verdouble river. The cave contains a 16m thick sedimentary sequence, whose base is dated at around 700 ka [Yokoyama et al., 1982]. ...
... The thick sedimentary deposits are delimited above and below by stalagmitic floors (Figure 1), the most recent of which is dated at ∼100 ka [Falguères et al., 2004]. Excavations and archaeostratigraphic studies have identified 55 archaeostratigraphic units rich in thousands of faunal remains, lithic artefacts, and several human remains, including the skull of the Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis [de Lumley and de Lumley, 1971, de Lumley, 2015], dated at 455 ka [Yokoyama et al., 1981], as well as the oldest human fossil found in France, a child's incisor with an estimated age of 560 ka (excavations 2018). ...
... These traces include charcoals, burnt bones, and flints with thermal impacts, proving the use of fire, at least occasionally [Barbetti, 1986, Roebroeks andVilla, 2011]. In particular, the traces are located in Archaeostratigraphic Unit C [ de Lumley, 2015] and in the RFB level (Figure 1), formed of sediments from the Top Complex, younger than 260 ka, those are intrusive into the upper part of the Middle Complex [de Lumley et al., 2020]. In the layers formed from 100 ka onwards, there is an abundance of burnt bones, charcoals, ashes, and heated flint. ...
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The Caune de l'Arago is an important Middle Pleistocene archaeological site, consisting of a cave with a sedimentary infilling deposited between 700 and 100 ka. Excavations have revealed traces of the use of fire in the layers formed between 400 and 100 ka, but no earlier traces have been recorded in the underlying levels. These potential older traces may have undergone various processes of weathering, and could have been degraded or considered nonexistent. This study combines magnetic susceptibility measurements, microscopic examinations, Raman analyses, and elemental analyses by scanning electron microscopy to look for traces of fire activity such as combustion residues preserved among the sediments. This approach has led to the discovery of a zone in the Q4 level, whose age is estimated at 560 ka, which is rich in magnetic minerals and charcoal. The anthropic or natural origin of these materials is discussed.
... [21] ,距今约16万年的夏河人 [33] ,以及早于14.6万年前的哈尔滨龙 人 [34] 。东亚中更新世新类型的古人类同时具有原始和进步的形态特征,呈现"镶嵌"状 态。在头骨上,原始特征包括低矮的颅穹、后倾的前额、粗壮的眶上圆枕和圆枕上沟、 较厚的骨壁、留存有矢状隆起等,进步特征包括扁平的面部、脑量相对增加(1120-1800毫升)等 [20,21,[35][36][37][38] 。在下颌骨上,原始特征包括粗壮的下颌体、宽阔的下颌支、侧面 观不对称的下颌切迹等,进步特征包括位于外侧的下颌切迹脊后部、开放的下颌孔、接 近垂直的下颌联合部前部、出现现代人特有的颏三角雏形等 [20,39] 。在牙齿上,原始特征 包括粗壮的门齿、复杂且粗壮的齿根结构等,进步特征包括第三前臼齿的齿冠轮廓趋于 对称等 [20,40,41] 。 为指代这些生活在中更新世、解剖特征介于直立人与智人之间的古人类类群,国内 图1 中更新世非洲、东亚、欧洲代表性的人类化石 [20,21,33,37,38,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] Fig. 1 Representative hominins from the Middle Pleistocene in Africa, East Asia, and Europe [20,21,33,37,38,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] 2 史 前 考 古 第 1 卷 ni" (人族) ,一般被认为包括人类和其灭绝的近亲。也有观点认为还应在人族中加入黑 猩猩。 "archaic hominid"一词的使用至少可追溯至20世纪70年代。1976年,Howells [79] 在讨 论现代人的演化与迁徙时使用了如下表述: "一种假说是现代人直接源自本地更古老的人 科成员(more archaic hominids) 。 "该语境下"archaic hominids"显然不是作为独立的术 语使用, "hominids"类似于非正式的中文词汇"人类" ,再对其加以"more archaic" (更 古老的)进行修饰。1983年,Stringer [92] 在分析佩特拉罗纳(Petralona)头骨化石时以类 似的方式使用了"archaic hominid": " ...... 似乎是一个还未分化的古老人科群体(undifferentiated archaic hominid group)的成员,他们因为与更晚的更新世人科成员(later Pleistocene hominid)共享一些共有衍征而区别于典型的直立人,又因为保留假定的直立 人祖征而区别于尼安德特人和现代型智人。 "在此处, "hominid"同样是仅作"人类"泛 称使用,对其加以"undifferentiated archaic" "later Pleistocene"等定语修饰,后置的状语 才是确定所指类群的描述。可见"archaic hominid"在最早使用时并不直接指示任何具体 的古人类类群,作者必须附加描述语句对其进行明确。由于"archaic hominid"这种搭配 频繁出现在中更新世古人类的研究中,故部分研究者不再附加描述语句就将其以接近 "古老型智人"的概念直接使用 [93][94][95][96][97] 。 "archaic hominin"一词在20世纪末就已见诸文献。1999年,Howell [98] 在综合介绍更 新世人族成员(Pleistocene hominin)的古老类群(paleo-demes)时使用了"archaic hominin"一词: " ...... 有大量的证据证实一种独特的archaic hominin在孤岛上生存了下来。 "这 句话出现在介绍印尼直立人地点昂栋(Ngandong)的章节。作者在文中介绍了非洲、东 亚大陆、东南亚、欧亚大陆西部的多个古老类群(paleo-demes) ,包括直立人、古老型智 人、尼安德特人,甚至以克罗马农人为代表的早期现代人。可见在该处, "archaic hominin"一词本身并无实际意义,也是类似于中文"古人类"的泛指词汇,具体指示哪个类 群还需通过所在段落的具体语境来判断。2000年,Pearson等 [99] 在研究赞比亚蒙布瓦 (Mumbwa)洞穴出土的人类化石时使用了如下表述: "来自中、晚更新世欧洲和非洲的 尼安德特人与其他archaic hominins往往具有大致相等的股骨中部前后和内外径。 "此处的 "archaic hominins"一词本身同样不直接指示任何古人类类群,但配合句中其他内容可知 该处的"archaic hominins"含义接近"古老型智人" 。故"archaic hominin"一词的情况和 "archaic hominid"相同,本身仅是类似"古人类"的泛指词汇,需另加描述语句来表明 想要具体指示的类群。由于频繁出现在与中更新世人类相关的研究中,故被部分作者以 约定俗成的方式直接当成类似"古老型智人"的术语使用 [33,[100][101][102][103][104][105][106] 。但实际上, "archaic hominin"一词指代的人类类群从未固定,视情况还被用于南方古猿、傍人、图根原初 人、弗洛勒斯人等类群 [107][108][109][110][111][112] 。除此之外, "archaic hominin"一词在古DNA研究中出现频 率非常高,一般在讨论"archaic hominin"和现代人祖先的基因交流问题时使用 [113][114][115][116][117] 。 "archaic Homo"一词的使用至少可追溯至20世纪80年代初。1980年,Rightmire [118] 6 史 前 考 古 第 1 卷 在分析奥杜威峡谷发现的古人类化石时使用了"archaic Homo"来归类标本。在该文 中, "archaic Homo"不但包括奥杜威从早更新世晚期到中更新世的标本,还包括巴林戈 (Baringo) 、特尼芬(Ternifine) 、周口店等直立人或类似于直立人的人类化石标本。相 似的用法还出现在1984年Trinkaus [119] 关于人类股骨化石KNM-ER 1481A的研究论文中。在 ...
... [21] ,距今约16万年的夏河人 [33] ,以及早于14.6万年前的哈尔滨龙 人 [34] 。东亚中更新世新类型的古人类同时具有原始和进步的形态特征,呈现"镶嵌"状 态。在头骨上,原始特征包括低矮的颅穹、后倾的前额、粗壮的眶上圆枕和圆枕上沟、 较厚的骨壁、留存有矢状隆起等,进步特征包括扁平的面部、脑量相对增加(1120-1800毫升)等 [20,21,[35][36][37][38] 。在下颌骨上,原始特征包括粗壮的下颌体、宽阔的下颌支、侧面 观不对称的下颌切迹等,进步特征包括位于外侧的下颌切迹脊后部、开放的下颌孔、接 近垂直的下颌联合部前部、出现现代人特有的颏三角雏形等 [20,39] 。在牙齿上,原始特征 包括粗壮的门齿、复杂且粗壮的齿根结构等,进步特征包括第三前臼齿的齿冠轮廓趋于 对称等 [20,40,41] 。 为指代这些生活在中更新世、解剖特征介于直立人与智人之间的古人类类群,国内 图1 中更新世非洲、东亚、欧洲代表性的人类化石 [20,21,33,37,38,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] Fig. 1 Representative hominins from the Middle Pleistocene in Africa, East Asia, and Europe [20,21,33,37,38,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] 2 史 前 考 古 第 1 卷 ni" (人族) ,一般被认为包括人类和其灭绝的近亲。也有观点认为还应在人族中加入黑 猩猩。 "archaic hominid"一词的使用至少可追溯至20世纪70年代。1976年,Howells [79] 在讨 论现代人的演化与迁徙时使用了如下表述: "一种假说是现代人直接源自本地更古老的人 科成员(more archaic hominids) 。 "该语境下"archaic hominids"显然不是作为独立的术 语使用, "hominids"类似于非正式的中文词汇"人类" ,再对其加以"more archaic" (更 古老的)进行修饰。1983年,Stringer [92] 在分析佩特拉罗纳(Petralona)头骨化石时以类 似的方式使用了"archaic hominid": " ...... 似乎是一个还未分化的古老人科群体(undifferentiated archaic hominid group)的成员,他们因为与更晚的更新世人科成员(later Pleistocene hominid)共享一些共有衍征而区别于典型的直立人,又因为保留假定的直立 人祖征而区别于尼安德特人和现代型智人。 "在此处, "hominid"同样是仅作"人类"泛 称使用,对其加以"undifferentiated archaic" "later Pleistocene"等定语修饰,后置的状语 才是确定所指类群的描述。可见"archaic hominid"在最早使用时并不直接指示任何具体 的古人类类群,作者必须附加描述语句对其进行明确。由于"archaic hominid"这种搭配 频繁出现在中更新世古人类的研究中,故部分研究者不再附加描述语句就将其以接近 "古老型智人"的概念直接使用 [93][94][95][96][97] 。 "archaic hominin"一词在20世纪末就已见诸文献。1999年,Howell [98] 在综合介绍更 新世人族成员(Pleistocene hominin)的古老类群(paleo-demes)时使用了"archaic hominin"一词: " ...... 有大量的证据证实一种独特的archaic hominin在孤岛上生存了下来。 "这 句话出现在介绍印尼直立人地点昂栋(Ngandong)的章节。作者在文中介绍了非洲、东 亚大陆、东南亚、欧亚大陆西部的多个古老类群(paleo-demes) ,包括直立人、古老型智 人、尼安德特人,甚至以克罗马农人为代表的早期现代人。可见在该处, "archaic hominin"一词本身并无实际意义,也是类似于中文"古人类"的泛指词汇,具体指示哪个类 群还需通过所在段落的具体语境来判断。2000年,Pearson等 [99] 在研究赞比亚蒙布瓦 (Mumbwa)洞穴出土的人类化石时使用了如下表述: "来自中、晚更新世欧洲和非洲的 尼安德特人与其他archaic hominins往往具有大致相等的股骨中部前后和内外径。 "此处的 "archaic hominins"一词本身同样不直接指示任何古人类类群,但配合句中其他内容可知 该处的"archaic hominins"含义接近"古老型智人" 。故"archaic hominin"一词的情况和 "archaic hominid"相同,本身仅是类似"古人类"的泛指词汇,需另加描述语句来表明 想要具体指示的类群。由于频繁出现在与中更新世人类相关的研究中,故被部分作者以 约定俗成的方式直接当成类似"古老型智人"的术语使用 [33,[100][101][102][103][104][105][106] 。但实际上, "archaic hominin"一词指代的人类类群从未固定,视情况还被用于南方古猿、傍人、图根原初 人、弗洛勒斯人等类群 [107][108][109][110][111][112] 。除此之外, "archaic hominin"一词在古DNA研究中出现频 率非常高,一般在讨论"archaic hominin"和现代人祖先的基因交流问题时使用 [113][114][115][116][117] 。 "archaic Homo"一词的使用至少可追溯至20世纪80年代初。1980年,Rightmire [118] 6 史 前 考 古 第 1 卷 在分析奥杜威峡谷发现的古人类化石时使用了"archaic Homo"来归类标本。在该文 中, "archaic Homo"不但包括奥杜威从早更新世晚期到中更新世的标本,还包括巴林戈 (Baringo) 、特尼芬(Ternifine) 、周口店等直立人或类似于直立人的人类化石标本。相 似的用法还出现在1984年Trinkaus [119] 关于人类股骨化石KNM-ER 1481A的研究论文中。在 ...
Article
During the Middle Pleistocene in East Asia, a unique group of hominins displaying anatomical features intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens emerged. This group has been referred to by various terms including early Homo sapiens, archaic Homo sapiens, archaic Homo, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo daliensis. This work outlines the appearance and conceptual evolution of these terms. The introduction of these terms mainly reflects the predominant perspectives and developmental trends in Paleoanthropology at that times, mainly related to the consolidation and simplification of the fossil classification system since the 1940s and the growing influence of cladistics in paleoanthropological research during the 1970s. When referring to the late Middle Pleistocene human fossils from East Asia without specifying a species, “East Asian late Middle Pleistocene archaic Homo” is a proper term. When taxonomic nomenclature is necessary, the earliest formally proposed name, Homo daliensis, can be used. Currently, there are three primary perspectives regarding the evolutionary status of East Asian late Middle Pleistocene archaic Homo: 1) it represents a transitional group within the lineage evolving continuously from indigenous Homo erectus to modern humans; 2) it belongs to the Homo heidelbergensis lineage; 3) it corresponds to Denisovans. Incorporating recent advancements in morphological, molecular, chronological, and archaeological evidence, this study introduces three additional hypotheses: 4) it diverged before the split between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals; 5) it emerged through the migration of European Middle Pleistocene hominins not related to the Neanderthal lineage; 6) it originated from Africa during the Middle Pleistocene. Late Middle Pleistocene hominins in East Asia present high morphological diversity, suggesting the potential coexistence of multiple archaic groups or evolutionary lineages.
... The two supraorbital arches are well separated in the glabellar region by a pronounced supraglabelar depression Daura et al., 2017;Rightmire, 2008;Tattersall & Schwartz, 2009). This morphology can be seen in European specimens like Petralona (Rightmire, 2008(Rightmire, , 2017Stringer, 1980;Stringer et al., 1979) or Arago (de Lumley, 2015), but also in the African specimens from Kabwe (Rightmire, 2008(Rightmire, , 2017Stringer, 1980), Saldanha (Singer, 1954), or Bodo 1 (Rightmire, 1996(Rightmire, , 2017 and in the Chinese specimens from Dali (Wu & Athreya, 2013) and Harbin (Ni et al., 2021). The Italian Ceprano cranium has a similar configuration but shows a slight groove separating the supraciliar relief from the supratoral sulcus (Ascenzi et al., 2000;Mallegni et al., 2003). ...
... In superior view, the SH sample shows a continuous supraorbital torus with a swollen glabellar region, with the exception of Crania 5, 12, and 13, where a slight depression is visible in the anterior margin of the glabella (see Figures 5, 12, and 13). Nevertheless, this glabellar depression is not as noticeable as in Arago, Petralona, Kabwe, Harbin, or Dali crania; furthermore, the supraorbital torus is not laterally retracted in superior view as it is in those MP specimens (de Lumley, 2015;Ni et al., 2021;Rightmire, 2008Rightmire, , 2017Stringer, 1980;Wu & Athreya, 2013). ...
Article
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The Sima de los Huesos (SH) site has provided a significant collection of hominin remains, including numerous cranial fragments, which have contributed to our understanding of the MP human population. The taxonomic classification of the SH hominins remains a topic of debate, with some studies suggesting a close relationship to Neandertals based on nuclear DNA analysis. The cranial morphology of the SH specimens exhibits a mix of Neandertal‐like features and primitive traits observed in earlier Homo populations, providing insights into the evolutionary pattern of the Neanderthal lineage. This study focuses on the neurocranial traits of the SH population and describes three previously undescribed cranial individuals. The SH cranial collection now comprises 20 nearly complete crania, representing approximately two‐thirds of the estimated population size. The analysis of the SH population reveals variations in robustness, frontal torus development, sagittal keeling, and occipital torus morphology, which may be related to sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic factors. The suprainiac region exhibits notable ontogenetic changes, while suture obliteration patterns do not strictly correlate with dental age. Metric measurements, particularly cranial breadths, highlight significant intrapopulation variation within the SH sample. Compared with other Middle Pleistocene (MP) hominins, the SH cranial vault displays archaic characteristics but differs from Homo erectus and Neandertals. The SH individuals have relatively short and tall cranial vaults, distinguishing them from other MP fossils. These findings contribute to our understanding of the MP human populations and their evolutionary trajectories.
... The bears studied here, from unit J, are ascribed to MIS 13 (c. 480 ka), which is considered to represent temperate humid conditions (De Lumley and Barsky 2004;Moigne et al. 2006;De Lumley 2015). The 'Ensemble II' has yielded four dental hominin remains (De Lumley 2015). ...
... 480 ka), which is considered to represent temperate humid conditions (De Lumley and Barsky 2004;Moigne et al. 2006;De Lumley 2015). The 'Ensemble II' has yielded four dental hominin remains (De Lumley 2015). However, this complex is dominated by herbivores such as red deer (Cervus elaphus) and fallow deer (Dama clactoniana), and to a lesser extent mouflon (Ovis ammon antiqua), rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and horse (Equus ferus mosbachensis), among others. ...
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Deninger’s bears (Ursus deningeri) have been studied less frequently than Ursus spelaeus s.l. Our objective is to present, for the first time, an analysis of the skull shape of U. deningeri. Bear crania and mandibles were digitised with a Microscribe or CT-scanned and the surface models subsequently landmarked. The landmarks were chosen based on a compromise between functional morphology and sample size. Results show that U. deningeri and U. spelaeus mandibles display very similar morphologies and allometric trajectories, both to each other and to Ailuropoda melanoleuca. It is inferred that masticatory adaptations to a herbivorous diet were already present in the Middle Pleistocene. U. deningeri displays a cranial morphology that is similar to that of U. spelaeus when comparing all species, but U. deningeri has a relatively narrower and dorsoventrally lower zygomatic arch than U. spelaeus, although the masticatory signal is less strong in the skull. We observe intraspecific differences between different populations of U. deningeri, which could parallel the genetic diversity found in U. spelaeus. The intraspecific differences found within U. deningeri may be temporal and/or geographical in nature and could be related to the evolution of the Late Pleistocene cave bear, but this hypothesis remains to be tested.
... The number of European sites in which clearly diagnostic human remains are associated with Acheulean lithics being scarce de Lumley, 2015;Falguères et al., 2004;Pereira et al., 2015;Stringer and Hublin, 1999;Stringer et al., 1998;Wolpoff, 1980), this issue remains unsettled. As discussed by Daura et al. (2017), however, it has nonetheless been possible to divide the human fossils of the middle Pleistocene of Europe into two groups: one, represented by Atapuerca/Sima de los Huesos (SH) and Swanscombe, belongs to the Neanderthal clade Meyer et al., 2016;Stringer, 2012); the other, represented by the Arago hominins, has been attributed to either an incipient stage of Neanderthal evolution (Dean et al., 1998), to H. heidelbergensis (Stringer, 2012), or to Homo erectus tautavelensis (de Lumley, 2015). ...
... The number of European sites in which clearly diagnostic human remains are associated with Acheulean lithics being scarce de Lumley, 2015;Falguères et al., 2004;Pereira et al., 2015;Stringer and Hublin, 1999;Stringer et al., 1998;Wolpoff, 1980), this issue remains unsettled. As discussed by Daura et al. (2017), however, it has nonetheless been possible to divide the human fossils of the middle Pleistocene of Europe into two groups: one, represented by Atapuerca/Sima de los Huesos (SH) and Swanscombe, belongs to the Neanderthal clade Meyer et al., 2016;Stringer, 2012); the other, represented by the Arago hominins, has been attributed to either an incipient stage of Neanderthal evolution (Dean et al., 1998), to H. heidelbergensis (Stringer, 2012), or to Homo erectus tautavelensis (de Lumley, 2015). ...
Article
Bifaces dominate the Acheulean stone tools recovered during the archaeological excavation of layer X of Gruta da Aroeira, dated to 389–436 ka. Faunal remains and a human cranium were found in association with this lithic assemblage. The raw materials used are mostly quartz and quartzite cobbles available in the vicinity of the site. Technological and systematic analysis shows that there are no Levallois elements and suggests that on-site knapping consisted of the reduction of centripetal cores. Flake cleavers are absent. Use-wear analysis indicates the processing of hard materials, mainly wood. Gruta da Aroeira represents one of the few Middle Pleistocene sites that provide securely dated diagnostic human remains and associated Acheulean lithics, thus representing a major step forward in our understanding of the variability of westernmost Europe's Acheulean and of the human populations that made it.
... Plus loin, sur le versant nord des Pyrénées, une mandibule humaine ancienne a également été identifiée dans la grotte de la Niche à Montmaurin et serait datée du SIM 7 (Vialet et al., 2018 ;Lebatard et al., 2022). Encore plus à l'est, les nombreux restes humains du gisement de la Caune de l'Arago à Tautavel constituent les meilleurs témoins de ce côté de la chaîne pyrénéenne (de Lumley, 2015). Les débats actuels autour de ces fossiles tendent à voir dans les individus de la Sima de los Huesos, une population distincte de l'Homo heidelbergensis (Arsuaga et al., 2014 ;Dennell et al., 2011), qui s'intègrerait au sein de la lignée néandertalienne contrairement aux spécimens de l'Arago ou de Mauer. ...
Article
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Le Paléolithique ancien des Pyrénées-Atlantiques a été principalement documenté à travers quelques pièces isolées découvertes à la faveur de prospections menées sur les formations fluviales et littorales ainsi qu'à travers deux fouilles préventives récentes conduites sur les hauteurs de Bayonne. La falaise de Chabiague à Biarritz a fait l'objet de recherches diverses depuis le début des années 1970 et notamment d'une fouille de sauvetage en 1982 effectuée par C. Chauchat. Au cours de ces décennies de recherches, elle a livré un assemblage lithique composé de 510 pièces majoritairement en silex du Flysch à forte patine blanche. L'étude a porté sur cette série provenant de ramassages dans la coupe et en pied de falaise, ainsi que de l'opération archéologique de sauvetage réalisée. Un premier objectif a été de s'assurer de son homogénéité technique, puis une analyse technologique et structurale nous a permis de révéler les processus et les objectifs du système de production lithique à partir d'une grille de lecture adaptée. Les données de notre étude mettent en évidence une industrie orientée vers la production de petits outils sur éclat. À côté de ces petits outils sont associés quelques macro-outils sur plaquette et galet. Les données de cette étude replacées dans une perspective locale et étendue contribuent à questionner la singularité de l'enregistrement technique sur la façade atlantique pyrénéenne au Paléolithique ancien.
... The index fossil of the former is the biface or handaxe (Gowlett 1988), employed, among other tasks, for woodworking (Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. 2001;Solodenko et al. 2015) and butchery (Solodenko et al. 2015). The period's human fossils are indicative of populations that presented significant morphological diversity and reveal the emergence of the diagnostic features of the Neanderthals (Manzi et al. 2011;Arsuaga et al. 2014;de Lumley 2015). European sites containing Acheulean lithics and evidence of the use of fire in association with well-dated human fossils are, however, scarce; but the Middle Pleistocene site of Gruta da Aroeira (Almonda karst system, Torres Novas, Portugal) provides fresh insights. ...
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The Gruta da Aroeira (Torres Novas, Portugal), with evidence of human occupancy dating back ∼ 400,000 years, is one of very few Middle Pleistocene cave sites to provide a fossil hominin cranium in association with Acheulean bifaces and the by-products of fire usage. Zooarchaeological, taphonomic and tooth-wear analyses suggest that the accumulation of the faunal remains and their modification are anthropogenic. Large game constituted the basis of subsistence, with equids and cervids being preferentially targeted. Woodland and open landscapes formed the ecosystems supporting the populations of the mammals that were preyed upon by the inhabitants of the site. Most of the animal carcasses were carried to, and fully butchered at the site, which was used as a residential base camp. The features of the Aroeira faunal assemblage foreshadow the subsistence strategies developed by the hunter-gatherers of the Middle and the Upper Palaeolithic and testify to their very ancient roots.
... Parmi ces cavité s, la grotte de Kalamakia, à 800 mè tres au sud-ouest du cimetiè re de Limeni, (Fig. 6) et celles d'Apidima (Fig. 5,7,8,16,34 et 35), à environ 1600 mè tres au sud (Fig. 6) de la pré cé dente, ont fait l'objet de fouilles pré historiques et de recherches stratigraphiques, arché ologiques et palé ontologiques (Andreikos, 1997 ;Barbetsea et al., 2016 ;Bartsiokas et al., 2017 ;Brä uer et al., 2020 ;Camaró s et al., 2017 ;Damigos et Magnisalis, 1995 ;Darlas, 1995Darlas, , 2007Darlas, , 2012Darlas et Lumley, 2004 ;Darlas et Psathi, 2016 ;Guipert et al., 2019 ;Harvati, 2021 ;Harvati et al., 2003Harvati et al., , 2005Harvati et al., , 2011Harvati et al., , 2013Harvati et al., , 2019Harvati et Delson, 1998, 1999Kolendrianou et al., 2020 ;Lebreton et al., 2008 ;Litt et al., 2021 ;Lumley, 2015Lumley, , 2018Lumley et al., 1994Lumley et al., , 2018Lumley et al., , 2020Matzanas, 2012 ;Otte, 2020a,b ;Pitsios, 1979Pitsios, , 1992Pitsios, , 1995Pitsios, , 1996aPitsios, ,b, 1997Pitsios, , 1998aPitsios, -d, 1999Pitsios, , 2002Pitsios, , 2003aPitsios et Liebhaber, 1995 ;Roger et Darlas, 2008a,b ;Rosas et Bastir, 2020). ...
Article
The Apidima A cave, near Areopoli in the Peloponnese in Greece, has revealed two skulls of advanced Homo erectus or Anteneandertals, dated to around 170,000 years ago (isotope stage 6). They were deposited side by side, at the bottom of the cave that was accessible at the time, close to the ceiling, in a narrow diaclase less than 50 cm wide. Both have the same anatomical characteritics and belong to the same phyletic group. One, more robust than the oher, was male and rested on the back of the skull, while the other, slightly more graceful, was female and rested on the face. No other human remains, or piece of lithic industry were associated with these skulls. Only three round pebbles, probably of marine origin, were found next to the skulls. They were intentionally deposited for ritual purposes.
... The predominant species for this ensemble are Ovis ammon antiqua and Equus ferus mosbachensis [17]. The filling of the Middle Complex of the Arago cave yielded many Acheulean occupations that are among the oldest in Europe, as well as many human remains (Homo erectus tautavelensis) [20]. ...
Article
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In western Europe, the Middle Pleistocene is marked by Acheulean settlement and their diversification after the MIS 12. The Arago cave recovery of numerous human settlements correlate to MIS 14, 13 and MIS 12 making it an important site for the understanding of the Lower Palaeolithic in Southwestern Europe. It is also an important site for the understanding of palaeoenvironments and palaeobiodiversity as it has yielded rich faunal associations. The faunal associations allow us to observe three climatic stages within this study: two cold ones and a mild one. Small vertebrates, with their abundance and their diversity, are particularly useful for observing these periods, which historically have been correlated to glacial or interglacial stages. If the first cold phase, dated 438 ± 31 ka, is correlated to the Marine Isotopic Stage 12 (MIS 12), the correlation of the following phases to isotopic stages can be discussed. They may correspond to climatic variations of the MIS 12. Indeed, the latest studies about palaeoclimatic reconstitution which allow us to define the evolution of the palaeo-temperature show that these differences are relatively small. Therefore, instead of a correlation to MIS 12, 13 and 14, the medium complex of the Arago cave could belong solely to MIS 12. The correlation of these environmental changes to other global data, notably the isotopic curve, is challenging because there are various local factors influencing faunal association. We propose here both hypotheses and discuss the various factors which influence the distribution and the representation of the small vertebrate species present on the site.
... The foot fossil record of other Middle Pleistocene European with chronologies similar to SH is not abundant. It is restricted to the fragmentary second metatarsal discovered in Arago (France) within abundant skeletal material associated with Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus tautavelensis 52 . This isolated second metatarsal described as not very robust 53 does not allow for inference of the foot's morphology and, therefore, the resulting footprints. ...
Article
This article can be found on The Conversation website: https://theconversation.com/y-si-los-que-pasearon-por-donana-no-fueron-los-neandertales-193545
... The foot fossil record of other Middle Pleistocene European with chronologies similar to SH is not abundant. It is restricted to the fragmentary second metatarsal discovered in Arago (France) within abundant skeletal material associated with Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus tautavelensis 52 . This isolated second metatarsal described as not very robust 53 does not allow for inference of the foot's morphology and, therefore, the resulting footprints. ...
Article
This article can be found on The Conversation website: https://theconversation.com/recently-found-neanderthal-footprints-in-the-south-of-spain-could-be-275-000-years-old-195346
... BP (Fernández-Jalvo et al., 1996Carbonell et al., 2010;Saladié et al., 2011Saladié et al., y 2012; Caune de l'Aragó (Francia), c. 680.000 BP (de Lumley, 2015); Krapina (Croacia), c. 130.000 BP (Russell, 1987;Trinkaus, 1985;Patou-Mathis, 1997;White y Toth, 2007); restos neandertales del nivel XV de la cueva de Moula Guercy (Francia), 120.000-100.000 BP (Defleur et al., 1999); Pradelles (Francia), 45.000 BP (Maureille et al., 2007); la Cueva del Sidrón, (España), 43.000 BP (Rosas et al., 2006); Cueva del Boquete de Zafarraya (España), 42.000 BP (Barroso y de Lumley, 2006); las cuevas de Goyet (Bélgica), 45.500-40.500 ...
Article
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La identificación de restos óseos humanos desarticulados en cavidades naturales del País Valenciano es un hecho ampliamente extendido que, sin embargo, no siempre ha conllevado el análisis exhaustivo de los mismos. En este trabajo presentamos los resultados obtenidos en el estudio antropológico de la Cova del Garrofer (Gandia, València). El análisis tafonómico reveló la presencia de marcas de manipulación antrópica, las cuales sugieren la práctica del canibalismo durante los inicios de la Edad del Bronce, un tema que ha sido poco tratado para estos momentos de la Prehistoria en el mediterráneo peninsular.
... Não obstante, os sítios europeus com restos humanos diagnósticos associados a indústrias líticas acheulenses são escassos, limitando -se a Atapuerca -Sima de los Huesos (SH) (Falguères et al., 2004;Arsuaga et al., 2014), Swanscombe (Stringer e Hublin, 1999) e Arago (de Lumley, 2015. Até à data, foram identificados dois grupos humanos no Plistocénico Médio da Europa: um, representado por Atapuerca (SH) e Swanscombe, faz parte do clado Neandertal (Stringer, 2012;Arsuaga et al., 2014;Meyer et al., 2016); o outro, representado pelos fósseis de Arago, tem sido atribuído quer a um estádio incipiente da evolução dos Neandertais (Dean et al., 1998), quer ao Homo heidelbergensis (Stringer, 2012), quer ainda a um Homo erectus tautavelensis (de Lumley, 2015). O crânio recém -descoberto na Gruta da Aroeira (Daura et al., 2017a(Daura et al., , 2017b) apresenta um mosaico de características que sugerem um panorama mais complexo ainda. ...
... The foot fossil record of other Middle Pleistocene European with chronologies similar to SH is not abundant. It is restricted to the fragmentary second metatarsal discovered in Arago (France) within abundant skeletal material associated with Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus tautavelensis 52 . This isolated second metatarsal described as not very robust 53 does not allow for inference of the foot's morphology and, therefore, the resulting footprints. ...
Article
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Hominin footprints were recently discovered at Matalascañas (Huelva; South of Iberian Peninsula). They were dated thanks to a previous study in deposits of the Asperillo cliff to 106 ± 19 ka, Upper Pleistocene, making Neandertals the most likely track-makers. In this paper, we report new Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating that places the hominin footprints surface in the range of 295.8 ± 17 ka (MIS 9-MIS 8 transition, Middle Pleistocene). This new age implies that the possible track-makers are individuals more likely from the Neandertal evolutionary lineage. Regardless of the taxon attributed to the Matalascañas footprints, they supplement the existing partial fossil record for the European Middle Pleistocene Hominins being notably the first palaeoanthropological evidence (hominin skeleton or footprints) from the MIS 9 and MIS 8 transition discovered in the Iberian Peninsula, a moment of climatic evolution from warm to cool. Thus, the Matalascañas footprints represent a crucial record for understanding human occupations in Europe in the Pleistocene.
... Bodo, a "one-off" partial skull (with no other associated individuals and/or remains), that was a surface find and does not preserve the dentition (thus limiting comparisons), would be more "clearly defined" than is H. heidelbergensis, the hypodigm of which currently includes the fossils from Arago-that comprise teeth, crania and postcrania from ∼30 wellprovenanced individuals. [2][3][4][5] The salient question as to how and why the new taxon H. bodoensis "recognizes and systematizes some of the observed variation (p. 2)" better than does H. heidelbergensis is ignored. ...
Article
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In an Evolutionary Anthropology article Roksandic et al. (2022) propose a new middle Pleistocene hominin species H. bodoensis to replace a “poorly defined” Homo heidelbergenis. Homo bodoensis extends from the African Middle Pleistocene through the Levant to South‐eastern Europe with all currently classified H. heidelbergensis fossils from western Europe subsumed into Homo neandertalensis. The authors claim their new species will be more clearly defined than H. heidelbergensis and will better describe hominin variation and evolution in the middle Pleistocene. Roksandic et al. are unable to account for some European fossils (i.e., Petralona and Arago) and provide no evidence as to how their new species meets their objectives. Fatally, they overlook the priority rule and fail to realize that H. bodoensis is both a junior synonym of Homo rhodesiensis and Homo saldanensis. Roksandic et al. conflate taxonomy with phylogeny, present hypotheses as facts, and harbor many systematic and evolutionary misconceptions.
... Furthermore, they are geographically and chronologically dispersed and bone assemblages representing the same biological population are infrequently found. Excluding the cannibalism assemblages (de Lumley, 2015;Saladié et al., 2012), in the best of cases isolated fossils can be characterized taphonomically (Sanz et al., 2018), with one exception: La Sima de los Huesos (SH). The SH hominin assemblage is composed of more than 7,000 fossil fragments derived from 29 individuals (Bermúdez de Castro et al., 2021). ...
Article
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The Sima de los Huesos (SH) hominin assemblage is composed of thousands of fossil fragments, including pieces of crania and mandibles. The main objective of this work is to address the main taphonomic features of the cranial and mandibular remains from the SH sample, including antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem skeletal disturbances. We present an updated assessment of healed cranial trauma, first described in 1997 and now including new skulls. In addition, this study reviews the perimortem fractures in relation to their location and features of the affected individuals. Finally, this paper deals with the modifications affecting the cranial sample from the SH at the postmortem stage, including physical and biological postdepositional modifications. The SH collection provides a unique opportunity for conducting a complete forensic‐taphonomic study on a Middle Pleistocene population.
... The study of their DNA also argues for a very close relationship with the Neanderthals (Meyer et al., 2016). In contrast, the Arago hominins present a primitive aspect both in the teeth and in different parts of the skull, which could be in line with other findings in European sites of the Middle Pleistocene, such as Bilzingsleben, Verteszöllos, or Ceprano (e.g., Vlcek, 1978;de Lumley, De Lumley, 2015;Manzi et al., 2010;Manzi, 2016). In addition, some similarities can be observed between the Mauer mandible (the holotype of H. heidelbergensis) and the Neanderthals, (Aguirre et al., 1976;Rosas & Bermúdez de Castro, 1998). ...
Article
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The Middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca, northern Spain) has yielded a considerable number of human fossils during the period 1984–2020. Among them, up to 253 maxillary teeth have been recovered. In this article, we present the description of the eight dental classes of the maxilla following the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System classification. In addition, we present the mean mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters of these teeth compared to those of Neanderthals and a modern human sample. The morphology of both the anterior and posterior teeth suggests a close relationship of the Sima de los Huesos hominins with the populations of the second half of the Middle Pleistocene of Europe and the Near East, as well as with the so‐called classic Neanderthals of Europe. Features with a recognizable taxonomic signal allow grouping the Sima de los Huesos hominins with different paleodemes into a Neanderthal clade. The dental evidence of the Sima de los Huesos hominins is key to suggest a complex model for the settlement of Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. During this period, different migrations of human groups probably coming from Southwest Asia, replacements, prolonged isolations, as well as hybridization and introgression processes would have contributed to the diversity of hominins in Europe.
... The stratigraphic sequence has a maximum thickness of 15 m, comprising three stratigraphic complexes, correlated from the base to the top with MIS 15 to 12 (Falgu eres et al., 2015). Archaeological unit (UA) G, pertaining to stratigraphic complex III, is where 93 human remains were recovered, attributed to Homo erectus tautavelensis (de Lumley, 2015b), but more commonly attributed to H. heidelbergensis (e.g., Stringer 2012; Arsuaga et al., 2014). The base of this unit has been dated by means of electron spin resonance and uranium-thorium (U-Th) methods to 438 ± 31 ka (Falgu eres et al., 2015) and has been correlated to MIS 13e12. ...
Article
Rodents are a very useful tool in reconstructing the environment of the past, especially owing to their rapid response to climate change, their small home range, and their restricted habitat requirements. They are a highly diverse group of mammals, which have high reproduction rates and as a result can evolve rapidly. The abundance of their microfossil remains in archaeological and paleontological sites permits robust statistical analyses to reconstruct the past climate and environment. Recently, a number of studies have affirmed the need to deepen the climatic characterization of the European Quaternary, the Middle Pleistocene being an important stage for ascertaining how our hominin ancestors lived. The aim of this study is to characterize the climatic conditions in which hominins lived in southwestern Mediterranean Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. To reconstruct these climatic conditions, we apply the bioclimatic model to rodent assemblages from Middle Pleistocene sites with human remains (Caune de l'Arago, Sima de los Huesos, Aroeira cave, Visogliano, Trinchera Galeria, and Mollet cave). Based on the percentage distribution of the species in different climate types and applying multiple linear regressions, we estimated the mean annual temperature, the mean temperature of the coldest month, and the mean temperature of the warmest month. We compared these estimates with data collected over the last 30 years from nearby meteorological stations to obtain the differences with current climate and observe the fluctuations. The climatic conditions obtained from the results of this study show that, while in Iberia mild climatic condition prevailed, in southern France and northeastern Italy harsher weather conditions were indicated.
... The holotype mandible of Mauer has a reliable The top of the Middle Complex has provided more than 100 human remains in the G level 377 for which a mean age of 440 ka suggests a development of this level during a cold stage 378 (MIS12), at least at the base of the level (Falguères et al., 2004;Han et al., 2010). 379 These fossils have been classified as Homo erectus Tautavelensis, showing affinities with 380 Middle Pleistocene Homo erectus of Africa and Asia (Lumley de, 2015). ...
Article
A reliable chronology for the oldest settlements of Europe from the Early to the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene is an important requirement for understanding human evolution and especially the routes used to reach Western Europe from Africa. The paucity of sites, plus the limited number of available samples for dating, and the many contexts which do not favor the use of particular dating methods, further complicate the picture. This contribution addresses several questions: Which dating methods are relevant for establishing the chronology of the main sites? Are the first settlements older than the Jaramillo event? Which routes were used to enter Europe? Were the earliest human occupations intermittent or continuous?
... The European Middle Pleistocene human record is, with the exception of Sima de los Huesos (SH) and Caune de l'Arago assemblages [1,[15][16][17]67], limited to isolated and chronospatially scattered remains [2,68]. To date, the morphological studies of different localities across Europe suggest the existence of more than one hominin lineage [1,15,16,24,69] and a nonlinear trajectory towards Neanderthals. ...
Article
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Dental enamel thickness, topography, growth and development vary among hominins. In Homo, the thickness of dental enamel in most Pleistocene hominins display variations from thick to hyper-thick, while Neanderthals exhibit proportionally thinner enamel. The origin of the thin trait remains unclear. In this context, the Middle Pleistocene human dental assemblage from Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos (SH) provides a unique opportunity to trace the evolution of enamel thickness in European hominins. In this study, we aim to test the hypothesis if the SH molar sample approximates the Neanderthal condition for enamel thickness and/or distribution. This study includes 626 molars, both original and comparative data. We analysed the molar inner structural organization of the original collections (n = 124), belonging to SH(n = 72) and modern humans from Spanish origin (n = 52). We compared the SH estimates to those of extinct and extant populations of the genus Homo from African, Asian and European origin (estimates extracted from literature n = 502). The comparative sample included maxillary and mandibular molars belonging to H. erectus, East and North African Homo, European Middle Pleistocene Homo, Neanderthals, and fossil and extant H. sapiens. We used high-resolution images to investigate the endostructural configuration of SH molars (tissue proportions, enamel thickness and distribution). The SH molars exhibit on average thick absolute and relative enamel in 2D and 3D estimates, both in the complete crown and the lateral enamel. This primitive condition is shared with the majority of extinct and extant hominin sample, except for Neanderthals and some isolated specimens. On the contrary, the SH molar enamel distribution maps reveal a distribution pattern similar to the Neanderthal signal (with thicker enamel on the lingual cusps and more peripherally distributed), compared to H. antecessor and modern humans. Due to the phylogenetic position of the SH population, the thick condition in molars could represent the persistence of the plesiomorphic condition in this group. Still, more data is needed on other Early and Middle Pleistocene populations to fully understand the evolutionary meaning of this trait.
... Anteneandertals are often attributed to H. heidelbergensis. An earlier publication (M.-A. de Lumley, 2015) demonstrates the difficulties in attributing these fossils to a mandibular model, the Mauer mandible, which presents a totally different morphology to those from la Caune de l'Arago or la Sima de Los Huesos, which are more similar to the African H. erectus models, such as Ternifine (Tighennif). ...
Article
Work in Apidima A Cave began in 1976 after the discovery of a portion of a human skull by Andreas Andreikos in a cave breccia, identified in 1978 by Théodoros Pitsios, and named Apidima 1. The cave is located below the plateau of Aeropolis, in the Mani Peninsula (Maina or Maïna), in the Peloponnese, in the south of Greece. The first work in the cave brought to light a second skull, Apidima 2. These two skulls were lying vertically against the cave wall, on the same sedimentary layer, 15 cm away from each other, side by side and facing in opposite directions. The Apidima 1 occipital seems to belong to a male individual whereas the Apidima 2 face appears to be female. They were carefully extracted from the breccia at the initiative of Théodoros Pitsios and were painstakingly disengaged in the laboratory between 1979 and 2012. The Apidima 1 skull is a portion of the back of the skull and the better preserved Apidima 2 consists of the face and the frontoparietal zones. These remains are in a similar state of fossilisation and were dated by the U/Th method between 220 and 130 ka, with an average age of about 170 ka. The anatomical study shows that they can be attributed to the same group of evolved European Homo erectus hominins, with some early Neanderthal traits, similar to the skulls of la Sima de los Huesos, Swanscombe, Biache St Vaast and Lazaret, and that they can be differentiated from classic Neanderthals. The frontoparietal curve and low biparietal breadth of the crania can be compared to early forms, such as Arago 21-47, Ceprano, Petralona, but several traits announce a Neanderthal morphology, such as, for example, a suprainiac fossa observable on Apidima 1. The deposition of these two skulls in Apidima Cave A, laid out side by side, with no other human remains, lithic artefacts or faunal remains, evokes a death-related anthropogenic ritual. Beside these skulls, three pebbles gathered on the beach below the cave can be considered as an intentional deposit related to the symbolic preoccupations of these Anteneandertals. During the major regression of isotopic stage 6, the beach was at a much lower level than the present-day beach.
... Le sol d'occupation qui correspond au crâne contient des déchets culinaires dominés par les os de chevaux (45%), de mouflon (15%), de bison (8,5%), de boeuf musqué primitif (8%), de cerf (7,5%), de rhinocéros (6%) et de renne (4%). Ce qui laisse penser à un gardemanger et à un cannibalisme non alimentaire mais rituel ( de Lumley M.-A., 2015). Il est très difficile de parler des rapports qu'entretenaient les Homo erectus avec la mort; tout juste peut-on évoquer leurs rapports avec certains de leurs morts. ...
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L’Homme de Tautavel est le plus ancien Occitan et le plus vieux Français. Il est donc celui dont on doit parler en préhistoire, appelée aussi archéologie préhistorique, qui a pour ambition de reconstituer l'histoire et la vie des humains depuis leur origine jusqu'à l'apparition de l'écriture. Les témoignages que l’on trouve sont de deux sortes : 1-les ossements ; 2-les produits d’un travail.
... Anteneandertals are often attributed to H. heidelbergensis. An earlier publication (M.-A. de Lumley, 2015) demonstrates the difficulties in attributing these fossils to a mandibular model, the Mauer mandible, which presents a totally different morphology to those from la Caune de l'Arago or la Sima de Los Huesos, which are more similar to the African H. erectus models, such as Ternifine (Tighennif). ...
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Deux crânes humains, l’un masculin, l’autre féminin, ont été déposés, il y a environ 160 000 ans, dans une cavité du massif calcaire d’Apidima, sur la côte occidentale de la péninsule du Magne, dans la Péloponnèse, au Sud de la Grèce. La disposition de ces deux crânes, placés face à face, sans aucun autre reste humain, évoque un comportement rituel lié à la mort. A côté des crânes, trois galets ramassés sur la plage marine, située en contre-bas de la grotte, qui était beaucoup plus basse qu’actuellement, peuvent être considérés comme un dépôt intentionnel en relation avec les préoccupations symboliques de ces hommes. Les caractéristiques anatomiques de ces crânes permettent de les attribuer à un groupe d’Homo erectus évolué en voie de néandertalisation. Si leurs boites crâniennes peuvent être rapprochées de formes plus anciennes, comme Arago 21-47, Ceprano, Petralona, par la convexité de la courbure fronto-pariétale et une largeur bi-pariétale faible, quelques traits annoncent déjà les dispositions reconnues chez les Néandertaliens.
... The European Middle Pleistocene human record is, to the exception of some exceptional sites like Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos, in Spain [26] and Caune de l'Arago at Tautavel, in France [78], still limited to a few chronospatially scattered localities [25,79]. Besides random factors due to fossilization and discoveries of fossil sites, this discontinuous distribution could also reflect population dynamics in relation to climatic fluctuations determining phases of repeated colonization during the interstadial and interglacial periods followed by local extinctions/ retractions during the harsher glacial periods [80]. ...
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The penecontemporaneous Middle Pleistocene sites of Fontana Ranuccio (Latium) and Visogliano (Friuli-Venezia Giulia), set c. 450 km apart in central and northeastern Italy, respectively, have yielded some among the oldest human fossil remains testifying to a peopling phase of the Italian Peninsula broadly during the glacial MIS 12, a stage associated with one among the harshest climatic conditions in the Northern hemisphere during the entire Quaternary period. Together with the large samples from Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos, Spain, and Caune de l’Arago at Tautavel, France, the remains from Fontana Ranuccio and Visogliano are among the few mid-Middle Pleistocene dental assemblages from Western Europe available for investigating the presence of an early Neanderthal signature in their inner structure. We applied two- three-dimensional techniques of virtual imaging and geometric morphometrics to the high-resolution X-ray microtomography record of the dental remains from these two Italian sites and compared the results to the evidence from a selected number of Pleistocene and extant human specimens/samples from Europe and North Africa. Depending on their preservation quality and on the degree of occlusal wear, we comparatively assessed: (i) the crown enamel and radicular dentine thickness topographic variation of a uniquely represented lower incisor; (ii) the lateral crown tissue proportions of premolars and molars; (iii) the enamel-dentine junction, and (iv) the pulp cavity morphology of all available specimens. Our analyses reveal in both samples a Neanderthal-like inner structural signal, for some aspects also resembling the condition shown by the contemporary assemblage from Atapuerca SH, and clearly distinct from the recent human figures. This study provides additional evidence indicating that an overall Neanderthal morphological dental template was preconfigured in Western Europe at least 430 to 450 ka ago.
... Data seem to point more toward technological "innovations" than to "inventions" over time in Europe, as discussed in Haidle and Brauer (2011) while elsewhere both reinventions and arrivals could have happened according to local conditions. The local transformation of diverse behaviors and adaptation to local situations could be one parameter advanced to explain inter-assemblage diversity, especially if the scenario of multiple hominin arrivals (with or not potential interbreeding populations) is retained, as suggested by early and recent paleoanthropological studies (i.e., Martinón-Torrès et al. 2011;Stringer 2012;Bermúdez de Castro and Martinón-Torrès 2013;de Lumley 2015). ...
Chapter
This paper focuses on the early evidence of assemblages with bifacial tools, in particular their technology within the context of chronology and geography, focusing on the sites of La Noira, Arago levels P and Q and Cagny-la-Garenne I–II in France, Brandon Fields, Maidscross Hill, High Lodge and Boxgrove in the UK, and Notarchirico in Italy. Assemblages with bifacial tools, including Large Cutting Tools (LCTs), demonstrate a high diversity of technological and morphological features as early as 700 ka and are contemporary with non-handaxe assemblages. They also show specific features that contrast between northern and southern Europe, such as the use of large flakes for bifacial manufacture, or the presence of cleavers on flakes. Lack of data regarding a local origin and more elaborate bifaces in these sites indicate an early arrival of new traditions in western and southern Europe on a pre-existing hominin presence. The assemblages are compared to those without LCTs such as Happisburgh Site 3 and Pakefield in UK, Isernia La Pineta in Italy, Atapuerca Gran Dolina TD6 and Vallparadis in Spain, Pradayrol and Soleihac in France. Hypotheses on factors behind the variation, such as function, type of site, raw material constraint, and traditions of manufacture, are discussed. The period 800–500 ka is a key episode for examining behavioral changes which occurred in Europe. The discovery of hominin fossils such as the Mauer mandible in Germany led to the definition of Homo heidelbergensis. The emergence of new behaviors such as the ability to produce large flakes and/or large bifacial tools (handaxes, cleavers and others) leads to discussion about new skills, new social organizations, and the arrival or in situ evolution of hominins.
... ence par l'absence de restes de nouveau-né et de dent déciduale perdue naturellement par de jeunes enfants parmi les ossements néandertaliens de Zafarraya (Lumley M.-A. de, 1976 ;. Alors que les occupations de longue durée de la grotte de l'Arago sont affirmées par le nombre important de dents déciduales tombées naturellement du vivant des enfants (Lumley M.-A. de, 2015). On connait par ailleurs le mode de vie au Lazaret dominé par la nécessité de se chauffer dans une grotte pour un groupe humain prédateur qui profite des moments de chasse pour initier les adolescents à la vie d'adulte. ...
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Besides physiological and anatomical distinct characteristics, subsistence strategy differences between Neanderthals and Modern humans are quiet clear. If great geographic span occurred during the long temporal Middle Paleolithic time of big game hunter Neanderthal, meat diet do not show much variation in choice and dissimilar preparation if we refer to evolutionary processes of dental micro wear observed (Romero and Puech, 2018) and fossil zooarchaeological material collected (Stiner, 2013). If we compare with the aboriginal hunter-gatherer man who lived in Australia, the modern human behavior is radically different from the one of Neanderthal.
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L’étude de la production et de l’utilisation de l’outillage sur galet contribue à une meilleure compréhension de la diversité des systèmes techniques du Paléolithique ancien européen. Le site acheuléen mondialement connu de la Caune de l’Arago (Tautavel, France) a livré une importante quantité de pièces classées comme « galets aménagés » en comparaison avec des assemblages similaires de cette période. L’unité archéostratigraphique G (UA G) datée du SIM 12 et communément appelée « sol G » a livré à elle seule, bon nombre des « galets aménagés » de ce site. Ce terme de « galet aménagé » englobe et masque une diversité technique, puisqu’il recouvre autant des matrices fonctionnelles (outils) que des matrices productionnelles (nucléus). En partant de ce constat, l’objectif de cette étude est de mener une analyse technicofonctionnelle de ces objets afin d’illustrer la variabilité technique, morphologique et fonctionnelle de ces pièces. L’analyse de 402 galets aménagés permet de constituer différents technotypes d’outils par niveaux d’occupations (Gs1, Gm2, Gm3 et Gi4) au sein de l’UA G. Dès lors, ces résultats questionnent la place de ces outils sur galet au sein de l’outillage de la Caune de l’Arago, mais aussi des technocomplexes du Paléolithique ancien en Europe de l’Ouest. Enfin, ce phénomène technique permet également de discuter de l’essence et de ce que l’on attribue bien souvent à l’Acheuléen.
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We provide an ontogenetically‐based comparative description of mandibular remains from Last Interglacial deposits (MIS 5e) at Baume Moula‐Guercy and examine their affinities to European and Middle Eastern Middle‐to‐Late Pleistocene (≈MIS 14—MIS 1) Homo. Description of the M‐G2‐419 right partial mandibular corpus with M1‐3 (15–16.0 years ±0.5 years) and mandibular fragments M‐F4‐77 and M‐S‐TNN1 is with reference to original fossils, casts, CT scans, literature descriptions, and virtual reconstructions. Our comparative sample is ontogenetically based and divided into a Preneanderthal—Neanderthal group and a Homo sapiens group. These groups are subdivided into (1) Preneanderthals (≈MIS 14‐9), Early Neanderthals (MIS 7‐5e), and Late Neanderthals (MIS 5d‐3), and (2) Middle (MIS 5) and Upper (MIS 3‐Pre‐MIS 1) Paleolithic and recent H. sapiens. Standard techniques were employed for developmental age and sex determinations and measurements. The M‐G2‐419 mandible possesses corpus features that link it most closely with the Sima de los Huesos Preneanderthal and Early Neanderthal groups. These include mental foramen position, number, and height on the corpus, anterior marginal tubercle position, and mylohyoid line orientation. Metrically, the M‐G2‐419 mandibular corpus is small relative to adults in all groups, but the thickness/height relationship is like the adult condition. The thickness of the corpus is more like Neanderthal children than adolescents. Molar crown features suggest affinities with the Preneanderthal—Neanderthal group. The Moula‐Guercy mandibles possess a combination of Neanderthal‐associated features that provides insights into MIS 7‐5e paleodeme variation and the timing of appearance of MIS 5d‐3 Neanderthal facial features.
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Identification of butchery marks on hominin fossils from the early Pleistocene is rare. Our taphonomic investigation of published hominin fossils from the Turkana region of Kenya revealed likely cut marks on KNM-ER 741, a ~ 1.45 Ma proximal hominin left tibia shaft found in the Okote Member of the Koobi Fora Formation. An impression of the marks was created with dental molding material and scanned with a Nanovea white-light confocal profilometer, and the resulting 3-D models were measured and compared with an actualistic database of 898 individual tooth, butchery, and trample marks created through controlled experiments. This comparison confirms the presence of multiple ancient cut marks that are consistent with those produced experimentally. These are to our knowledge the first (and to date only) cut marks identified on an early Pleistocene postcranial hominin fossil.
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Information regarding the evolution of the neck in genus Homo is hampered owing to a limited fossil record. Neandertals display significant metric and/or morphological differences in all the cervical vertebrae, when compared to Homo sapiens. Thus, the important fossil record from the Middle Pleistocene site of Sima de los Huesos (SH) not only offers important information about the evolution of this anatomical region within the Neandertal lineage, but also provides important clues to understand the evolution of this region at the genus level. We present the current knowledge of the anatomy of the cervical spine of the hominins found in SH compared to that of Neandertals and modern humans, and, when possible, to Homo erectus and Homo antecessor. The current SH fossil record comprises 172 cervical specimens (after refittings) belonging to a minimum of 11 atlases, 13 axes, and 52 subaxial cervical vertebrae. The SH hominins exhibit a morphological pattern in their cervical spine more similar to that of Neandertals than that of H. sapiens, which is consistent with the phylogenetic position of these hominins. However, there are some differences between the SH hominins and Neandertals in this anatomical region, primarily in the length and robusticity, and to a lesser extent in the orientation of the spinous processes of the lowermost cervical vertebrae. We hypothesize that these differences in the lowermost subaxial cervical vertebrae could be related to the increase in the brain size and/or changes in the morphology of the skull that occurred in the Neandertal lineage.
Chapter
Fossils of erectine-grade hominins appear in Africa earlier than in Asia, but the relationship between them is unclear. Morphological changes, including an increase in brain size, are observed in Africa through time, justifying a distinction between the earlier H. ergaster and the later H. heidelbergensis. Nonetheless, considerable variation remains unexplained, and it is uncertain how many lineages coexisted. The recent discovery of H. naledi confirms that at least one small-brained habiline-grade population survived until about 300,000 years ago. Hominins moved between Africa and Europe several times, as indicated by the flow of genes and technology. The first Europeans appear to represent a primitive or transitional form of H. heidelbergensis. The species flourished later and overlapped with or evolved into the Neanderthals. The diversity observed among Middle Pleistocene Europeans may be partly explained by population collapse and repopulation during the Pleistocene glaciation cycles.
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The Caune de l’Arago (Arago) and Sima de los Huesos (Sima) human bones from the European Middle Pleistocene are penecontemporaneous, although the Sima hominins are closely related to Neandertal, and Arago hominins present more archaic features. In previous and in press studies, the cross-sectional geometric properties (CSG) of lower limb bones of Arago and Sima have been studied separately without comparative analyses. Here, in order to bridge this gap, we use the same criteria for both samples to highlight evolutionary affinities and to compare their level and pattern of mobility. This study focuses on the femur, fibula and tibia from Arago and Sima with references to fossils from the sites of Trinil, Zhoukoudian and Lazaret, and ancient and recent Homo sapiens (including athletes and non-athletes). We analyze the cross-sectional areas, biomechanical bone ‘‘shape’’ indices (Ix/Iy, Imax/Imin) and pattern of cortical bone distribution. All lower limb bones from Arago have noticeably high to very high relative cortical areas and low to very low medullary areas. The overall femoral pattern in Arago, like Sima, is similar to that of Middle Pleistocene hominins (e.g., low femoral shape indices, Ix/Iy) and Neandertals (e.g., large cross-sectional size). However, the femoral midshaft in Sima presents prominent posteromedial cortical thickening, as a result of a spiral cortical reinforcement along the medial side of the diaphysis. This characteristic is specific to Neandertal and some Middle Pleistocene hominins. In contrast, the midshaft femoral pattern in Arago is close to that of some Homo erectus. We also note that the femoral cross-sectional size and relative cortical area in Arago differ drastically to the small size and low relative cortical area of Lazaret and Trinil hominins. The very high shape index at midshaft (i.e., high Imax/Imin) of the Arago tibia is observed in ancient H. sapiens and runners; the tibial posterior ‘‘pilaster’’ is found in Neandertals and ancient H. sapiens; and the flat or convex tibial faces are similar to Neandertals. Furthermore, the Arago fibulas show marked fibular posterolateral cortical reinforcement with low anteroposterior strengthening. These leg features (tibia, fibula) are also found in some Sima hominins (but not in all individuals). Consequently, this study confirms the presence of archaic features in Arago and the close evolutionary relationship between Sima and Neandertal. This proposition is mainly based on the femoral midshaft pattern influenced by the pelvofemoral complex, considered to be substantially genetically controlled. The leg functional analysis highlights a high level of mobility and travelling in uneven terrains or in mountainous areas in Arago, consistent with known environments and hunting practices. Previously, an analogous hypothesis was proposed put forward for Sima hominins.
Article
Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 13–11 saw a major transformation in the hominin occupation of Europe, with an expansion in the scale and geographical distribution of sites and artifact assemblages. That expansion is explored here in the context of paleoenvironmental variability, focusing on geographical and chronological trends in climatic and habitat conditions at and between key Lower Paleolithic sites in Western Europe. Climatic conditions at British sites are compared across MIS 13–11, and used to test predicted values from the Oscillayers data set. Conditions at hominin and nonhominin sites are compared to explore possible limitations in hominin tolerances during MIS 13–11. Trends in conditions are explored with reference to long-term global patterns, short-term substage events, and seasonal variations. The apparent increase in the scale of hominin activity in north-western Europe during MIS 13 is surprising in light of the relatively harsh conditions of late MIS 13, and is likely to reflect significant physiological and/or behavioral adaptations, a mild south-north temperature gradient in western Europe during MIS 13, and the relatively mild, sustained conditions spanning MIS 15–13. The expanded occupation of north-western Europe during MIS 11 probably reflects the extended mild conditions of MIS 11c, since marked seasonal temperature differences and substantial behavioral changes between hominin sites in MIS 13 and 11 are not clearly evident. Site-specific conditions in south-western Europe during MIS 11 suggest milder winters, warmer summers, and reduced seasonal variability compared to north-western Europe. Some or all of these conditions may have supported larger, core populations, as may the relatively mild conditions associated with south-western European sites during MIS 12. Finally, comparisons between north-western and north-central European sites indicate relatively small differences in seasonal temperatures, suggesting that climate may only be a partial factor behind the smaller-scale occupations of north-central Europe during MIS 13–11.
Chapter
Itinerary 1 showcases regional tectonic and sedimentary evolution during the Oligocene and Miocene. The successive stops track landscape evolution and base-level changes during the Neogene by examining fault systems, sediment lithostratigraphy and provenance, and erosion surface vestiges crosscutting folds and structures of the North-Pyrenean and Sub-Pyrenean zones. Stops include sites where the planar land surfaces have been dated by various methods, and where their geodynamic and palaeoclimatic context can be reconstructed from a variety of environmental archives. Insights are also gained into the Pleistocene and Holocene evolution of the coastal plains, highlighting the recurrence of catastrophic flooding in the valleys.
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The Middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca, northern Spain) has yielded a considerable number of human fossils during the period 1984–2020. Among them, up to 314 mandibular teeth have been identified. In this second paper dedicated to the dentition we present the description of the eight dental classes of the mandible following the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System (ASUDAS) classification. In addition, we show the mean mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters obtained in these teeth compared to those of Neanderthals and a modern human sample. The morphology of both the anterior and posterior teeth suggests a close relationship of the Sima de los Huesos hominins with the populations of the second half of the Middle Pleistocene of Europe and the Near East, as well as with the so‐called classic Neanderthals of Europe. The combination of dental traits in these populations is characteristic and diagnostic and suggests grouping the Sima de los Huesos hominins with the other paleodemes in a Neanderthal clade. The dental evidence of the Sima de los Huesos hominins is key to propose a complex model for the settlement of Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. In this period, different migrations of human groups probably coming from Southwest Asia, replacements, prolonged isolations, as well as hybridization and introgression processes would have contributed to the diversity of hominins in Europe.
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Technical and socio-economic behaviours of Middle Pleistocene human groups in Western Europe still remain under-studied. In addition to the so-called Acheulean industries that include bifacial tools, other lithic traditions that are focused on flake production are present. This is the case of the ‘L’ stratigraphic layer of the Caune de l’Arago site in Tautavel, France. Here, we present the results of the techno-economic and techno-morpho-functional study conducted on the lithic industry, which was well-defined and well-preserved in the Caune de l’Arago sequence. Dated to approximately 540 ka and correlated with the end of the MIS 14, it contains 4428 lithic artefacts that are associated with numerous remains of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). This occupation has been culturally attributed to the Acheulean. However, the layer L assemblage does not contain bifacial tools and presents a lithic production chaîne opératoire only oriented towards flake production. This study is carried out within a previously refined stratigraphic framework, thereby allowing a relevant return on the lithic material. Despite different raw materials, there are recurrences in the selection of volumes, the production methods, the choice of tool blanks and the desired techno-functional objectives. Additionally, the prehensile components are integrated into the production of tools. Some of the chaînes opératoires are fragmented, and we can see techno-economic dynamics with some tool movements more widely across the landscape. These results lead us to question the activities carried out during this occupation and to highlight the diversity of lithic technical expressions during Lower Palaeolithic.
Article
Résumé En 1863, lorsqu’une mandibule humaine est découverte dans la carrière de Moulin-Quignon (Abbeville, Somme), elle contribue à la démonstration de Jacques Boucher de Perthes (1788–1868) prouvant l’existence d’un homme antédiluvien, artisan des bifaces récoltés à plusieurs mètres de profondeur, juste au-dessus du substrat de craie. Cette découverte est cependant rapidement mise en doute sur le plan archéologique ce qui finira par disqualifier jusqu’au site lui-même et les industries qu’il avait livrées. Le ré-examen récent de ces fossiles mis au jour en 1863 (une mandibule) et en 1864 (28 ossements et dents) conservés aujourd’hui au Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (musée de l’Homme) a permis de confirmer leur attribution à Homo sapiens. À la lueur des connaissances actuelles, cette attribution est incompatible avec la dite provenance stratigraphique de ces restes anthropologiques. L’âge du niveau est maintenant estimé entre 670–650 000 ans alors que des datations directes de ces ossements par le radiocarbone les font remonter à une période historique, entre le XIIIe siècle et le XVIIIe siècle, ce qui confirme leur nature intrusive dans le gisement. Après avoir rappelé ces découvertes et redécouvertes, nous nous demanderons quel est l’Homme qui aurait pu être celui de Moulin-Quignon. Ce sera l’occasion d’un bilan, dans le contexte des bouleversements taxinomiques des années 1950–60, sur l’évolution humaine en Europe occidentale au Pléistocène moyen où les récentes découvertes attestent d’une importante variabilité parmi les Homo heidelbergensis dont certains sont déjà fortement engagés dans la lignée néandertalienne. Cette rétrospective suivra volontairement le cours des recherches en paléo-antropologie tout au long du XXe siècle de façon à faire ressortir, au grè des découvertes, les changements de paradigmes et de pratiques.
Article
Here, we present a metric and morphological study of the molar remains from the Montmaurin-La Niche mandible by means of microcomputed tomography. According to the last analysis, based on the combination of geomorphological and paleontological data, the level bearing this human mandible probably corresponds to the marine isotope stages (MIS) 7. These data place the Montmaurin-La Niche in a chronologically intermediate position between the Neanderthals and the Middle Pleistocene fossils (e.g., Sima de los Huesos, la Caune de l’Arago). A recent study has revealed that while the mandible is more closely related to the Early and Middle Pleistocene African and Eurasian populations, the morphology of the outer enamel surfaces of its molars is typical of the Neanderthal linage. The data presented here are in line with this finding because the morphology of the enamel-dentine junction of the molars is similar to that of Neanderthals, whereas the absolute and relative enamel thickness values (2D and 3D) are closer to those exhibited by some Early Pleistocene hominins. Moreover, the pulp cavity morphology and proportions are in concordance with the Neanderthal populations. Our results strengthen the hypothesis that the settlement of Europe could be the result of several migrations, at different times, originated from a common source population. Thus, the variability in the European Middle Pleistocene populations (e.g., Montmaurin, Sima de los Huesos, Arago, Mala Balanica) could indicate different migrations at different times and/or population fragmentation, without excluding the possible hybridization between residents and new settlers.
Chapter
In this chapter, we summarize the vertebral fossil record for late Homo, including H. antecessor, Middle Pleistocene Homo (except H. naledi), H. neanderthalensis, and fossil H. sapiens. Homo antecessor is represented only by the fossil remains from Gran Dolina-TD6, the Middle Pleistocene vertebral fossil record is sparse both geographically and chronologically, whereas the Late Pleistocene fossil record is more abundant. Based on the current evidence, at least two distinct morphologies arose from the more primitive H. erectus spine morphology: that of the Neandertal lineage and that of H. sapiens. Neandertals and their Middle Pleistocene ancestors show differences in all the anatomical regions, which are related to a spine with less accentuated curvatures, when compared to modern humans. The Sima de los Huesos (SH) paleodeme does not display the full suite of derived Neandertal features, a pattern also present in the cranium and the rest of the postcranium, which implies that the distinct Neandertal morphology did not arise all at once, but rather in a mosaic fashion. When compared to modern humans, the Neandertal spinal morphology seems to be more stable in both sagittal and coronal planes. The evolution of the modern human spine is less well known than that of Neandertals due to the reduced Middle Pleistocene fossil record ancestral to H. sapiens and the poor preservation of the pre-MIS 3 (Marine Isotope Stage 3, beginning 57 thousand years ago) H. sapiens remains.
Thesis
Les accumulations de petits vertébrés sur les sites archéologiques résultent d’une coprocénose ainsi que de phénomènes post-dépositionnels. La compréhension de l’ensemble des processus est nécessaire pour obtenir une interprétation viable de cette paléocommunauté. L’analyse taphonomique multi-taxons, en se basant sur les micromammifères, les lagomorphes et les oiseaux, permet d’obtenir une caractérisation fine du prédateur. Des référentiels taphonomiques ont été créés. Il s’agit d’une expérimentation sur l’impact du piétinement, d’un référentiel sur les modifications post-dépositionnelles en système karstique et d’un référentiel d’une accumulation de grand-duc. Ces référentiels ont permis une meilleure approche de certaines variables utilisées pour la caractérisation du prédateur, tels que l’isolement des dents, les traces d’altération superficielle et la représentation squelettique. Pour le site de Roc-en-Pail, la méthode multi-taxon a mis en évidence une surreprésentation de trois espèces. Les données paléoécologiques indiquent la présence d’un climat froid avec un paysage ouvert et avec des zones humides. Quant à la Caune de l’Arago, les analyses taphonomiques sur les UA P et R mettent en avant le rôle du grand-duc dans l’accumulation, ce qui induit un biais minime de représentativité. L’apport anthropique de petit gibier a été mis en évidence dans les UA G4, J et Q. D’un point de vue paléoécologique, ce site présente une succession de phases froides et de phases plus clémentes. L’interprétation de ces variations climatiques et leur corrélation aux SIM 12, 13 et 14 est complexe, deux hypothèses pour interpréter l’histoire du remplissage sont discutées.
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Significance The patterns and incidences of developmental abnormalities and anomalies through Pleistocene human evolution may provide insights into issues of survival, stress, consanguinity, and mortuary behavior among these foraging populations. A synthesis of these developmental variants through the Homo fossil record provides 75 cases from 66 individuals, an exceptional total given the small paleontological samples. These are primarily from the past 200,000 years, given better preservation through burial, but are known from up to 1.5 million years ago. One-third of them have moderately low probabilities ( P < 0.05), yet 14% are very rare ( P < 0.0001), and 19% have no known etiology. No single factor accounts for the extremely low cumulative probability of finding these abnormalities, but this raises questions concerning the natures of Pleistocene human populations.
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The discovery of a partial cranium at the site of Aroeira (Portugal) dating to 389-436 ka augments the current sample of Middle Pleistocene European crania and makes this specimen penecontemporaneous with the fossils from the geographically close Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos (SH) and Arago sites. A recent study of the cranium documented a unique combination of primitive and derived features. The Aroeira 3 cranium preserves the right temporal bone, including the petrosal portion. Virtual reconstruction of the bony labyrinth from μCT scans provides an opportunity to examine its morphology. A series of standard linear and angular measures of the semicircular canals and cochlea in Aroeira 3 were compared with other fossil hominins and recent humans. Our analysis has revealed the absence of derived Neandertal features in Aroeira 3. In particular, the specimen lacks both the derived canal proportions and the low position of the posterior canal, two of the most diagnostic features of the Neandertal bony labyrinth, and Aroeira 3 is more primitive in these features than the Atapuerca (SH) sample. One potentially derived feature (low shape index of the cochlear basal turn) is shared between Aroeira 3 and the Atapuerca (SH) hominins, but is absent in Neandertals. The results of our study provide new insights into Middle Pleistocene population dynamics close to the origin of the Neandertal clade. In particular, the contrasting inner ear morphology between Aroeira 3 and the Atapuerca (SH) hominins suggests a degree of demographic isolation, despite the close geographic proximity and similar age of these two sites.
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Objectives The aim of this work is to describe the taphonomic signatures of the Aroeira 3 cranium, with a specific focus on cranial breakage, comparing the cranium with other Middle and Upper Pleistocene hominin fossils in order to approximate the cause of death and the biological agencies and geologic processes involved in the taphonomic record of this specimen. Aroeira‐3 was recovered from Acheulean layer X of Gruta da Aroeira (Portugal), dated to 390–436 ka. Materials and methods Taphonomic analyses noted surface modifications employing standard methods. The cranial breakage pattern of Aroeira 3 was analyzed to assess the presence/absence of perimortem (fresh bone) and postmortem (dry bone) fractures and the possible causes of perimortem skull bone fractures. Results Aroeira 3 presents substantial bone loss of the left supraorbital arch and the outer cranial table of the frontal squama. Most of the fractures present features consistent with postmortem injuries. The fracture to the posterior region of the parietal bone, however, displays features more usually present in perimortem bone fractures. No evidence of anthropogenic activity or of carnivore modification has been identified. None of the expected features of interpersonal conflict are observed. Finally, the bone loss in the frontal squama and the supraorbital arch could be attributed to different agencies, and a traumatic event cannot be totally ruled out as origin of the bone alteration. Discussion Cannibalism, secondary treatment of the corpse and accumulation induced by carnivores can all be discarded, making an accident the most plausible explanation for the cranial fracture.
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Cette étude, portant sur 18 dents du Lazaret datées de 160 ka (SIM 6), avait pour objectif de préciser la position taxonomique de cette population. L’analyse des traits non-métriques et de l’épaisseur de l’émail des dents du Lazaret au moyen de l’imagerie à haute résolution a mis en évidence une majorité de caractéristiques primitives sur les Ldm1, Ldm2, Udm2 et LC. Les dents du Lazaret combinent quelques caractères qui leur sont uniques sur les Ldm1 et les LP3 avec des traits dérivés de type néandertalien sur les Ldm1, les Ldm2, les LC et les LP3. Toutefois, l’ensemble des traits dérivés de type néandertalien n’est pas présent sur les Ldm2, les Udm2 et les LC du Lazaret. Par conséquent, les dents du Lazaret ne peuvent pas être assignées aux Néandertaliens, mais s’intègrent dans la lignée néandertalienne.
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Seventeen Middle Pleistocene crania from the Sima de los Huesos site (Atapuerca, Spain) are analyzed, including seven new specimens. This sample makes it possible to thoroughly characterize a Middle Pleistocene hominin paleodeme and to address hypotheses about the origin and evolution of the Neandertals. Using a variety of techniques, the hominin-bearing layer could be reassigned to a period around 430,000 years ago. The sample shows a consistent morphological pattern with derived Neandertal features present in the face and anterior vault, many of which are related to the masticatory apparatus. This suggests that facial modification was the first step in the evolution of the Neandertal lineage, pointing to a mosaic pattern of evolution, with different anatomical and functional modules evolving at different rates.
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The thick Quaternary deposits of the Caune de l’Arago (Pyrénées-Orientales, France) are dated to between 690 000 and 90 000 years old. At least fifteen different archeostratigraphical units have been identified within these deposits, each corresponding to distinct prehistoric occupations. Numerous stone tools made from several different rock types, have been discovered in each unit. The tools present specific characteristics concerning the choice of raw materials, the typology, and the technology used to produce them. Morpho-technological study of the different components of the assemblage contributes to a better understanding of the debitage methods used for their production. Each raw material is considered individually in order to ascertain its origin in the environment, its typological role and the technology applied during its exploitation. Defining production systems leads to the characterisation of the assemblages from each unit. When compared, they reveal common elements, as well as differences, suggesting evolutionary trends. Some observations are also made concerning the extent to which changing uses of the site may have influenced the general morphology of each assemblage, therefore taking into account exterior factors. Analysis of this rich stone tool assemblage helps to situate the Caune de l’Arago industry within the larger evolutionary context of the Lower Paleolithic in Mediterranean Europe.
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The species Homo heidelbergensis is central to many discussions about recent human evolution. For some workers, it was the last common ancestor for the subsequent species Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis; others regard it as only a European form, giving rise to the Neanderthals. Following the impact of recent genomic studies indicating hybridization between modern humans and both Neanderthals and "Denisovans", the status of these as separate taxa is now under discussion. Accordingly, clarifying the status of Homo heidelbergensis is fundamental to the debate about modern human origins.
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The discovery of new fossils in Africa, Asia, and Europe, and the recognition of a greater diversity in the middle Pleistocene fossil record, has led to a reconsideration of the species Homo heidelbergensis. This nomen, formulated by Schoetensack in 1908 to describe the Mauer jaw (Germany), was almost forgotten during most of the past century. Numerous fossils have been attributed to it but no consensus has arisen concerning their classification. The holotype anatomical traits are still poorly understood, and numerous fossils with no mandibular remains have been placed in the taxon. Some researchers propose H. heidelbergensis as an Afro-European taxon that is ancestral to both modern humans and Neandertals whereas others think it is a strictly European species that is part of the Neandertal lineage. We focus on the validity of H. heidelbergensis, using the traditional basis of species recognition: anatomical description. We provide a comparative morphological analysis using 47 anatomical traits of 36 Pleistocene fossils from Africa, Asia, and Europe and 35 extant human mandibles. We re-examine the mandibular features of Mauer and discuss the specimen's inclusion in H. heidelbergensis, as well as alternative evolutionary theories. To lend objectivity to specimen grouping, we use multiple correspondence analysis associated with hierarchical classification that creates clusters corresponding to phenetic similarities between jaws. Our phenetic and comparative morphological analyses support the validity of H. heidelbergensis as a taxon. A set of morphological features can be statistically identified for the definition of the species. Some traits can be used to delimit H. heidelbergensis in an evolutionary framework (e.g., foramina mentale posteriorly positioned, horizontal retromolar surface). Those traits are also present on African (e.g., Tighenif) and European (e.g., Sima de los Huesos) specimens that show a close relationship with the Mauer mandible. Therefore, the definition of H. heidelbergensis is more precise and mainly supports the theory of an Afro-European taxon, which is the last common ancestor of H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens. However, the results of this study fail to entirely discount the hypothesis that considers H. heidelbergensis as a chronospecies leading to the Neandertals.
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A description of Arago endocast, with an analysis of vascular and encephalic impressions was conducted, as well as a comparison with some european fossil hominids. The results allow us to position Arago 21 et 47 at the base of the Neandertal hominid group with some others fossils like Swanscombe.
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The Caune de l'Arago, located at Tautavel in the southern part of France, is one of the best documented Middle Pleistocene sites allowing a good understanding of human evolution in Europe. Since its discovery in 1829, the cave yielded more than 140 human remains associated with abundant lithic industries and thousands of faunal remains in a 10 m thick stratigraphical sequence divided in three complexes (Lumley et al., 2014). The Lower stratigraphic complex is only known from cores while the Middle and Upper ones can be divided into about 17 main archaeological levels indexed from the bottom to the top: from level Q to level A. Since 1981, a number of dates were done using practically all the methods available for dating Quaternary period up to 700 ka. U-series dates performed on the upper stalagmitic floor yielded a minimum age of 400 ka for human remains found in the underneath level G (Falguères et al., 2004). This age range confirmed the direct non-destructive gamma-ray age published more than 30 years before (Yokoyama and Nguyen, 1981). Recently, a methodological work was published on herbivorous teeth coming from different parts of the G level highlighting the difficulties to get reliable radiometric dates on a level so rich in bones and partly weathered by guano deposits or issues associated with carbonate accumulation (Han et al., 2010).
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Discovered in 1971 by Henry and Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, Arago 21 is the oldest complete human face from Europe. Three-dimensional virtual imaging methods were used to isolate the fossil fragments before articulating them according to their anatomical constraints. This new reconstruction of Arago 21, the first virtual one, was then compared by Procrustes superimposition to Pleistocene European, Asian and African fossils. These results, limited to the frontal bone, highlight the proximity between Arago 21 and fossils like Sima de los Huesos 5. However, anatomical and metric differences remain.
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The increasing availability of 3D data and tools offers new analytical perspectives in palaeoanthropology, such as the quantitative testing of opposing phylogenetic scenarios. Using optical surface scan data and geometric morphometric techniques, this study explores calvarial shape variation in the “Middle Pleistocene muddle”. The morphological variability between H. erectus on the one hand and H. sapiens/neanderthalensis on the other has long remained obscure: opposing views have attributed the known specimens to any of the three species and possibly one or two more. A large number of landmarks and semilandmarks was extracted from the braincase and the face, in order to quantify the calvarial shape differences among species and key fossils. The results are incompatible with the hypothesis that H. rhodesiensis is the exclusive ancestor of H. sapiens, and offer only weak support for an exclusively European ancestor of Neandertals.
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Four human remains: one mandible, two skulls and one metatarsus were discovered between 1991 and 1999 at the open-air site of Dmanisi, Georgia, in a precise stratigraphic, palaeontological and archaeological context, in volcanic ashes dated to 1.81 ± 0.05 Ma. The first studies of these fossils enable the authors to compare them with the morphology of archaic African Homo erectus, ascribed to Homo ergaster, and to ascertain hominid presence at the gates of Europe 300 000 years earlier than the classical scenario forecasted. In September 2000, the discovery of a second more complete and robust mandible D 2600 presents a threefold interest: palaeontological, functional and pathological. A comparison with Homo habilis and Homo erectus leads to the recognition of a new Homo species: H. georgicus sp. nov. The morphofunctional characteristics and the antiquity of H. georgicus characterise the root of a long Eurasian line.
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The fossiliferous levels of Caune de l'Arago supply a useful tool to investigate the relationships between faunal renewals and climate changes in a restricted area during the Middle Pleistocene. On the other hand the Italian fossil assemblages of the middle Galerian testified changes of palaeoenvironmental conditions. A biochronologic and palaeoecologic comparison among large mammalian faunas of these quite different Mediterranean regions have been performed in the aim to value possible vicariance of taxa and differences of faunal renewal dynamic during the Middle Pleistocene. After the results of our analysis we can correlate the faunal assemblages from the “Complexe moyen, ensemble stratigraphique I”, “Complexe moyen, ensembles stratigraphiques II and III”, “Complexe supérieur, sols A and B” of Caune de L'Arago sedimentary succession with the Italian Isernia (middle Galerian), Fontana Ranuccio (late Galerian) and Torre in Pietra (early Aurelian) faunal units (FUs) respectively. The French faunal assemblages were characterised by the absence of browsers and, conversely, by the presence of boreal taxa, mainly grazers, that were rare or never occurred in Italy. Accordingly, at no one Italian faunal complex, as expected, we can find any indication of continental cold climatic condition as showed by the faunal complexes of the Caune de l'Arago. Nevertheless, the major climate changes characterising the Middle Pleistocene can be detected in both regions. During the span time of Isernia FU, the temperature was at its lowest and arid conditions prevailed, whereas during the following Fontana Ranuccio FU humidity and temperature increased, as is more evident in central Italy local faunas. Moreover, after the similarity analysis, the Visogliano local fauna (North-Eastern Italy) was more related to the French than to the Italian ones. During the late Middle Pleistocene (Torre in Pietra FU) a moderate faunal reconstruction can be detected in both regions. The renewal was linked to climatic modifications taking place in the Mediterranean area approximately around OIS 11/OIS 10 transition, when interstadials became progressively milder and average humidity increased.
Article
Several human occupations have been identified within the deposits of the Caune de l’Arago Cave site, dated from 700 000 years to 100 000 years old. The exceptional wealth of these archeological levels provides an opportunity for the study of different types of habitat and behavioral patterns of Paleolithic hunters between 600 000 and 400 000 years ago. Results from preliminary studies, carried out over the last 30 years on these archeological levels, allow for the proposition of a typology for cave habitats during the Middle Pleistocene in the south of France. In fact, four types of habitat were identified and defined. They have been described according to different characteristics such as, the thickness of the archeological accumulation, the animal species represented, the season during which the animals were hunted, the state of conservation of the fossils discovered, the morpho-technological and typological characteristics of the lithics, the categories of raw materials used and the territory exploited by the hominids inhabiting the cave, as defined by the raw materials represented. The four habitation types defined are: the long duration habitat, where the cave was used as a home base; the temporary seasonal habitat, in which case the cave served as a secondary campsite; the hunting stopover and the bivouac, during which the cave was used as a refuge for short term stays. Behavioral patterns appear to be directly related to the type of habitat and oriented towards a principal activity: hunting. The activities performed by the inhabitants of the cave seem to be more diversified during prolonged or seasonal occupations, whereas they appear to be reduced or very specialised during brief stays. Generally, The characteristics studied show that the Caune de l’Arago Cave site had multiple uses over time for Anteneandertalian family groups and hunters who left traces of their activities, allowing us to better understand their lifestyle.
Article
Further study of the prepared hominid cranium has provided new data. Morphological and metrical comparisons still relate the Petralona specimen to Middle Pleistocene hominids, rather than to those of the Lower or Upper Pleistocene. The fossil, like specimens such as Arago 21 and Broken Hill, may represent a form not far removed from the common ancestor of Neanderthals and “modern” humans, which explain difficulties in the classification of these hominids. Evidence for a Lower Pleistocene [>730,000 years (730 ky)] or late Middle Pleistocene (c.200 ky) age for the hominid is discussed, but an age of somewhat more than 350ky, but certainly less than 730 ky, is favoured by the author.
Article
Dmanissi Man (Homo georgicus), 1 810 000 years ago. Excavations carried out since 1991 at the open-air site of Dmanissi, Georgia, have yielded four craniums, three mandibles, about 15 postcranial remains and a dozen isolated teeth. These remains correspond to at least four individuals, two adults and two adolescents. They were excavated from a precise stratigraphic, palaeontological and archaeological context above a basalt flow dated by K/Ar between 1.8 and 1.9 ± 0.01 Ma in a volcanic ash layer dated by 40Ar/39Ar to 1.80 ± 0.05 Ma. The interest of these discoveries is fourfold: – (1) the dates obtained by diverse radiochronometric methods and by palaeomagnetism demonstrate, for the first time, that Man was present at the gates of Europe, in Transcaucasia at a much earlier period than that established by the classical scenario; – (2) faunal and pollens analyses have revealed that the environment was close to a savannah type, but much richer in water resources than the African environment. It was a temperate climate, with a mosaic of different landscapes due to the geomorphological diversity of the region, made up of valleys, lakes and the nearby mountains of the Great and Small Caucasus; – (3) the settlement of this human group could have been a direct consequence of a more humid environment, which followed a generalised aridification of the East of Georgia at the end of the Pliocene and which attracted fauna from both the East of the Eurasian continent and the North of the African continent; – (4) the morphofunctional aspects of these humans are close to those of Homo habilis and to those of the most archaic Homo erectus, which were the only species known in Africa up until now. Ascribed to a new species, Homo georgicus, small in size measuring 1.5 m with a cranial capacity of 600 to 700 cm3 (half of modern man's capacity), they represent the ancestors of a long European or Eurasian lineage. Two new concepts can be retained: – the exodus from Africa took place earlier than previously thought, dating back to at least 1.8 Myr ago. It was carried out by Homo georgicus, a group close to Homo habilis; – it is no longer valid to base explanations of Man's migratory capacity in terms of cranial development. Homo georgicus, with a small brain volume, already had the faculty to adapt to a more favourable environment for his survival. To cite this article: M.-A. de Lumley, D. Lordkipanidze, C. R. Palevol 5 (2006).
Article
The cranium found at Bodo in 1976 is derived from Middle Pleistocene deposits containing faunal remains and Acheulean artefacts. A parietal recovered later must belong to a second individual, probably representing the same taxon. The cranium includes the face, much of the frontal bone, parts of the midvault and the base anterior to the foramen magnum. It is clear that the Bodo hominids resembleHomo erectusin a number of characters. The facial skeleton is large, especially in its breadth dimensions. The braincase is low and decidedly archaic in overall appearance. Individual bones are quite thick. Behind the projecting supraorbital torus, the frontal profile is flattened. The midline keel and bregmatic eminence are characteristic ofH. erectus. Frontal narrowing is less pronounced than in crania from Olduvai and Koobi Fora but slightly greater than in some Sangiran specimens. The parietal displays a prominent angular torus. Whether the inferior part of the tympanic plate was substantially thickened cannot be checked, but in the placement of its petrous bone and the resulting crevice-like configuration of the foramen lacerum, the Bodo hominid resemblesH. erectus. Other traits seem more clearly to be synapomorphies uniting Bodo with later Middle Pleistocene populations and recent humans. Cranial capacity is substantially greater than expected forH. erectus. Among traits related to this size increase may be counted the broader midvault with signs of parietal bossing, a high contour of the temporal squama and perhaps some details of cranial base anatomy. Derived features of the frontal bone and face likely include division of the brow at mid-orbit and its attenuation laterally. The “crista nasalis” falls vertically from rhinion so as to give the nasal aperture an erect appearance, characteristic of modern humans. Another synapomorphy is the positioning of the incisive canal relative to the hard palate. Sorting the Middle Awash specimens is difficult. The cranium is incomplete, and individuals are always variable in their anatomy. Nevertheless, it seems most reasonable to group Bodo with Broken Hill and similar Middle Pleistocene specimens from Africa and Europe. This entire assemblage can be referred toHomo heidelbergensis. It is clear thatH. heidelbergensisoverlaps in time with late populations ofH. erectus. The Middle Awash hominids may be approximately contemporary with the people at Ternifine (Tighenif) and upper Bed IV at Olduvai Gorge. The Bodo deposits probably antedate even the first signs of occupation at Zhoukoudian and are far older than sites such as Longtandong (Hexian) in China. The evidence is consistent with an episode of speciation occurring in Africa or western Eurasia and subsequent dispersal ofH. heidelbergensis. This event occurred while more archaic people still inhabited much of the Far East.
Article
Whatever their exact nature (rarely if ever specified), current generalcriteria for distinguishing species in the human fossil record are deficient Moreover, in discussing species distinctions, inter- and intra-species variability are often confused. The decoupling of morphological from taxic change in the evolutionary process means that there can be no absolute criteria for recognizing species on morphological grounds; however, ranges of morphological variation in closely related species in the living fauna normally overlap substantially or completely in most characters; some closely related species cannot be distinguished on the basis of hard parts. Hence there is a tendency to underestimate the number of species in the fossil record, where only clear osteological or dental distinguishing featurcs can be used to discriminate between species. It is thus important to ensure that, where distinct morphs do exist in the fossil record, they are not relegated to the epiphenomenological status of subspecies unless there is compelling reason for doing so. It is not clear why all the various morphs distinguishable in the Middle-to-Late Pleistocene are generally subsumed within the single species Homo sapiens. Several distinct hominid species are represented in the fossil record of this time period.
Article
Seventeen newly discovered fossil hominid mandibular specimens from the Sima de los Hucsos site in Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain) are presented in this paper. All come from the same stratigraphic level. Analysis of variability within the sample identifies three categories of traits: invariant traits, size-related traits and size-independent traits. Its strong morphological uniformity suggests that the sample most likely derives from a single biological population. Variation in mandibular morphology is primarily related to size and the associated change in shape. Features previously considered to be of phylogenetic importance are found to be variable in the Atapuerca sample.
Article
The systematic excavation of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) site in Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) has yielded the largest hominin collection worldwide for the Middle Pleistocene. The dental sample now consists of more than 500 teeth that provide exceptional opportunities to define the dental morphological pattern of a Middle Pleistocene population as well as develop hypotheses about the origins of the Neanderthals. The dental collection has now increased to over 533 specimens (525 permanent and 8 deciduous teeth), necessitating new morphological assessments. Thus, we present a detailed morphological description of the SH permanent dentition recovered up to 2007, accomplishing comparisons with European Middle Pleistocene hominins, Neanderthals, and early and contemporary Homo sapiens. We find that SH dentitions present all the morphological traits that, either in their degree of expression, frequency, or particular combination, are usually considered as typical of Homo neanderthalensis. This study ratifies the deep roots of the Neanderthal lineage in the Middle Pleistocene of Europe. In addition, SH teeth are morphologically "more Neanderthal" than other penecontemporaneous Middle Pleistocene samples such as Mauer or Arago, and even more derived than some classic Neanderthal samples. Thus, our study would not sustain the linearity of the accretion process hypothesized for the origins of the Neanderthals, and we suggest that other evolutionary models and scenarios should be explored for the Middle and Upper Pleistocene of Europe. We propose that more than one hominin lineage may have coexisted during the Middle Pleistocene in Europe.
Article
The classification and phylogenetic relationships of the middle Pleistocene human fossil record remains one of the most intractable problems in paleoanthropology. Several authors have noted broad resemblances between European and African fossils from this period, suggesting a single taxon ancestral to both modern humans and Neanderthals. Others point out 'incipient' Neanderthal features in the morphology of the European sample and have argued for their inclusion in the Neanderthal lineage exclusively, following a model of accretionary evolution of Neanderthals. We approach these questions using geometric morphometric methods which allow the intuitive visualization and quantification of features previously described qualitatively. We apply these techniques to evaluate proposed cranio-facial 'incipient' facial, vault, and basicranial traits in a middle-late Pleistocene European hominin sample when compared to a sample of the same time depth from Africa. Some of the features examined followed the predictions of the accretion model and relate the middle Pleistocene European material to the later Neanderthals. However, although our analysis showed a clear separation between Neanderthals and early/recent modern humans and morphological proximity between European specimens from OIS 7 to 3, it also shows that the European hominins from the first half of the middle Pleistocene still shared most of their cranio-facial architecture with their African contemporaries.
Article
Western Eurasia yielded a rich Middle (MP) and Late Pleistocene (LP) fossil record documenting the evolution of the Neandertals that can be analyzed in light of recently acquired paleogenetical data, an abundance of archeological evidence, and a well-known environmental context. Their origin likely relates to an episode of recolonization of Western Eurasia by hominins of African origin carrying the Acheulean technology into Europe around 600 ka. An enhancement of both glacial and interglacial phases may have played a crucial role in this event, as well as in the subsequent evolutionary history of the Western Eurasian populations. In addition to climatic adaptations and an increase in encephalization, genetic drift seems to have played a major role in their evolution. To date, a clear speciation event is not documented, and the most likely scenario for the fixation of Neandertal characteristics seems to be an accretion of features along the second half of the MP. Although a separation time for the African and Eurasian populations is difficult to determine, it certainly predates OIS 11 as phenotypic Neandertal features are documented as far back as and possibly before this time. It is proposed to use the term "Homo rhodesiensis" to designate the large-brained hominins ancestral to H. sapiens in Africa and at the root of the Neandertals in Europe, and to use the term "Homo neanderthalensis" to designate all of the specimens carrying derived metrical or non-metrical features used in the definition of the LP Neandertals.