Article

Pesticide authorization in the EU-environment unprotected?

Authors:
  • Rheinland-Pfälzische Technische Universität Kaiserslautern-Landau (RPTU)
  • RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau - Landau Campus
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Abstract

Pesticides constitute an integral part of high-intensity European agriculture. Prior to their authorization, a highly elaborated environmental risk assessment is mandatory according to EU pesticide legislation, i.e., Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009. However, no field data-based evaluation of the risk assessment outcome, i.e., the regulatory acceptable concentrations (RACs), and therefore of the overall protectiveness of EU pesticide regulations exists. We conducted here a comprehensive meta-analysis using peer-reviewed literature on agricultural insecticide concentrations in EU surface waters and evaluated associated risks using the RACs derived from official European pesticide registration documents. As a result, 44.7 % of the 1566 cases of measured insecticide concentrations (MICs) in EU surface waters exceeded their respective RACs. It follows that current EU pesticide regulations do not protect the aquatic environment and that insecticides threaten aquatic biodiversity. RAC exceedances were significantly higher for insecticides authorized using conservative tier-I RACs and for more recently developed insecticide classes, i.e., pyrethroids. In addition, we identified higher risks, e.g., for smaller surface waters that are specifically considered in the regulatory risk assessment schemes. We illustrate the shortcomings of the EU regulatory risk assessment using two case studies that contextualize the respective risk assessment outcomes to field exposure. Overall, our meta-analysis challenges the field relevance and protectiveness of the regulatory environmental risk assessment conducted for pesticide authorization in the EU and indicates that critical revisions of related pesticide regulations and effective mitigation measures are urgently needed to substantially reduce the environmental risks arising from agricultural insecticide use.

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... pesticides frequently exceed regulatory acceptable concentrations (RACs) (Stehle and Schulz, 2015b;Szöcs et al., 2017) and even pose a greater threat to European surface water ecology than any other pollutant class (Malaj et al., 2014;Wolfram et al., 2021). Pesticides have been shown to impair surface water fauna and flora within Europe (Beketov et al., 2013;Larras et al., 2017;Liess et al., 2021a;Liess and Ohe, 2005;Schäfer et al., 2011), but also worldwide, for example in Africa (Ganatra et al., 2021), Australia (Burgert et al., 2011;Wood et al., 2019) and North and South America (Chiu et al., 2016;Hunt et al., 2017). ...
... Small stream ecosystems are considered biodiversity hotspots, offering diversified habitats for numerous animal, plant, algae and fungi species, and act as recolonization sources for impaired downstream reaches (Liess and Ohe, 2005;Orlinskiy et al., 2015). Such streams have also been shown to be particularly susceptible to agricultural diffuse pesticide pollution, often being located in direct proximity to agricultural fields while lacking the capacity of larger waters to dilute pesticide inputs (Schulz, 2004;Stehle and Schulz, 2015b;Szöcs et al., 2017). These inputs are mostly due to rainfallinduced surface runoff transporting pesticide residues from fields into adjacent streams, resulting in short-term concentration peaks (Liess et al., 1999). ...
... Wolfram et al. (2021) estimated a median catchment area of 238 km 2 of European surface waters monitored under the WFD, while the median catchment area of the natural river network is less than 20 km 2 . Small streams are thus underrepresented in the WFD monitoring site selection while being particularly susceptible to pesticide pollution (Lorenz et al., 2017;Schulz, 2004;Stehle and Schulz, 2015b;Szöcs et al., 2017). This especially concerns small waters with catchments of <10 km 2 , which are completely omitted from regular WFD monitoring and are not required to achieve good status despite making up approximately two thirds of the entire river network (BfN, 2021). ...
Article
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The Water Framework Directive (WFD) demands that good status is to be achieved for all European water bodies. While governmental monitoring under the WFD mostly concludes a good status with regard to pesticide pollution, numerous scientific studies have demonstrated widespread negative ecological impacts of pesticide exposure in surface waters. To identify reasons for this discrepancy, we analysed pesticide concentrations measured in a monitoring campaign of 91 agricultural streams in 2018 and 2019 using methodologies that exceed the requirements of the WFD. This included a sampling strategy that takes into account the periodic occurrence of pesticides and a different analyte spectrum designed to reflect current pesticide use. We found that regulatory acceptable concentrations (RACs) were exceeded for 39 different pesticides at 81% of monitoring sites. In comparison, WFD-compliant monitoring of the same sites would have detected only eleven pesticides as exceeding the WFD-based environmental quality standards (EQS) at 35% of monitoring sites. We suggest three reasons for this underestimation of pesticide risk under the WFD-compliant monitoring: (1) The sampling approach - the timing and site selection are unable to adequately capture the periodic occurrence of pesticides and investigate surface waters particularly susceptible to pesticide risks; (2) the measuring method - a too narrow analyte spectrum (6% of pesticides currently approved in Germany) and insufficient analytical capacities result in risk drivers being overlooked; (3) the assessment method for measured concentrations - the protectivity and availability of regulatory thresholds are not sufficient to ensure a good ecological status. We therefore propose practical and legal refinements to improve the WFD's monitoring and assessment strategy in order to gain a more realistic picture of pesticide surface water pollution. This will enable more rapid identification of risk drivers and suitable risk management measures to ultimately improve the status of European surface waters.
... Increased use of pesticides in agriculture poses a major threat to the environment. Excessive use of pesticides in agriculture to increase crop yield is becoming a global phenomenon affecting surface waters worldwide (Stehle et al. 2011, Stehle andSchulz 2015). Among the widely used pesticides, insecticides showed the highest risk for aquatic ecosystems globally. ...
... Higher pesticide concentration in the surface water has resulted in a reduction in the regional aquatic biodiversity e.g. macroinvertebrate family was reduced by around 30% (Stehle and Schulz 2015). The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants has banned OCPs globally due to their high risk to human health and the environment. ...
... By contrast, a pesticide monitoring in Switzerland during the years 2005 to 2012 found RAC exceedances mainly for herbicides and fungicides in surface waters, while only one insecticide was above the RAC (Knauer, 2016). Moreover, RAC exceedances occur more often in small creeks flowing through intensively used arable land compared to rivers (Stehle & Schulz, 2015b). Additionally, Halbach et al. (2021) showed that RAC exceedances not only occur during rain events, but also during dry weather periods. ...
... Therefore, the protectiveness of the RAC value must be discussed, because it is defined for a single active compound only (EFSA Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues (PPR), 2013). Combined additive or even synergetic effects of pesticide mixtures are not included but should be taken into account (Denton et al., 2003;Belden & Lydy, 2006;Stehle & Schulz, 2015b). ...
Article
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Background Due to their high biodiversity, small water bodies play an important role for freshwater ecosystems. Nonetheless, systematic pesticide monitoring in small creeks with a catchment <30 km ² is rarely conducted. Methods In this study, event-driven water samples were taken from May until November 2017 and March until July 2018 after 20 rain events at three sampling sites with catchment areas of <27 km ² in the Wetterau, a region with intensive agriculture in Southern Hesse, Germany. Additionally, enriched extracts of the native water samples from the campaign in 2018 were used for the Microtox assay to determine baseline toxicity to invertebrates over time and sum of toxic units (STU) were calculated to compare the potential toxicity of the samples. Results Overall, 37 pesticides and 17 transformation products were found, whereby the herbicide metamitron (79 µg/L) showed the highest concentration. Regularly, pesticide concentrations peaked at the time of the highest water level within each sampling event. Within each sampling event maximum pesticide concentration was mostly reached in water samples taken during the first two hours. The sum of the time-weighted mean concentration values of all pesticides was between 2.0 µg/L and 7.2 µg/L, whereby the measured concentrations exceeded their regulatory acceptable concentration (RAC) at 55% of all sampling events for at least one pesticide. The mean EC 50 values varied between 28.6 ± 13.1 to 41.3 ± 12.1 REF (relative enrichment factor). The results indicated that several samples caused baseline toxicity, whereby the highest activity was measured at the time of highest water levels and pesticides concentrations, and then steadily decreased in parallel with the water level. Median STUs of invertebrates ranged from −2.10 to −3.91, of algae/aquatic plants from −0.79 to −1.84 and of fish from −2.47 to −4.24. For one of the three sampling sites, a significant linear correlation between baseline toxicity and STU invertebrate was found ( r ² = 0.48). Conclusion The results of the present study suggest that (1) current pesticide monitoring programs underestimate risks posed by the exposure to pesticides for aquatic organisms and (2) pre-authorization regulatory risk assessment schemes are insufficient to protect aquatic environments.
... Solomon et al., 2008). In brief, ERA starts at Tier 1 and can highlighting the need to adapt the ecotoxicological assessment of PPP within the regulation procedure to improve the protection of biodiversity (Schäfer et al., 2019;Stehle & Schulz, 2015). Previous statements already asked for (i) adopting more holistic and realistic approaches in PPP risk assessment (Möhring et al., 2020;Schäfer et al., 2019), (ii) considering the landscape scale (Streissl et al., 2018) and (iii) integrating mixture effects (Stehle & Schulz, 2015) in order to better predict the effects of PPP on the environment. ...
... In brief, ERA starts at Tier 1 and can highlighting the need to adapt the ecotoxicological assessment of PPP within the regulation procedure to improve the protection of biodiversity (Schäfer et al., 2019;Stehle & Schulz, 2015). Previous statements already asked for (i) adopting more holistic and realistic approaches in PPP risk assessment (Möhring et al., 2020;Schäfer et al., 2019), (ii) considering the landscape scale (Streissl et al., 2018) and (iii) integrating mixture effects (Stehle & Schulz, 2015) in order to better predict the effects of PPP on the environment. According to EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), modelling approaches can help to refine risk assessment as it may improve, for example, the ecological realism and reduce the uncertainties (e.g., using higher number of species, considering trophic interactions or exposure changes according to life-cycle or landscape) (EFSA, 2009;EFSA PPR Panel, 2013, 2014. ...
Article
Before their placing on the market, the safety of plant protection products (PPP) towards both human and animal health, and the environment has to be assessed using experimental and modelling approaches. Models are crucial tools for PPP risk assessment and some even help to avoid animal testing. This review investigated the use of modelling approaches in the ecotoxicology section of PPP active substance assessment reports prepared by the authorities and opened to consultation from 2011 to 2021 in the European Union. Seven categories of models (Structure-Activity, ToxicoKinetic, ToxicoKinetic-ToxicoDynamic, Species Sensitivity Distribution, population, community and mixture) were searched for into the reports of 317 active substances. At least one model category was found for 44 % of the investigated active substances. The most detected models were Species Sensitivity Distribution, Structure-Activity and ToxicoKinetic for 27, 21 and 15 % of the active substances, respectively. The use of modelling was of particular importance for conventional active substances such as sulfonylurea or carbamates contrary to microorganisms and plant derived substances. This review also highlighted a strong imbalance in model usage among the biological groups considered in the European Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009. For example, models were more often used for aquatic than for terrestrial organisms (e.g., birds, mammals). Finally, a gap between the set of models used in reports and those existing in the literature was observed highlighting the need for the implementation of more sophisticated models into PPP regulation.
... Exposure to pesticides can have detrimental effects on aquatic communities of non-target species, even at legally accepted concentrations (Stehle and Schulz, 2015). Populations can, however, evolve tolerance to pesticides which may rescue them from extinction. ...
... This matches other experimental evolution trials showing an increased pesticide tolerance to chlorpyrifos (Ejaz et al., 2017) and other pesticides, for example carbaryl (Jansen et al., 2011b). These example studies used a longer exposure duration (Ejaz et al., 2017: nine generations;Jansen et al., 2011b: 54 days) and/or higher exposure concentration (Jansen et al., 2011b: 4 times the EC 50 48 h ) in comparison to the current study where the daphnids were only exposed for two pulses spread over two weeks to the EC 50 48 h of the adults (0.35 µg/L), which is a realistic exposure scenario in water bodies close to agricultural land (Stehle and Schulz, 2015). Current design therefore illustrates that under such realistic conditions, rapid evolution of pesticide tolerance may occur. ...
Article
Exposure to pesticides can have detrimental effects on aquatic communities of non-target species. Populations can evolve tolerance to pesticides which may rescue them from extinction. However, the evolution of tolerance does not always occur and insights in the underlying mechanisms are scarce. One understudied mechanism to obtain pesticide tolerance in hosts are shifts toward pesticide-degrading bacteria in their microbiome. We carried out experimental evolution trials where replicated experimental populations of the water flea Daphnia magna were exposed to the pesticide chlorpyrifos or a solvent control, after which we performed acute toxicity assays to evaluate the evolution of chlorpyrifos tolerance. Additionally, we quantified changes in the microbiota community composition of whole body and gut samples to assess which sample type best reflected the pesticide tolerance of the Daphnia host. As expected, chlorpyrifos-selected clones became more tolerant to chlorpyrifos as shown by the higher EC50 48 h (36% higher) compared with the control clones. This was associated with shifts in the microbiome composition whereby the abundance of known organophosphate-degrading bacterial genera increased on average ~4 times in the chlorpyrifos-selected clones. Moreover, the abundances of several genera, including the organophosphate-degrading bacteria Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium and Bacillus, were positively correlated with the EC50 48 h of the host populations. These shifts in bacterial genera were similar in magnitude in whole body and gut samples, yet the total abundance of organophosphate-degrading bacteria was ~6 times higher in the whole body samples, suggesting that the gut is not the only body part where pesticide degradation by the microbiome occurs. Our results indicate that the microbiome is an important mediator of the development of tolerance to pesticides in Daphnia.
... Pesticides are fundamental for controlling pests that threaten crop yields, yet their widespread use can negatively impact ecosystems and human health. Despite the critical role of pesticides in boosting agricultural productivity four-fold in the last 60 years 1 , the potential harm to biodiversity [2][3][4][5] and the health of people, especially those living near farms 6 , has prompted the European Commission (EC) to establish targets for reducing pesticide use and risk through strategies like Farm to Fork, Biodiversity Strategies, and Zero Pollution Ambition [7][8][9] . The European Union (EU) has maintained a steady annual pesticide sale of approximately 350 thousand tonnes from 2011 to 2022 [10][11][12] . ...
Preprint
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The increasing use of pesticides worldwide has raised concerns about their impacts on biodiversity, ecosystems, and human health, particularly for populations residing near agricultural regions. This study presents a novel spatially explicit risk indicator to assess residential pesticide exposure using detailed plant protection product data from France. By integrating spatial datasets and exposure assessment methodologies, we generated a high-resolution map that illustrates potential pesticide loads at the parcel level. Coupling this map with population distribution data enabled the monitoring of non-dietary pesticide exposure patterns. Findings indicate that approximately 13% of the French population may be exposed to pesticides due to their proximity to treated crops, with exposure levels varying from low to high (74% and 26% of the population respectively). This risk indicator highlights the effectiveness of detailed pesticide data in tracking and mitigating risks and can help identify regions where sustainable farming practices should be intensified. In addition, this method is scalable and can be adapted for use in other countries to improve pesticide risk monitoring and management in Europe and globally.
... A thorough meta-analysis utilizing peer-reviewed literature on agricultural insecticide concentrations in european surface waters was done. Consequently, 44.7% of the 1566 instances of measured pesticide concentrations (pimentel & Greiner, 1997) in surface waters across the european Union (eU) were found to be higher than their corresponding regulatory acceptable concentration (rACs) (Stehle & Schulz, 2015). the Gomti river (india) water samples had an overall value of 519.9 μg l −1 of organochlorine pesticides (oCps), although, the quantities in the sediments were determined to be 2572.5 ng g⁻ 1 . ...
Article
Full-text available
The fields of agronomy and pesticides have assumed significant roles in contemporary society. Pesticides can have adverse effects on human health, both in the short and long term. We have conducted a comprehensive analysis of the various categories of pesticides, providing a thorough examination of their modes of operation, prevalence, and global utilization. A critical review of reported research has been conducted to investigate the carcinogenic effects of agricultural pesticide use on human health. The widespread utilization of malathion and parathion for pest management indicates that individual occupational choices significantly impact their exposure to these chemicals. Pesticides can cause neurological abnormalities, reproductive problems, respiratory irritations, ecological disturbance, and the emergence of pest resistance, among other sublethal consequences beyond their carcinogenicity (breast cancer, lymphomas, multiple myeloma, bladder cancer, and leukemia). Ultimately, there is an anticipation for a forthcoming surge in endeavors to mitigate the utilization of hazardous pesticides and the consequent peril they pose to human well-being and the ecosystem.
... On the other hand, high risk was estimated for some compounds whose concentrations were below the threshold values and considered safe for aquatic organisms. Results were in agreement with the statement that the contribution of pesticides to the aquatic ecological status is underestimated under the current environmental exposure and protective thresholds (Stehle and Schulz, 2015;Weisner et al., 2022). ...
... Numerous laws have been enacted to reduce the use of widespectrum insecticides to protect environmental and human health in a world where three billion kilograms of pesticides are applied annually and are suspected to result in 220,000 deaths per year [19]. More work is needed in this area [20]. The Bareilly district in Uttar Pradesh, India, is an agriculturally rich region with diverse cropping systems. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: This study looks into how nematodes change over time and how often they infect different crops in and around the Bareilly district in Uttar Pradesh, India. These crops include tubers, roots, bulbous plants, and cole crops. Main Body: Nematodes, diminutive worm-like organisms, possess the potential to inflict substantial harm upon agricultural crops, resulting in yield reductions and significant economic repercussions for farmers. Grasping the extent and dynamics of nematode infestations is paramount in formulating effective management strategies. The survey will involve collecting soil and crop samples from various locations in the Bareilly district and neighboring regions. These samples will be analyzed using conventional techniques to identify and quantify nematode species. This will allow for the determination of infection rates in different crop categories. Conclusion: The findings will yield invaluable insights into nematode fauna dynamics, species diversity, and region-specific infection trends, thereby informing the development of precise control measures aimed at mitigating crop losses and fostering enhanced agricultural productivity.
... Các hoạt động của con người là nguyên nhân gây ra ô nhiễm cho các con sông ở hầu hết các quốc gia [4], [5]. Ví dụ, ngành công nghiệp sản xuất kali gây ô nhiễm các ion chiếm ưu thế là Cl -, PO 4 3-, Na + , Mg 2+ , và SO 4 2cho các con sông ở Đức [6], [7]; dư lượng thuốc trừ sâu và chất dinh dưỡng chảy tràn từ các hoạt động nông nghiệp đến nước mặt cũng đe dọa đa dạng sinh học các thủy vực nước ngọt ở Liên minh Châu Âu [8], [9]; thuốc trừ sâu và các hóa chất khác cũng đi vào sông từ một nguồn điểm, ví dụ các nhà máy xử lý nước thải [10]. Ô nhiễm sông và các thủy vực có thể làm mất đa dạng sinh học và suy thoái các chức năng của hệ sinh thái dưới nước. ...
Article
Đánh giá chỉ tiêu coliform trong nước mặt là một phần quan trọng trong các chương trình quan trắc và đảm bảo chất lượng nước. Do đó, nghiên cứu này được tiến hành với mục tiêu đánh giá xu hướng biến động của tổng coliform trong nước mặt sông Sài Gòn và sông Đồng Nai đoạn chảy qua địa bàn Bình Dương bằng mô hình hồi quy và kiểm định Mann‒Kendall. Lượng coliform sông Sài Gòn từ 1921 đến 2145, sông Đồng Nai từ 1969 đến 2064 MPN/100mL. Hầu hết giá trị coliform đều nằm trong mức cho phép theo quy chuẩn kỹ thuật quốc gia về chất lượng nước mặt. Tuy nhiên, kết quả kiểm định Mann‒Kendall cho thấy lượng coliform ở các trạm quan trắc có xu hướng tăng dần ở cả 2 sông từ 2015 đến 2021. Đây là dấu hiệu cảnh báo chất lượng nước có xu hướng biến đổi tiêu cực. Điều này cần quan tâm theo dõi trong thời gian tới vì sông Sài Gòn và Đồng Nai là nguồn cung cấp nước chính cho sản xuất và sinh hoạt ở tỉnh Bình Dương.
... Effect thresholds, represented by tier-1 RTL (see Stehle and Schulz 2015b), were derived for the three species groups aquatic invertebrates, fish, and aquatic plants. RTLs denote thresholds above which adverse effects are expected to occur in aquatic ecosystems (Stehle et al. 2013;Wolfram et al. 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
Pesticides enter non-target surface waters as a result of agricultural activities and may reach water bodies in protected areas. We measured in southwestern Germany pesticide concentrations after heavy rainfalls in streams of a drinking water protection area near Hausen (Freiburg) and in the catchment of the Queich (Landau), which originates from the biosphere reserve Palatinate Forest. On average, 32 (n = 21) and 21 (n = 10) pesticides were detected per sample and event in the area of Hausen (n = 56) and in the Queich catchment (n = 17), respectively. The majority of pesticides detected in > 50% of all samples were fungicides, with fluopyram being detected throughout all samples. Aquatic invertebrates exhibited highest risks with 16.1% of samples exceeding mixture toxicity thresholds, whereas risks were lower for aquatic plants (12.9%) and fish (6.5%). Mixture toxicity threshold exceedances indicate adverse ecological effects to occur at half of sites (50%). This study illustrates the presence of pesticide mixtures and highlights ecological risks for aquatic organisms in surface waters of protected areas in Germany.
... 90% các mẫu nước bề mặt được kiểm tra trong chương trình giám sát chất lượng nước quốc gia của Canada từ năm 2003 đến 2005 có chứa thuốc diệt cỏ 2-metyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid 3 , trong khi với quốc gia Đức, Pháp, Hoa Kỳ và Hà Lan, nơi MCPA được tìm thấy là 22,5, 43,2, 0,4 và 44,4% số địa điểm, tương ứng 4 . Đa dạng sinh học nước ngọt ở các nước thuộc Liên minh Châu Âu cũng bị đe dọa bởi nồng độ thuốc bảo vệ thực vật trong các dòng suối 1,5 . Một phần tư (26%) tổng số các mẫu nước mặt của Đức chứa một hoặc nhiều loại thuốc bảo vệ thực vật vượt quá nồng độ cho phép theo quy định ít nhất một lần trong giai đoạn giám sát 10 năm (2005 -2015) 6 trong khi 45% tổng số mẫu được thu thập từ năm 2002 đến năm 2012 trong chương trình giám sát môi trường của Thụy Điển bao gồm một hoặc nhiều chất vượt quá ngưỡng được dùng để đánh giá chất lượng môi trường nước mặt 7 . ...
Article
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Surface water frequently contains pesticide residues, which could be a hazard to freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity. Pesticides can enter waters through a number of different pathways, but oncentrations is runoff from irrigation or precipitation. This study presents an investigation of banned pesticides used across the range of land use in catchments of the Ma river and its tributaries in Thanh Hoa province, Vietnam in period of time 2011-2015. Applying principal component analysis (PCA), we investigated the relationship between specific pesticides and land use. Besides, the method of aggregating monitoring locations known as cluster analysis (CA) has also been applied in this study. All ten banned pesticides including eight insecticides (aldrin/dierin, BHC, chlordane, endrin, heptachlor, lindan, malathion, and parathion) and two herbicides (2,4D and paraquat) studied still occur in surface water due to their persistence and remobilization during floods, runoff and not presumably influenced by the fraction of land uses area in the catchments. Clustering results revealed banned pesticides still occurs in some areas.
... A high amount of applied toxicity combined with sporadic occurrences in the aquatic environment due to situational applications means that the total amount of toxicity per occurrence is potentially very high, as it distributes among fewer cases, making these pyrethroids especially prone to exerting acute risks to aquatic environments. Several studies have indeed shown that reported pyrethroid concentrations regularly exceed acute regulatory thresholds (e.g., [41,43,64,77]). Quadrant II in Fig. 2 contains pesticides (n = 108) that show an interesting combination of medium-term and long-term POR: their medium-term POR is rather low (< 50%), i.e., they tend to be not found again within 4-7 days after an initial quantification, whereas their long-term POR is rather high (> 50%), i.e., they tend to be quantified at least twice between 8 and 30 days after an initial quantification. In combination, this indicates an intermittent occurrence of these pesticides. ...
Article
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Many studies have investigated short-term peak concentrations of pesticides in surface waters resulting from agricultural uses. However, we lack information to what extent pesticides reoccur over medium (> 4 days) and longer time periods (> 10 days). We use here large-scale pesticide monitoring data from across Europe (~ 15 mil. measurements, i.e., quantified concentrations in water at > 17,000 sites for 474 pesticide compounds) to evaluate the degree to which pesticides were not only detected once, but in sequences of a compound repeatedly quantified in the same area (0.015 km2) within 4–30 days. Reoccurrence was observed at ~ 18% of sites for > 76% of compounds, ~ 40% of which not a priori considered to chronically expose aquatic ecosystems. We calculated a probability of reoccurrence (POR) over medium-term (4–7 days) and long-term (8–30 days) time periods for ~ 360 pesticides. Relative PORs (ratio between long-term and medium-term POR) revealed three occurrence patterns: ephemeral, intermittent and permanent. While fungicides dominated intermittently occurring substances, aligning with application strategies and physico-chemical properties, neonicotinoids and legacy pesticides were among substances permanently occurring. The results of this study shed new light on previously underestimated longer-term occurrence of many pesticides in aquatic environments (35% of investigated substances occurring intermittently or permanently were previously not considered to pollute the aquatic environment chronically), entailing new challenges for chronic risk assessments and the evaluation of pesticide effects on aquatic biodiversity.
... Percentage of sites in Germany, France, the United States, and the Netherlands where MCPA was found were 22.5, 43.2, 0.4, and 44.4% of sites, respectively (Schreiner et al. 2016). Biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems in European Union countries is also threatened by pesticide concentrations in streams (Malaj et al. 2014;Stehle and Schulz 2015). A quarter (26%) of all Germany streams sampled contained one or more pesticides that exceeded the regulatory acceptable concentrations at least once during the 10-year (2005-2015) monitoring period (Szöcs et al. 2017), whereas 45% of all samples were collected between 2002 and 2012 in Swedish environmental monitoring program included one or more substances that were over the thresholds used to assess the environmental quality of surface waterways (Lindström et al. 2015). ...
Article
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Pesticide residues are regularly found in surface water, which could be dangerous for freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity. Pesticides may enter waters through a variety of pathways, but runoff from irrigation or precipitation has the highest quantities. Previous studies analyzing the pesticides pollution or ecological risks of pesticides focused on few regions (e.g., European and United States), whereas analysis of pesticide pollution in Southeast Asia and especially in Vietnam is limited. This study presents an investigation of banned pesticides used across the range of land use in catchments of the Ma river and its tributaries in Thanh Hoa province, Vietnam. Applying principal component analysis (PCA), we investigated the relationship between specific pesticides and land use. Besides, cluster analysis (CA), the method of aggregating monitoring locations, was applied in this study to find spatial pattern of pesticides pollution. Due to their persistence and remobilization during floods and runoff, all ten banned pesticides—eight insecticides (aldrin/dieldrin, BHC, chlordane, endrin, heptachlor, lindane, malathion, and parathion) and two herbicides (paraquat, and 2,4D)—still remain in surface water and are not presumably influenced by the fraction of land use area in the catchments. Clustering results revealed that banned pesticides still occur in some areas. Site TH08 close to Le Mon industrial zone and TH18 in Thanh Hoa city have higher concentrations of banned pesticides than other sites due to their highly toxic and long-time existence in the environment. Overall, our study provides approach to investigate pesticides in surface water for a province in Vietnam that may be used for future ecotoxicological studies to enhance risk assessment for stream ecosystems.
... 3,4 This critical situation has fostered the implementation of new strong policies and legislation with the aim to eliminate obsolete pesticides and apply rapid environmental assessment tools in highly contaminated sites. 1,5,6 Among pesticides, organophosphorus compounds form the largest group of chemical pesticides, accounting for approximately 34% worldwide, and have been widely used for more than 50 years by farmers for protecting crops. 7 Their attractiveness and large usage are due to their low price, effectiveness, and broad activity. ...
Article
The excellent catalytic properties of copper nano-particles (CuNPs) for the degradation of the highly toxic and recalcitrant chlorpyrifos pesticide are widely known. However, CuNPs generally present low stability caused by their high sensitivity to oxidation, which leads to a change of the catalytic response over time. In the current work, the immobilization of CuNPs into a polycaprolactone (PCL) matrix via electrospinning was demonstrated to be a very effective method to retard air and solvent oxidation and to ensure constant catalytic activity in the long term. CuNPs were successfully anchored into PCL electrospun fibers in the form of Cu 2 O at different concentrations (from 1.25 wt % to 5 wt % with respect to the PCL), with no signs of loss by leaching out. The PCL mats loaded with 2.5 wt % Cu (PCL-2.5Cu) almost halved the initial concentration of pesticide (40 mg/L) after 96 h. This process was performed in two unprompted and continuous steps that consisted of adsorption, followed by degradation. Interestingly, the degradation process was independent of the light conditions (i.e., not photocatalytic), expanding the application environments (e.g., groundwaters). Moreover, the PCL-2.5Cu composite presents high reusability, retaining the high elimination capability for at least five cycles and eliminating a total of 100 mg/L of chlorpyrifos, without exhibiting any sign of morphological damages.
... The pesticides application schemes in agricultural practices often consist of several applications per crop and per year, with simultaneous application of several products to fight several pests, which results in aquatic ecosystems being exposed to pesticide mixtures (Schreiner et al., 2016;Stehle and Schulz, 2015). Such pesticide mixtures can reach marine systems and, hence, it is critical to assess their combined effects on marine biota, towards an effective management and conservation of these ecosystems. ...
Article
Under the current scenario of global warming, it is ecologically relevant to understand how increased temperature influences the combined toxicity of pesticides to aquatic species. Hence, this work aims to: a) determine the temperature effect (15 °C, 20 °C and 25 °C) on the toxicity of two pesticides (oxyfluorfen and Copper (Cu)), on the growth of Thalassiosira weissflogii; b) assess whether temperature affects the type of toxicity interaction between these chemicals; and c) assess the temperature effect on biochemical responses (fatty acids (FA) and sugar profiles) of the pesticides on T. weissflogii. Temperature increased the tolerance of the diatoms to the pesticides with EC50 values between 3.176 and 9.929 μg L-1 for oxyfluorfen and 42.50-230.75 μg L-1 for Cu, respectively, at 15 °C and 25 °C. The mixtures toxicity was better described by the IA model, but temperature altered the type of deviation from dose ratio (15 °C and 20 °C) to antagonism (25 °C). Temperature, as well as the pesticide concentrations, affected the FA and sugar profiles. Increased temperature increased saturated FA and decreased unsaturated FA; it also affected the sugar profiles with a pronounced minimum at 20 °C. Results highlight effects on the nutritional value of these diatoms, with potential repercussion on food webs.
... Environmental detection of fungicides in water bodies is common. Studies of European surface waters have found that fungicides are detected at higher concentrations than either herbicides or insecticides (0.96 µg/L compared to 0.063 and 0.034 µg/L respectively) (Stehle and Schulz 2015;Aamlid et al. 2021). A European study examining pesticides in sediment found that the fungicides fenpropimorph and propiconazole were the highest among all detected pesticides, and fenpropimorph was one of the most commonly detected (Kronvang et al. 2003). ...
Article
Full-text available
Fungicide usage has increased globally in response to the rise in fungal pathogens, especially in the agricultural sector. However, research examining the toxicity of fungicides is still limited for many aquatic species. In this study, we examined the acute toxicity of two widely used fungicides, chlorothalonil and pyraclostrobin, on six North American larval amphibian species across multiple families using 96-h LC50 tests. We found that pyraclostrobin was approximately 3.5x more toxic than chlorothalonil; estimated LC50 values ranged from 5–18 µg/L for pyraclostrobin and 15–50 µg/L for chlorothalonil. Comparing across amphibian groups, we found that salamanders were 3x more sensitive to pyraclostrobin than anuran species and equally as sensitive to chlorothalonil. Notably, our estimated LC50 values within the range of the expected environmental concentration for these fungicides suggesting environmental exposures could lead to direct mortality in these species. Given the widespread and increasing usage of fungicides, additional work should be conducted to assess the general risk posed by these chemicals to amphibian and their associated aquatic habitats.
... The European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) OpenFoodTox database 21 provides ecotoxicity data used during the registration of pesticides in the European Union. Here, substance-specific toxicity thresholds were derived by applying the following principles of the official EFSA regulatory risk assessment: 8,22 quality criteria for the consideration of individual ecotoxicity endpoints, application of assessment factors, and usage of both acute and chronic endpoints. With regard to pesticide use, only censored data (broad mass classes per substance and year) had long been published for Germany, but recently, more detailed data for 1995−2019 have been made available by the German Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety (BVL). 1 Here, we calculate TAT trends for three aquatic (invertebrates, fish, and plants) and five terrestrial (arthropods, pollinators, vertebrates, soil organisms, and plants) species groups. ...
Article
Expressing temporal changes in the use of pesticides, based not only on amounts (masses) but also on their toxicity for different species groups, was proposed as a sensible approach for evaluating potential environmental risks. Here, we calculated the total applied toxicity (TAT) between 1995 and 2019 for Germany, mapped it, and compared it to the US TAT and other risk indicators. Results show that the German TAT for terrestrial vertebrates decreased over time by about 20%. The TAT increased by a factor of three for fishes, largely due to insecticides, by a factor of two for soil organisms, largely due to fungicides and insecticides, and, to a lower extent, for terrestrial plants, solely due to herbicides. Other species groups showed no trends in TAT, which for pollinators likely results from neonicotinoid use restrictions. Many TAT trends from Germany and the US differ, partly due to different insecticide and fungicide uses. TAT, SYNOPS risk indicators, and the EU Harmonized Risk Indicators, currently being used to assess the German National Action Plan's goal to reduce risks by 30% by 2023, lead to clearly different risk perceptions. Validated approaches are needed for evaluation of risk quantifications at the national scale.
... Moreover, even if official guidelines for "safe" pesticide usage were followed, the personal safety cannot be assured (e.g. Stehle & Schulz, 2015, Reuter & Neumeister, 2015. ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
At the onset of this project in 2017, key elements of sustainability in South African vineyards were neither broadly implemented nor adequately analysed. This report seeks to objectively expand our understanding of how best to advance environmental and social objectives. In doing so, we considered future climate change impacts, which will shape grape production in the upcoming decades. In fact, while the production potential of South African vineyards has already been limited by water availability, the projected increase in water scarcity will put additional strain on the agricultural sector, but also on other human activities and the natural ecosystems. Therefore, we argue that adapting to the expected changes is of utmost importance to the South African wine industry and has to be integrated in any sectoral or individual sustainability strategy. Our interdisciplinary research project based on an on-farm trial addresses the following questions for vineyards in the Western Cape: 1. Do winter cover crops, a key measure to increase biodiversity and reduce herbicide applications, reduce yields? 2. What is the effect of a mulch cover on yield and main soil parameters? 3. How can human toxicity and environmental toxicity be reduced while effectively protecting the crop? 4. What is the Carbon Footprint of South African wine grapes and what are effective mitigation options? 5. What is the water usage of wine grapes and what are the related effects on the ecosystem and human activities (Water Footprint Assessment)?
... But which of these is the most significant driver of fish declines relatively speaking? A fairly recent meta-analysis conducted by Stehle and Schulz (2015) suggested that agricultural insecticides were threatening surface waters at the global scale. However, how accurate is the conclusion when framed within the broader context of other contributing anthropogenic factors, particularly when viewed through a historical lens? ...
Article
Full-text available
Numerous anthropogenic factors, historical and contemporary, have contributed to declines in the abundance and diversity of freshwater fishes in North America. When Europeans first set foot on this continent some five hundred years ago, the environment was ineradicably changed. Settlers brought with them diseases, animals, and plants via the Columbian Exchange, from the old world to the new, facilitating a process of biological globalization. Invasive species were thus introduced into the Americas, displacing native inhabitants. Timber was felled for ship building and provisioning for agriculture, resulting in a mass land conversion for the purposes of crop cultivation. As European colonization expanded, landscapes were further modified to mitigate against floods and droughts via the building of dams and levees. Resources have been exploited, and native populations have been overfished to the point of collapse. The resultant population explosion has also resulted in wide-spread pollution of aquatic resources, particularly following the industrial and agricultural revolutions. Collectively, these activities have influenced the climate and the climate, in turn, has exacerbated the effects of these activities. Thus, the anthropogenic fingerprints are undeniable, but relatively speaking, which of these transformative factors has contributed most significantly to the decline of freshwater fishes in North America? This manuscript attempts to address this question by comparing and contrasting the preeminent drivers contributing to freshwater fish declines in this region in order to provide context and perspective. Ultimately, an evaluation of the available data makes clear that habitat loss, obstruction of streams and rivers, invasive species, overexploitation, and eutrophication are the most important drivers contributing to freshwater fish declines in North America. However, pesticides remain a dominant causal narrative in the popular media, despite technological advancements in pesticide development and regulation. Transitioning from organochlorines to organophosphates/carbamates, to pyrethroids and ultimately to the neonicotinoids, toxicity and bioaccumulation potential of pesticides have all steadily decreased over time. Concomitantly, regulatory frameworks designed to assess corresponding pesticide risks in Canada and the USA have become increasingly more stringent and intensive. Yet, comparatively, habitat loss continues unabated as agricultural land is ceded to the frontier of urban development, globalized commerce continues to introduce invasive species into North America, permanent barriers in the form of dams and levees remain intact, fish are still being extracted from native habitats (commercially and otherwise), and the climate continues to change. How then should we make sense of all these contributing factors? Here, we attempt to address this issue.
... Environmental detection of fungicides in water bodies is common despite their reported short residence time. Studies of European waters have found that fungicides are detected at higher concentrations than either herbicides or insecticides (0.96 µg/L compared to 0.063 and 0.034 µg/L) (Stehle & Schulz, 2015). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Fungicide usage has increased globally in response to the rise in fungal pathogens, especially in the agricultural sector. Consequently, fungicides are not only increasingly found in water quality surveys, but they are also often the most detected pesticide type. However, research examining the toxicity of fungicides is still limited for many aquatic species. In this study, we examined the acute toxicity of two widely used fungicides, chlorothalonil and pyraclostrobin, on six larval amphibian species across multiple families using 96-h LC50 tests. We found that pyraclostrobin was approximately 3.5x more toxic than chlorothalonil; estimated LC50 values ranged from 5–18 µg/L for pyraclostrobin and 15–50 µg/L for chlorothalonil. Comparing across amphibian groups, we found that salamanders were 3x more sensitive to pyraclostrobin than anuran species and equally as sensitive to chlorothalonil. Notably, our estimated LC50 values are close in magnitude to the expected environmental concentration for these fungicides suggesting environmental exposures could lead to direct mortality in these species. Given the widespread and increasing usage of fungicides, additional work should be conducted to assess the general risk posed by these chemicals to amphibian and their associated aquatic habitats.
... Cela va à l'encontre des efforts mondiaux de protection de la biodiversité et, en particulier, des objectifs de la réglementation de l'UE sur les pesticides (Parliament, 2009). Les dépassements constants des seuils réglementaires (Stehle & Schulz, 2015 ;Schäfer et al., 2019) et les révisions des autorisations de pesticides, tels que les néonicotinoïdes dans l'UE, attestent de lacunes en matière de réglementation et usages des pesticides. La réglementation des pesticides devrait être basée sur des preuves scientifiques solides et actualisées, selon lesquelles les produits présentant des effets inacceptables sur l'environnement ne seraient pas acceptés pour les utilisateurs (Sgolastra et al., 2020). ...
Thesis
Les microplastiques (MP) sont largement répandus dans les zones côtières et les océans du monde entier. Les MP sont préoccupants sur le plan environnemental en raison de leurs impacts potentiels sur un large éventail d’organismes marins, de sorte que l'évaluation de leur impact sur les écosystèmes est devenue une priorité de recherche. En complément, les substances phytosanitaires utilisées régulièrement en agriculture se déversent dans les milieux côtiers, par ruissellements. Ces travaux de thèse se sont focalisés sur (i) une étude exploratoire d’un site pilote des Pertuis Charentais (PC) afin d’évaluer l’importance de la contamination plastique et pouvoir évaluer leur toxicité sur (ii) les stades précoces et (iii) tardifs de développement de l’huître creuse, Crassostrea gigas. Ces travaux fournissent une première investigation de l’état de contamination plastique (macro et micro) d’un site d’étude littoral des PC, où la présence de plastiques ostréicoles ainsi que des concentrations élevées en MP dans les sédiments de plage ont été identifiés. De plus, les expérimentations menées en conditions de laboratoire contrôlées, nous informent sur le caractère toxique des MP de PE et des pesticides sur les stades précoces de développement (embryo-larvaire) de l’huitre creuse. Les pesticides dosés dans les eaux des PC ont montré des effets significatifs à des concentrations proches de l’environnement naturel alors que les MP s’avèrent toxiques pour des concentrations plus fortes. Ces effets apparaissent sur le développement, la croissance et le comportement natatoire des larves d’huitre creuse. Des expérimentations complémentaires, effectuées sur des stades plus tardifs, notamment les naissains d’huitre creuse, ont permis de montrer un comportement valvaire modifié suite à une exposition de 25 jours aux MP de type PE et au Chlortoluron, en conditions de laboratoire. Les effets intergénérationnels ont pu être observés avec l’utilisation de MP environnementaux (cocktail de PE, PP et PVC), vieillis aux abords des concessions ostréicoles. La qualité et le succès de fécondation ont été modifiés ainsi que le développement et le comportement de nage des larves-D issues de parents préalablement exposés durant deux mois. Ces premiers résultats permettront de renforcer les connaissances de la communauté scientifique et d’informer les professionnels et acteurs conchylicoles sur les risques des contaminants émergents, tels que les MP et les pesticides. Des adaptations des pratiques conchylicoles seront nécessaires afin d’éviter une probable dégradation de la qualité des eaux littorales dans les PC.
... For example, a study looking at pesticides in watercourses across the European Union (EU) found 135 different pesticides, consisting of 66 insecticides, 42 herbicides, and 27 fungicides. Of all the samples tested, around 90% of samples had mixtures of pesticides, containing almost 13 different pesticides inside (Stehle & Schulz, 2015). The distribution of pesticides in groundwater and surface waters may also vary in quantity. ...
Chapter
Pesticides are necessary to support the agricultural industry in order to feed the world’s growing population. However, excessive application of them has led to contamination of soils and bodies of water all around the globe, threatening many organisms in these ecosystems. Pesticide persistence in the environment has resulted in significant harmful effects for a long period and has caused accumulation of pesticides. This chapter provides information about the dangerous effects of pesticide mixtures due to their synergistic responses; and an environmentally friendly method called bioremediation that uses microorganisms or plants to degrade pesticides. Many studies have shown the efficacy of this method, leading to many large-scale applications in the field. Even though many advantages of bioremediation have been documented, some challenges are still open for improvement in the future.
... The three concentrations cover a narrow range but induced considerable differences in mortality because of the steep dose-response curve of chlorpyrifos in the study species (see in the companion study Meng et al., 2021; see also Delnat et al., 2021). The chosen concentrations are environmentally realistic as they are within the range of measured chlorpyrifos concentrations in European surface waters (Stehle and Schulz, 2015). The measured chlorpyrifos concentrations in the experimental vials for the three nominal concentrations were 0.262 ± 0.021 (mean ± SE), 0.297 ± 0.037, and 0.345 ± 0.023 μg/L at the start of the exposure. ...
Article
There is increasing awareness that the toxicity of pesticides can to a large extent be modulated by warming, and that temporal exposure scenarios may strongly affect the impact of two stressors. Nevertheless, we lack information on how the exposure duration to warming may shape pesticide toxicity under warming. Furthermore, despite that bioenergetic responses have the potential to generate mechanistic insights in how toxicants interact with warming, this has been understudied in ecotoxicology. To investigate whether warming duration modifies pesticide toxicity, mosquito larvae were exposed to a control temperature at 20 °C or three warming treatments at 24 °C (acute, developmental and transgenerational warming), and to four pesticide treatments (solvent control, and three chlorpyrifos concentrations) in a full factorial design. Chlorpyrifos increased mortality, growth rate and the energy consumed, and reduced the AChE (acetylcholinesterase) activity, the energy available, and the net energy budget (estimated as cellular energy allocation). The warming treatments did not affect mortality, AChE activity, and the energy consumed. However, acute warming increased the growth rate and decreased the energy available, while both acute and developmental warming decreased the cellular energy allocation. A first key finding was that the lethal and sublethal effects of chlorpyrifos were less strong under warming because of a higher degradation in the medium under warming. A second key finding was that, among the warming treatments, the pesticide toxicity was more increased under acute warming than under transgenerational warming. This could be explained by the negative impact of acute warming but not transgenerational warming on the net energy budget. The results in this study provide mechanistic insights that the exposure duration to warming can play an important role in modulating the impact of pesticides under warming. Therefore, including ecologically relevant temporal scenarios of exposure to warming is important in ecotoxicological studies.
... They observed that about 25% of the soil samples examined contained one residue and 58% of the samples contained more than one residue. As evidenced by other research(Stehle & Schulz, 2015), among the substances that most frequently exceed the limits allowed by law, there are glyphosate and neonicotinoids. ...
... In contrast to other pesticides, insecticides regularly occur in surface waters for rather short time periods spanning a few hours up to a few days (Stehle et al., 2013), which is sufficient to cause negative effects in aquatic ecosystems due to their often fast uptake and presence at their site of action (Tang & Siegfried, 1995). When following standard risk assessment procedures, insecticides have by far the highest ecotoxicological potential among all pesticide types, with aquatic invertebrates being the most sensitive group of organisms (Malaj et al., 2014;Stehle et al., 2011;Stehle & Schulz, 2015b). Often the single most toxic insecticide within a mixture drives entirely the predicted aquatic toxicity (Wolfram et al., 2019). ...
Chapter
The ecosystem process of organic matter decomposition (OMD) in fresh waters is realised by a complex interaction among different groups of microorganisms (including bacteria and fungi) and detritivorous animals. As a consequence of this multi-level interaction, biotic (e.g., competition, predation) and abiotic (e.g., flow, temperature, toxicants) factors may influence the performance of either (micro)organism group with potential feedback to detritivores, and in turn OMD. In this chapter, we discuss how the abiotic factor toxicants affects OMD. We organised the chapter along a conceptual model that pinpoints groups of organisms and their interactions, which are critical for OMD. We focus on four toxicant classes (i.e., fungicides, antibiotics, insecticides and metals) that specifically affect fungi, bacteria or detritivorous invertebrates or have a broad activity spectrum. We summarize the effects caused by these toxicant classes on relevant groups of organisms, which are often determined by the toxicant mode of action. On this basis, we develop effect pathways leading to alterations in OMD dynamics. Finally, we discuss whether and how these effect pathways may support the interpretation of effect patterns observed under (semi-)field conditions and highlight research gaps we suggest addressing in order to improve understanding and prediction power.
... EDS with a total n = 296 from agricultural streams revealed RAC exceedances in 59%, grab samples with a total n = 440 in 26% of samples. This is similar to the results obtained by the most comprehensive meta-study to date, which found that 45% of the 1566 cases of measured insecticide concentrations in EU surface waters exceeded their respective RACs ( Stehle and Schulz, 2015 ). On the substance level, 37 pesticides and 2 metabolites exceeded their RAC ( Fig. 2 B, for the 20 pesticides with most exceedances, Tab. ...
Article
Full-text available
Despite elaborate regulation of agricultural pesticides, their occurrence in non-target areas has been linked to adverse ecological effects on insects in several field investigations. Their quantitative role in contributing to the biodiversity crisis is, however, still not known. In a large-scale study across 101 sites of small lowland streams in Central Europe, Germany we revealed that 83% of agricultural streams did not meet the pesticide-related ecological targets. For the first time we identified that agricultural nonpoint- source pesticide pollution was the major driver in reducing vulnerable insect populations in aquatic in- vertebrate communities, exceeding the relevance of other anthropogenic stressors such as poor hydro- morphological structure and nutrients. We identified that the current authorisation of pesticides, which aims to prevent unacceptable adverse effects, underestimates the actual ecological risk as (i) measured pesticide concentrations exceeded current regulatory acceptable concentrations in 81% of the agricultural streams investigated, (ii) for several pesticides the inertia of the authorisation process impedes the incor- poration of new scientific knowledge and (iii) existing thresholds of invertebrate toxicity drivers are not protective by a factor of 5.3 to 40. To provide adequate environmental quality objectives, the authorisa- tion process needs to include monitoring-derived information on pesticide effects at the ecosystem level. Here, we derive such thresholds that ensure a protection of the invertebrate stream community. PDF: https://td2ec2in5euwest.teamdrive.net/crhkpvxr/public/YNQMekG4?k=2PtTO4DmQYeCfqWhAp--aj49dQ5lEgIrTj4E54d7-d0
... [26] When compared to other classes, pyrethroids have toxicity and low residual power in the environment, [27] but have extremely high toxicity in non-target invertebrates. [28,29] Strobilurins, which are natural antibiotics, are found in fungi and have a rapid degradation in the environment. [30,31] Despite this, the concentrations of these contaminants in water are low, which requires the use of robust and highly sensitive analytical techniques such as Gas Chromatography (GC), which allows to achieve better results with lower limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ). ...
Article
The determination of some pesticides in surface sediments can provide important information about their distribution in the water column. This work aimed to determine the distribution of the classes of pesticides along the Ondas River’s hydrographic basin (ORHB), in eighteen different points, during the dry and rainy periods. The pesticides were extracted from the sediment samples by solid-liquid extraction and then analyzed using a gas chromatograph coupled to mass spectrometry. After the development and validation of the method, nineteen pesticides from the group of organochlorine, organophosphates, carbamate and thiocarbamate, pyrethroids, and strobilurins were quantified in at least one point in the two collection periods, with accuracy varying between 86 and 126%. The average concentrations were 0.020 ng g-1 (carbofuran) to 249.123 ng g-1 (dimethoate) and 0.029 ng g-1 (carbofuran and sulfotep) to 533.522 ng g-1 in the dry and rainy periods, respectively. The results showed a wide distribution of pesticide residues in the ORHB, with higher levels for dimethoate, phenitrothion, and malathion, which may be related to their agricultural use in the region. In Brazil, it does not have specific legislation for maximum permitted values of pesticides in sediment, allowing for inappropriate or prohibited use and, consequently, affecting water quality.
Article
The use of excessive pesticides, including fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides, in agriculture has increased particularly as they can pollute the environment and perhaps have negative health impacts. As a result, pesticide residues find their way into various media, such as food and water products, where they may expose people directly. Thus, there is a constant need to develop analytical techniques for identifying and measuring these chemicals in the various environmental media in which they may be found. The utilisation of pillar[n]arenes, cucurbit[n]urils, and calix[n]arenes in this field is reviewed, with particular attention given to how these compounds combine with herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides to create host-guest complexes. Thus, there is an excellent for luminescence-based supramolecular compounds that can meet the demands of complex, real-world media while demonstrating selectivity, sensitivity, and application. Recent advances in supramolecular compounds with luminous macrocycles, polymers, and nanomaterials are discussed here to achieve these aims. The creation of novel macrocycle hosts has received particular attention, and the fundamental ideas of supramolecular chemistry, useful analytes, and prevalent luminophores have also been considered. The review addresses modern advancements in supramolecular sensors and several unresolved issues in supramolecules.
Preprint
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Neonicotinoid pesticides are widely applied in urban and agricultural settings despite their toxicity to aquatic organisms at low concentrations. Monitoring for six neonicotinoids (acetamiprid, clothianidin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid, thiacloprid, thiamethoxam) in the Saginaw River watershed of Michigan shows detections of imidacloprid exceeding final chronic values (FCVs) developed to protect aquatic life. The study design implemented both discrete and passive surface water sampling to capture the episodic nature of pesticide release. Fourteen sites were sampled monthly from August-October 2021 and April-July 2022. One or more neonicotinoids were detected in 86% of discrete and 100% of passive samples. Imidacloprid was detected at the highest maximum concentration (220 ng L ⁻¹ ), followed by clothianidin (98 ng L ⁻¹ ), and thiamethoxam (32 ng L ⁻¹ ). Development of aquatic life values for imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam, pursuant to Michigan statute and Rule 57 (Water Quality Standards), resulted in FCVs of 29 ng L ⁻¹ , 81 ng L ⁻¹ , and 280 ng L ⁻¹ , respectively. Seven out of 14 sample locations exceeded the FCV for imidacloprid. The most sensitive species included in derivation of neonicotinoid aquatic life values included mayflies ( Neocloeon triangulifer, Cloeon sp., and McCaffertium sp. ) and a midge ( Chironomus dilutus ). This study provides new insight on monitoring for neonicotinoid pesticides and weighs the costs and benefits of passive and discrete sampling methodologies.
Book
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The Scientific Advisory Board of the National Action Plan on the Sustainable Use of Plant Protection Products (NAP) advises the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL). It has commented on the effects of plant protection on biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems. The decline in biodiversity in the agricultural landscape is striking. Butterfly and bird populations have declined by 50 % since 1990 and 1980 respectively, and the biomass of flying insects has fallen by 75 % since 1989. Species and individual numbers of arable wild herbs, amphibians, fish, sensitive invertebrates in water bodies, wild bees, hoverflies, ground beetles, ladybirds and many other groups of organisms are declining. Of the 14 open land biotope types directly dependent on utilisation, 80 % are endangered in Germany. Other habitats (moors, forest and riparian fringes, herbaceous meadows, etc.) are impaired by agricultural use in the surrounding area. The direct and indirect effects of plant protection products are documented by a large number of scientific studies in Germany and other European countries. The use of plant protection products (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides) represents a significant influencing factor in the complex overall system of factors with mostly significantly negative, but in exceptional cases also positive effects on biodiversity in agroecosystems. Plant protection products get into and onto plants, animals and soils, into the atmosphere and into water bodies and groundwater; they develop their harmful side effects in both short and very long periods of time. They can cause direct toxic effects on non-target organisms and indirectly reduce the food and habitats of a large number of organisms. In addition, there are cumulative and sequential effects, as plant protection products are often applied together 4 and a combined effect of environmental stressors and plant protection products becomes particularly relevant when applied in the field. The NAP Scientific Advisory Council therefore proposes the following measures for sustainable plant protection: 1. the further development of biodiversity should be assessed in a standardised way by introducing a representative, comprehensive long-term biodiversity monitoring system that focuses on the effects of plant protection products. 2. the authorisation procedure for plant protection products should be reviewed for possible gaps in the assessment of effects on biodiversity on the basis of the latest knowledge, and these findings should be incorporated into the amendment of European authorisation law. 3. positive and negative incentives should be created for agricultural practice in order to reduce the use of plant protection products in practice. To this end, a levy on plant protection products should also be examined and, in the medium term, a scientifically based system of internalising environmental costs (true cost accounting) should be proposed. 4. integrated plant protection methods should be further strengthened through research and advice, and breeding should focus on pest-tolerant or pest-resistant varieties. 5. the framework conditions for organic farming should be further improved in order to achieve the Federal Government's goal of increasing its share of land to 20 % as quickly as possible. 6. within the framework of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the agri-environmental measures (EAFRD), diverse landscape elements, habitats and preferred ecological areas and buffer zones integrated into the production area should be promoted to a much greater extent than before.
Article
Purpose The focus of this study was to evaluate the relationship between research publications in the pesticide field, a country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and GDP per capita. The study aims to analyze pesticide use in association with a country’s population and research publications. The purpose of this study is to uncover the country’s contribution to pesticide research and assess the financial resources allocated to it as a percentage of their GDP by exploring these factors. Design/methodology/approach The Web of Science database was used to retrieve data for the period of 2001–2020. The use of scientometric indicators allowed for the analysis of the collaborative patterns and active performance of countries in pesticide research. Socio-economic analysis was used to determine the contribution of countries toward pesticide research. Findings This study demonstrated a strong association (0.952%) between a country’s GDP and its research publications in the field of pesticide research. Countries, such as Denmark, Belgium and Australia, have benefited from global collaboration, which has enhanced their research efforts. Despite ranking lower in pesticide utilization, India focused on pesticide research, as indicated by its high publication/GDP per capita ratio (0.26). Originality/value Research on pesticides directly impacts agricultural practices, which, in turn, influence the economic production of the agricultural sector. Changes in pesticide usage can have inference for crop yields, food price and, eventually, the GDP. Comparative analysis can assist in evaluating the efficiency of regulatory policies in balancing ecological concerns with economic interests. Changes in regulations may impact both pesticide usage and economic outcomes.
Chapter
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The rapid rate of industrialization coupled with the increase in human population has caused an increased usage of agrochemicals in the environment. These agrochemicals (pesticides) are applied on agricultural fields and urban green spaces with the aim of disease protection for both biodiversity and humans. The increased use of agrochemicals has brought a wide range of human health issues as their negative consequences have now outweighed the advantages of their use. This review demonstrates the adverse effects that indiscriminate pesticide usage has on several environmental factors. Some of the negative consequences of using pesticides include a decrease in beneficial animals like predators, pollinating insects, and earthworms, a rise in resistant pest populations, and pollution of the water and air ecosystem. Due to their persistence, pesticides have had a significant negative impact on our ecology, causing them to infiltrate higher trophic levels like that of humans and other large mammals, as well as many food chains. As a result of the consumption of contaminated food, water, or air, some acute and chronic human ailments have surfaced. To safeguard our environment and any potential health risks linked to it, the correct usage of pesticides is now required. Appropriate pest control methods, such as integrated pest management (IPM), which employs a couple of various mitigation strategies, such as cultural control, use of resistant genotypes, physio-mechanical control, and logical and reasonable use of pesticides, may reduce the frequency and volume of agrochemicals. Furthermore, cutting-edge techniques like biotechnology and nanotechnology may help in the development of pesticides with less harmful side effects or genotypes resistant to them. Farmers may be encouraged to adopt cutting-edge IPM strategies.KeywordsAgrochemical usageIntegrated pest managementBiodiversityEnvironmental managementWater sourcesPollutionEnvironmental laws
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In modern agriculture, the gap between food production and food consumption caused by the exponential increase in the global population is bridged with the use of agrochemicals. The chapter seeks to highlight the human and animal disease implications of agrochemical use. Fertilizers, soil conditioners, liming and acidifying agents, pesticides, antibiotics, and hormones are commonly used agrochemicals in crop and livestock farming. These agrochemicals are effective in controlling weeds, increasing agricultural productivity, and extending the shelf-life of farm produce but also have nontargeted negative effects on the environment, biodiversity, and human health. Human diseases such as cardio-neurotoxicity (Alzheimer, Parkinson, autism, etc.), endocrine disruption, liver and kidney damage, cancers (non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma), leukemia, brain tumors, different cancers, reproductive defects, diabetes, obesity, respiratory diseases, and different organ and system diseases in humans and animals have been connected to the abuse and misuse of agrochemicals. The need for the proper use of agrochemicals is a necessity to prevent known and emerging diseases caused by agrochemical applications. Emerging effects include pharmaceutical and chemical resistance in humans and animals while disease resistance has also been linked to agrochemical exposure. Farmers should be trained on best practices and appropriate methods of agrochemical application, utilization, and disposal. On the other hand, farmers and agricultural workers need to reduce their overdependence on agrochemicals for food production and preservation by seeking alternative methods of improving food production while maintaining human, animal, and environmental health.
Article
The purpose of this article is to examine the causes of recurring doubts regarding the safety of plant protection products used in the European Union. Plant protection products are a particular subject of regulation. All standards concerning them require prior in-depth scientific research in the field of exact sciences. Achieving adequate safety of humans, animals and the environment in connection to the use of plant protection products requires not only good law, but a law based on representative research and scientific certainty. Bearing in mind the above, the authors undertook an analysis of what seems to be the cause of significant social doubts as to the actual achievement of the purposes of Regulation 1107/2009, i.e. inclusion of scientific research in the procedure of approval of active substances in plant protection products. First, the approval procedure for the active substance of the plant protection product was presented, and then the main shortcoming of the procedure was analyzed on the example of the approval of glyphosate. In the authors' opinion, guidance documents on literature review should be revised to reflect the best scientific practice, and their standards should be enforced, in particular, to ensure that there is no doubt about the objectivity of the literature review.
Article
The combined impact of toxicants and warming on organisms is getting increased attention in ecotoxicology, but is still hard to predict, especially with regard to heat waves. Recent studies suggested that the gut microbiome may provide mechanistic insights into the single and combined stressor effects on their host. We therefore investigated effects of sequential exposure to a heat spike and a pesticide on both the phenotype (life history and physiology) and the gut microbiome composition of damselfly larvae. We compared the fast-paced Ischnura pumilio, which is more tolerant to both stressors, with the slow-paced I. elegans, to obtain mechanistic insights into species-specific stressor effects. The two species differed in gut microbiome composition, potentially contributing to their pace-of-life differences. Intriguingly, there was a general resemblance between the stressor response patterns in the phenotype and in the gut microbiome, whereby both species responded broadly similar to the single and combined stressors. The heat spike negatively affected the life history of both species (increased mortality, reduced growth rate), which could be explained not only by shared negative effects on physiology (inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, increase of malondialdehyde), but also by shared effects on gut bacterial species' abundances. The pesticide only had negative effects (reduced growth rate, reduced net energy budget) in I. elegans. The pesticide generated shifts in the bacterial community composition (e.g. increased abundance of Sphaerotilus and Enterobacteriaceae in the gut microbiome of I. pumilio), which potentially contributed to the relatively higher pesticide tolerance of I. pumilio. Moreover, in line with the response patterns in the host phenotype, the effects of the heat spike and the pesticide on the gut microbiome were mainly additive. By contrasting two species differing in stress tolerance, our results suggest that response patterns in the gut microbiome may improve our mechanistic understanding of single and combined stressor effects.
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Die Pilotphase Kleingewässermonitoring konnte als drittes Teilvorhaben zur „Umsetzung des Nationalen Aktionsplan zur nachhaltigen Anwendung von Pflanzenschutzmitteln (PSM)“ erfolgreich als zweijähriges Monitoring umgesetzt werden. Es wurden für mehr als 100 Fließgewässerabschnitte in 13 Bundesländern umfassend der chemische und biologische Zustand kleiner Fließgewässer in der Agrarlandschaft zwischen April und Juli erfasst. Zusätzlich zu Schöpfproben analog zu dem behördlichen Monitoring nach Wasserrahmenrichtlinie (WRRL) wurden ereignisbasierte Wasserproben genommen, um kurzfristige Peakkonzentrationen infolge von Niederschlägen zu erfassen. Zudem wurden anthropogene Stressoren wie Gewässerstruktur, Nährstoffe und Sauerstoffdefizite hochaufgelöst aufgenommen. Die biologische Untersuchung umfasste die Beprobung der aquatischen Invertebraten- und Algengemeinschaft sowie eine Untersuchung der Ökosystemfunktion in den Kleingewässern. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die im Rahmen des Zulassungsverfahrens von PSM festgelegten RAK-Werte (Regulatorisch Akzeptablen Konzentrationen) an über 73 % der untersuchten Standorte für mindestens einen PSM-Wirkstoff überschritten wurden. Besonders die Ereignisproben infolge von Regenereignissen wiesen erhöhte Konzentrationen auf, die durch Schöpfproben nicht erfasst wurden. Diese Belastungen korrelieren auch mit der ökologischen Situation der Gewässer. So erfüllt der Großteil (über 80 %) der untersuchten Fließgewässerabschnitte anhand des SPEARpesticides-Index nicht die Qualitätskriterien für einen guten Zustand. Die Pilotphase Kleingewässermonitoring zeigt, dass eine realistische Bewertung und regulatorische Nutzung eines Monitorings von PSM-Rückständen in kleinen Gewässern nur dann erfolgen kann, wenn auch erhöhte Einträge infolge von Niederschlagsereignissen berücksichtigt werden. Weiterhin treten auch unterhalb der bestehenden RAK-Werte ökologische Effekte im Gewässer auf, so dass sich die Frage nach der Protektivität der aus Labordaten abgeleiteten RAK-Werte stellt. Die Daten der ermittelten PSM-Belastung der kleinen Gewässer in der Agrarlandschaft werden dazu beitragen, Ursachen für die regelmäßige Überschreitung der bestehenden Grenzwerte zu ermitteln und Schwächen der bisherigen Risikobewertung aufzudecken. Ziel wird sein, auf dieser Basis Möglichkeiten zur Reduzierung der Einträge zu erarbeiten und regulatorische Konsequenzen zu ziehen. Siehe dazu auch Liess et al. (2021) und Weisner et al. (2021).
Technical Report
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The pilot study “Kleingewässermonitoring” was successfully implemented as a two-year monitoring program on residues of plant protection products (PPPs) in small streams. The chemical pollution and biological status of small streams in the agricultural landscape was investigated in-depth between April and July for more than 100 stream sections in 13 federal states in Germany. In addition to grab water samples according to the Water Framework Directive (WFD), event-based water samples were taken. The event-based water samples represent short-term pulse concentrations of pesticide residues following precipitation events. Also passive samplers (Chemcatcher and Sorb-Star) were exposed over three-week periods to obtain time-weighted average (background) concentrations of pesticides. Other anthropogenic stressors such as poor structural quality, nutrients, and oxygen depletion were also recorded in high resolution for the whole data set. The biological investigations included sampling of the aquatic invertebrate community and the algal community as well the ecosystem functions in the small streams. The results of the “Kleingwässermonitoring” show that the RAK values (Regulatory Acceptable Concentrations) from the authorization process for PPPs were exceeded for at least one active substance at over 73 % of the sites investigated. In particular, event-based samples showed high concentrations, which would not have been detected by the regular grab sampling. The revealed pollution resulting from the use of PPPs, correlates with the ecological quality of the water bodies. Findings of the bio indicator SPEARpesticides show that the majority (over 80 %) of the small streams in the German agricultural landscape fails a good ecological status. The “Kleingewässermonitoring” confirms that a realistic assessment of PPP contamination in small streams needs to include exposure peaks caused by precipitation events if results should be used for regulatory consequences. The pilot study revealed, that existing thresholds for PPP residues are regularly exceeded in small streams in Germany, even though PPP authorization is complex and often criticized as over-conservative by industry and farmers. Furthermore, ecological effects even if pollution is below these thresholds indicate, that regulatory thresholds derived from laboratory studies may not always be protective for field conditions. The data from this pilot study can be used to derive measures to reduce pollution of small streams by PPP use in the future.
Article
Signed in 2009, the plant protection Commission Regulation EC No 1107/2009 created a new category of active substances, the low-risk substances, with specific status defined in Article 22. The initial and specific criteria, not suitable for microorganisms and natural substances , were modified in 2018, and the first low-risk substance, allocating Part D of Regulation EC No 540/2011, was granted in the same year. Since then, thirty-three low-risk substances have been granted with this specific status through approvals and renewals, while a larger list of potential low-risk substances from already-approved active substances was published. This list is only exploited during renewals, and this process would take another five years to complete. After four years of the implementation of this status, the number of such substances is still low, but is intended to increase slowly. Two more low-risk substances are already pending in 2021, which will bring the number of low-risk substances to thirty-five, while the initial list of potential low-risk substances (only renewals) included fifty-seven substances.
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Present-day agricultural crop protection relies heavily on synthetic pesticides, which are known to adversely affect the environment and human health. As remediation, European agricultural policies strive for a transition to low-pesticide agriculture. However, these policy efforts have so far shown limited success. We argue that neglecting the diversity of the according routinized practices belongs to the reasons for that limited success. We specifically investigate how farmers' current local crop protection practices differ. Methodologically, the article is based on semi-structured interviews with farmers and crop protection experts as well as on qualitative data from a survey among Swiss farmers. Using practice theory to analyze our data, we identify the meanings, materials and competences in farmers’ practice narratives. From our analysis, five types of routinized crop protection practice emerge, revealing a picture of diversity, also in their responses to current incentive-based agri-environmental policy instruments. This diversity cannot be accommodated by a one-size-fits-all policy approach but rather requires a balanced mix, for example of command-and-control instruments, financial incentives and extension services.
Article
Historically, pesticides have shaped and revolutionized modern agriculture in successions and thus have played a major role in increasing agricultural productivity with a substantial reduction in losses and increased farm incomes. Fresh produce like vegetables is attacked by a large number of insects and pests which necessitates the use of pesticides as control agents and may result in direct toxicity or residue left in treated vegetables after the harvest. The issues of contamination and residues have an unavoidable threat to both the environment and human well-being. Different adverse health effects due to pesticide exposure or consumption through the contaminated food depend upon the type of pesticide and exposure duration as well. The use of pesticides should be restricted by appropriate and good agricultural practices (GAPs), rational use for specific target organisms, and alternative pest control strategies to reduce their health and environmental impact. Regulations governing pesticide use, training, and extension services should be given to the farmers. The biotransformation and bioaccumulation of the most commonly used pesticides should be carefully monitored and documented for the highest level of safety to the ultimate consumers. Further, research should be focused on searching for rapid analytical, detection, and removal techniques for the residues. The focus of this review is to provide updated information about the most commonly used pesticides and their bioaccumulation and biotransformation. Further, advancements in the detection techniques and the effect of processing or decontamination techniques on residue content in vegetable crops have been provided for the readers.
Article
While interactions with global warming and multigenerational effects are considered crucial to improve risk assessment of pesticides, these have rarely been studied in an integrated way. While heat extremes can magnify pesticide toxicity, no studies tested how their combined effects may transmit to the next generation. We exposed mosquito larvae in a full factorial, two-generation experiment to a heat spike followed by chlorpyrifos exposure. As expected, the heat spike magnified the chlorpyrifos-induced lethal and sublethal effects within both generations. Only when preceded by the heat spike, chlorpyrifos increased mortality and reduced the population growth rate. Moreover, chlorpyrifos-induced reductions in heat tolerance (CTmax), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and development time were further magnified by the heat spike. Notably, when parents were exposed to chlorpyrifos, the chlorpyrifos-induced lethal and sublethal effects in the offspring were smaller, indicating increased tolerance to chlorpyrifos. In contrast, there was no such multigenerational effect for the heat spike. Despite the adaptive multigenerational effect to the pesticide, the synergism with the heat spike was still present in the offspring generation. Generally, our results provide important evidence that short exposure to pulse-like global change stressors can strongly affect organisms within and across generations, and highlight the importance of considering multigenerational effects in risk assessment.
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Pesticide applications in agricultural crops often comprise a mixture of plant protection products (PPP), and single fields face multiple applications per year leading to complex pesticide mixtures in the environment. Restricted to single PPP, the current European Union PPP regulation, however, disregards the ecological risks of pesticide mixtures. To quantify this additional risk, we evaluated the contribution of single pesticide active ingredients to the additive mixture risk for aquatic risk indicators (invertebrates and algae) in 464 different PPP used, 3446 applications sprayed and 830 water samples collected in Central Europe, Germany. We identified an average number of 1.3 different pesticides in a single PPP, 3.1 for complete applications often involving multiple PPP and 30 in stream water samples. Under realistic worst-case conditions, the estimated stream water pesticide risk based on additive effects was 3.2 times higher than predicted from single PPP. We found that in streams, however, the majority of regulatory threshold exceedances was caused by single pesticides alone (69% for algae, 81% for invertebrates). Both in PPP applications and in stream samples, pesticide exposure occurred in repeated pulses each driven by one to few alternating pesticides. The time intervals between pulses were shorter than the 8 weeks considered for ecological recovery in environmental risk assessment in 88% of spray series and 53% of streams. We conclude that pesticide risk assessment should consider an additional assessment factor to account for the additive, but also potential synergistic simultaneous pesticide mixture risk. Additionally, future research and risk assessment need to address the risk from the frequent sequential pesticide exposure observed in this study.
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Widespread use of insecticides to control arthropod pests of agricultural, veterinary, and medical importance imposes selection for resistance to these chemicals. Resistance is an evolutionary adaptation conferred by genes encoding modified receptor proteins or enzymes that detoxify insecticides. Advances in insect biochemistry and genomics are casting light on underlying resistance mutations and mechanisms, and providing sophisticated tools for diagnosing changes in susceptibility over time and space. Strategies for combating resistance, based on knowledge of pest population genetics and ecology, are increasingly being used to prolong the effective lifespan both of conventional insecticides and of toxins genetically engineered into crop plants.
Technical Report
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EFSA’s Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues (PPR) was tasked to revise the Guidance Document (GD) on Aquatic Ecotoxicology under Council Directive 91/414/EEC (SANCO/3268/2001 rev.4 (final), 17 October 2002). This Guidance of the PPR Panel is the first of three requested deliverables within this mandate. It has its focus on tiered acute and chronic effect assessment schemes with detailed guidance on tier 1 and higher tier effect assessments for aquatic organisms in edge-of-field surface waters and on proposals regarding how to link effects to exposure estimates. The exposure assessment methodology was not reviewed and it is assumed that the current FOCUS surface water exposure assessment methodology will continue to be used for exposure assessment at EU level. The current GD is intended to be used for authorisation of active substances at EU level as well as for plant protection products at Member State level. The effect assessment schemes in this GD allow for the derivation of regulatory acceptable concentrations (RACs) on the basis of two options: (1) the ecological threshold option (ETO), accepting negligible population effects only, and (2) the ecological recovery option (ERO), accepting some population-level effects if ecological recovery takes place within an acceptable time period. In the tiered effect assessment schemes, in principle, all tiers (1, 2 and 3) are able to address the ETO, while the model ecosystem approach (tier 3), under certain conditions, is able to also address the ERO. The GD provides the scientific background for the risk assessment to aquatic organisms in edge-of-field surface waters and is structured to give detailed guidance on all assessment steps. An executive summary joining all parts of the guidance and decision schemes in a concise way is provided and is intended to help applicants and regulatory authorities in day-to-day use.
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General protection goals for the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of plant protection products are stated in European legislation but specific protection goals (SPGs) are often not precisely defined. These are however crucial for designing appropriate risk assessment schemes. The process followed by the Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues (PPR) of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as well as examples of resulting SPGs obtained so far for environmental risk assessment (ERA) of pesticides is presented. The ecosystem services approach was used as an overarching concept for the development of SPGs, which will likely facilitate communication with stakeholders in general and risk managers in particular. It is proposed to develop SPG options for 7 key drivers for ecosystem services (microbes, algae, non target plants (aquatic and terrestrial), aquatic invertebrates, terrestrial non target arthropods including honeybees, terrestrial non-arthropod invertebrates, and vertebrates), covering the ecosystem services that could potentially be affected by the use of pesticides. These SPGs need to be defined in 6 dimensions: biological entity, attribute, magnitude, temporal and geographical scale of the effect, and the degree of certainty that the specified level of effect will not be exceeded. In general, to ensure ecosystem services, taxa representative for the key drivers identified need to be protected at the population level. However, for some vertebrates and species that have a protection status in legislation, protection may be at the individual level. To protect the provisioning and supporting services provided by microbes it may be sufficient to protect them at the functional group level. To protect biodiversity impacts need to be assessed at least at the scale of the watershed/ landscape.
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Significance Agricultural systems are drivers of global environmental degradation. Insecticides, in particular, are highly biologically active substances that can threaten the ecological integrity of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Despite widespread insecticide application to croplands worldwide, no comprehensive field data-based evaluation of their risk to global surface waters exists. Our data show, for the first time to our knowledge at the global scale, that more than 50% of detected insecticide concentrations ( n = 11,300) exceed regulatory threshold levels. This finding indicates that surface water pollution resulting from current agricultural insecticide use constitutes an excessive threat to aquatic biodiversity. Overall, our analysis suggests that fundamental revisions of current regulatory procedures and pesticide application practices are needed to reverse the global environmental impacts of agrochemical-based high-intensity agriculture.
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Chronic exposure to widely used insecticides kills bees and many other invertebrates
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Large-scale use of the persistent and potent neonicotinoid and fipronil insecticides has raised concerns about risks to ecosystem functions provided by a wide range of species and environments affected by these insecticides. The concept of ecosystem services is widely used in decision making in the context of valuing the service potentials, benefits, and use values that well-functioning ecosystems provide to humans and the biosphere and, as an endpoint (value to be protected), in ecological risk assessment of chemicals. Neonicotinoid insecticides are frequently detected in soil and water and are also found in air, as dust particles during sowing of crops and aerosols during spraying. These environmental media provide essential resources to support biodiversity, but are known to be threatened by long-term or repeated contamination by neonicotinoids and fipronil. We review the state of knowledge regarding the potential impacts of these insecticides on ecosystem functioning and services provided by terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems including soil and freshwater functions, fisheries, biological pest control, and pollination services. Empirical studies examining the specific impacts of neonicotinoids and fipronil to ecosystem services have focused largely on the negative impacts to beneficial insect species (honeybees) and the impact on pollination service of food crops. However, here we document broader evidence of the effects on ecosystem functions regulating soil and water quality, pest control, pollination, ecosystem resilience, and community diversity. In particular, microbes, invertebrates, and fish play critical roles as decomposers, pollinators, consumers, and predators, which collectively maintain healthy communities and ecosystem integrity. Several examples in this review demonstrate evidence of the negative impacts of systemic insecticides on decomposition, nutrient cycling, soil respiration, and invertebrate populations valued by humans. Invertebrates, particularly earthworms that are important for soil processes, wild and domestic insect pollinators which are important for plant and crop production, and several freshwater taxa which are involved in aquatic nutrient cycling, were all found to be highly susceptible to lethal and sublethal effects of neonicotinoids and/or fipronil at environmentally relevant concentrations. By contrast, most microbes and fish do not appear to be as sensitive under normal exposure scenarios, though the effects on fish may be important in certain realms such as combined fish-rice farming systems and through food chain effects. We highlight the economic and cultural concerns around agriculture and aquaculture production and the role these insecticides may have in threatening food security. Overall, we recommend improved sustainable agricultural practices that restrict systemic insecticide use to maintain and support several ecosystem services that humans fundamentally depend on.
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In December 2013, the European Union (EU) enacted the reformed Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) for 2014–2020, allocating almost 40% of the EU's budget and influencing management of half of its terrestrial area. Many EU politicians are announcing the new CAP as “greener,” but the new environmental prescriptions are so diluted that they are unlikely to benefit biodiversity. Individual Member States (MSs), however, can still use flexibility granted by the new CAP to design national plans to protect farmland habitats and species and to ensure long-term provision of ecosystem services.
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Efforts to assess reductions in the hazard posed by pesticides in arable systems present complex problems to policy makers both nationally and at a European level. Attempts to monitor changes in hazard rely to a large extent on the quality of the surveillance and the indices used to collate multi-faceted data. This study is an update on previous work using the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) to evaluate changes in pesticide hazard following the introduction of the European Directive 91/414/EEC. Findings from the study suggest that pesticide hazard has decreased during the study period 1992–2008 although reduction was not even across all crop types or time periods, with limited change in the past six years. This study is proposed as baseline for further monitoring of the effectiveness of the new European regulations 1107/2009 ‘the placing of plant protection products on the market’ to further reduce the impact of pesticides on non-target organisms.
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Imidacloprid is one of the most widely used insecticides in the world. Its concentration in surface water exceeds the water quality norms in many parts of the Netherlands. Several studies have demonstrated harmful effects of this neonicotinoid to a wide range of non-target species. Therefore we expected that surface water pollution with imidacloprid would negatively impact aquatic ecosystems. Availability of extensive monitoring data on the abundance of aquatic macro-invertebrate species, and on imidacloprid concentrations in surface water in the Netherlands enabled us to test this hypothesis. Our regression analysis showed a significant negative relationship (P<0.001) between macro-invertebrate abundance and imidacloprid concentration for all species pooled. A significant negative relationship was also found for the orders Amphipoda, Basommatophora, Diptera, Ephemeroptera and Isopoda, and for several species separately. The order Odonata had a negative relationship very close to the significance threshold of 0.05 (P = 0.051). However, in accordance with previous research, a positive relationship was found for the order Actinedida. We used the monitoring field data to test whether the existing three water quality norms for imidacloprid in the Netherlands are protective in real conditions. Our data show that macrofauna abundance drops sharply between 13 and 67 ng l(-1). For aquatic ecosystem protection, two of the norms are not protective at all while the strictest norm of 13 ng l(-1) (MTR) seems somewhat protective. In addition to the existing experimental evidence on the negative effects of imidacloprid on invertebrate life, our study, based on data from large-scale field monitoring during multiple years, shows that serious concern about the far-reaching consequences of the abundant use of imidacloprid for aquatic ecosystems is justified.
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The EU-Directive for sustainable use of pesticides requires implementation of risk mitigation measures at streams which are threatened by pesticide entries. The need for mitigation measures was investigated at 10 stream sites within an intensively used arable region in central Germany by characterising pesticide exposure following edge-of-field runoff and effects on the aquatic macroinvertebrates. Moreover, the influence of riparian buffer strip width (as a mitigation measure) at the sampling sites was considered. Generally, invertebrate fauna was dominated by pesticide-tolerant species, suggesting a high pesticide exposure at almost all sites. This result is also reflected by the elevated levels of suspended particle contamination in terms of toxic units (logTU(Max) > -2), corresponding to 1/100 of the acute lethal concentration (LC(50) ) to Daphnia magna. At two sites that received high aqueous-phase entries of the pyrethroid lambda-cyhalothrin (logTU(Max) > -0.6), the abundance and number of sensitive species in terms of the SPEAR index decreased during the pesticide application period. In contrast, no acute significant negative effects on macroinvertebrates were observed at sites characterised by low water-phase toxicity (logTU(Max) < -3.5). An influence of riparian buffer strip width on pesticide exposure was not observed, supposedly because of the presence of erosion rills and ephemeral ditches. In conclusion, results show that mitigation measures (such as the improvement of currently present riparian buffer strips) are needed in the study area. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. © 2013 SETAC.
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The Fluxes of Agrochemicals into the Marine Environment (FAME) project, which was funded by the European Union, studied the presence and fate of pesticides in major European river/estuary systems. As part of the cooperation within FAME, samples from four rivers were sent to all participants. Each laboratory analyzed the samples with a range of techniques, thus creating a database that could not have been developed through individual efforts. In the present study, compounds are identified that are important to the contamination of the marine environment on the basis of their environmental concentrations and toxicological properties. Two risk assessment methods are used. The toxic unit method, which provides a first indication of the relative contribution of compounds to the total toxicity of a sample, and the inverse method of Van Straalen and Denneman, which has been used to assess the ecological risk of a selected set of compounds (i.e., atrazine, simazine, alachlor, and metolachlor). Environmental concentrations of these target compounds were determined at different seasons during a period of at least 1 year and, hence, variations in ecological risk patterns for different European river/estuary systems could be identified. The application of the risk assessment procedures is hampered by a lack of toxicological data. It is concluded, however, that pesticides exert a significant pressure on the aquatic system. To our knowledge, this is the first joint study in which the ecological risks of modern pesticides related to different European river/estuary systems are compared.
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In this study we compared the biodiversity of five waterbody types (ditches, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams) within an agricultural study area in lowland England to assess their relative contribution to the plant and macroinvertebrate species richness and rarity of the region. We used a Geographical Information System (GIS) to compare the catchment areas and landuse composition for each of these waterbody types to assess the feasibility of deintensifying land to levels identified in the literature as acceptable for aquatic biota. Ponds supported the highest number of species and had the highest index of species rarity across the study area. Catchment areas associated with the different waterbody types differed significantly, with rivers having the largest average catchment sizes and ponds the smallest. The important contribution made to regional aquatic biodiversity by small waterbodies and in particular ponds, combined with their characteristically small catchment areas, means that they are amongst the most valuable, and potentially amongst the easiest, of waterbody types to protect. Given the limited area of land that may be available for the protection of aquatic biodiversity in agricultural landscapes, the deintensification of such small catchments (which can be termed microcatchments) could be an important addition to the measures used to protect aquatic biodiversity, enabling ‘pockets’ of high aquatic biodiversity to occur within working agricultural landscapes.
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Constraints to the sustainability of insecticide use include effects on human health, agroecosystems (e.g., beneficial insects), the wider environment (e.g., non-target species, landscapes and communities) and the selection of insecticide-resistant traits. It is possible to find examples where insecticides have impacted disastrously on all these variables and others where the hazards posed have been (through accident or design) ameliorated. In this review, we examine what can currently be surmised about the direct and indirect long-term, field impacts of insecticides upon the environment. We detail specific examples, describe current insecticide use patterns, consider the contexts within which insecticide use occurs and discuss the role of regulation and legislation in reducing risk. We consider how insecticide use is changing in response to increasing environmental awareness and inevitably, as we discuss the main constraints to insecticide use, we suggest why they cannot easily be discarded.
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In recent years, neonicotinoid insecticides have been the fastest growing class of insecticides in modern crop protection, with widespread use against a broad spectrum of sucking and certain chewing pests. As potent agonists, they act selectively on insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), their molecular target site. The discovery of neonicotinoids can be considered as a milestone in insecticide research and greatly facilitates the understanding of functional properties of the insect nAChRs. In this context, the crystal structure of the acetylcholine-binding proteins provides the theoretical foundation for designing homology models of the corresponding receptor ligand binding domains within the nAChRs, a useful basis for virtual screening of chemical libraries and rational design of novel insecticides acting on these practically relevant channels. Because of the relatively low risk for nontarget organisms and the environment, the high target specificity of neonicotinoid insecticides, and their versatility in application methods, this important class has to be maintained globally for integrated pest management strategies and insect resistance management programs. Innovative concepts for life-cycle management, jointly with the introduction of generic products, have made neonicotinoids the most important chemical class for the insecticide market.
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The first book in two decades to address this multi-faceted field, The Toxicology and Biochemistry of Insecticides provides the most up-to-date information on insecticide classification, formulation, mode of action, resistance, metabolism, environmental fate, and regulatory legislation. The book draws on the author's groundbreaking research in insect detoxification. It discusses mechanisms at the molecular level such as specific enzymes that contribute to insecticide resistance, the modification of which can change insecticide susceptibility and influence host plant selections in phytophagous insects. Beginning with a general introduction, eleven chapters integrate classical toxicology with physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology to present a comprehensive look at the field. The book discusses the demand and formulation of pesticides and describes each type from dusts and powders to baits and aerosols. It classifies insecticides by target, chemical compound, and mechanism; evaluates toxicity testing procedures; explains pesticide uptake, mode of action, and metabolism; and explores species differences, resistance, and interactions. It also considers pesticides in the environment and federal and state regulatory legislation and enforcement. A long-awaited, state-of-the-science review on insect toxicology, this indispensable book brings you up-to-date on the many aspects and implications of pesticide use and provides the necessary background and platform from which to conduct future research.
Article
California (USA) agriculture employs pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides to control insects in orchards and other crops. Diazinon and esfenvalerate were selected for this study because of their application overlaps. Toxicological and biochemical responses of larval fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) exposed singly and in combinations to esfenvalerate and diazinon were determined. Exposures were 96-h static renewal tests that used standard U.S. Environmental Protection Agency acute toxicity test methods. After pesticide exposures, larvae were evaluated for carboxylesterase and acetylcholinesterase activity, and histopathological effects. Carboxylesterase activity was examined because of its potential influence on the toxicity of both organ-ophosphates and pyrethroids. In vivo studies demonstrated that diazinon significantly inhibited carboxylesterase activity at nominal water concentrations as low as 50 mug/L. However, esfenvalerate did not affect carboxylesterase activity at any concentration tested. Liver glycogen depletion was the only histopathological effect observed; this effect was demonstrated with the individual pesticides and pesticide combinations (i.e., mixtures). The combinations of diazinon and esfenvalerate causing acute toxicity to fathead minnow larvae appeared to be greater than additive (i.e., synergistic) in all three tests.
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In this paper we present a broad overview of the class of insecticides known as synthetic pyrethroids. The discussion includes a summary of agricultural and urban pyrethroid use patterns and trends, pyrethroid chemical structure and properties, the significance of photostability to pyrethroid environmental fate, and hydrophobicity, persistence and relative aquatic toxicity as compared to other pesticides. Finally we provide a brief summary of California's regulatory response to recent detections of pyrethroids in aquatic sediments and a discussion of scientific and regulatory issues associated with ongoing pyrethroid aquatic exposure assessments and mitigation efforts.
Article
The level of protection provided by the present environmental risk assessment (ERA) of fungicides in the European Union for fungi is unknown. Therefore, we assessed the structural and functional implications of five fungicides with different modes of action (azoxystrobin, carbendazim, cyprodinil, quinoxyfen, and tebuconazole) individually and in mixture on communities of aquatic hyphomycetes. This is a polyphyletic group of fungi containing key drivers in the breakdown of leaf litter, governing both microbial leaf decomposition and the palatability of leaves for leaf-shredding macroinvertebrates. All fungicides impaired leaf palatability to the leaf-shredder Gammarus fossarum and caused structural changes in fungal communities. In addition, all compounds except for quinoxyfen altered microbial leaf decomposition. Our results suggest that the European Union's first-tier ERA provides sufficient protection for the tested fungicides, with the exception of tebuconazole and the mixture, while higher-tier ERA does not provide an adequate level of protection for fungicides in general. Therefore, our results show the need to incorporate aquatic fungi as well as their functions into ERA testing schemes to safeguard the integrity of aquatic ecosystems.
Article
Neonicotinoids are now the most widely used insecticides in the world. They act systemically, travelling through plant tissues and protecting all parts of the crop, and are widely applied as seed dressings. As neurotoxins with high toxicity to most arthropods, they provide effective pest control and have numerous uses in arable farming and horticulture. However, the prophylactic use of broad‐spectrum pesticides goes against the long‐established principles of integrated pest management ( IPM ), leading to environmental concerns. It has recently emerged that neonicotinoids can persist and accumulate in soils. They are water soluble and prone to leaching into waterways. Being systemic, they are found in nectar and pollen of treated crops. Reported levels in soils, waterways, field margin plants and floral resources overlap substantially with concentrations that are sufficient to control pests in crops, and commonly exceed the LC 50 (the concentration which kills 50% of individuals) for beneficial organisms. Concentrations in nectar and pollen in crops are sufficient to impact substantially on colony reproduction in bumblebees. Although vertebrates are less susceptible than arthropods, consumption of small numbers of dressed seeds offers a route to direct mortality in birds and mammals. Synthesis and applications . Major knowledge gaps remain, but current use of neonicotinoids is likely to be impacting on a broad range of non‐target taxa including pollinators and soil and aquatic invertebrates and hence threatens a range of ecosystem services.
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The paper assesses the usefulness of the concept of ‘concentration addition’ (CA) for describing the joint effect of pesticides on aquatic organisms, based on literature data from 1972 to 1998. For more than 90% of 202 mixtures in 26 studies, CA was found to predict effect concentrations correctly within a factor of two. Although from a theoretical point of view the assumption of CA may be invalid when dealing with mixtures of compounds with dissimilar modes of action, the experimental results have usually been indistinguishable from that predicted by CA. Deviations from CA did occur, but were mostly limited in extent. Upward and downward deviations from CA were of comparable magnitude and frequency, and tended to cancel each other out. The combinations identified as most frequently leading to deviations from CA were those of an organophosphorus ester or a carbamate with either another organophosphorus ester or a synthetic pyrethroid.© 2000 Society of Chemical Industry
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Recent studies have shown that neonicotinoid insecticides have adverse effects on non-target invertebrate species. Invertebrates constitute a substantial part of the diet of many bird species during the breeding season and are indispensable for raising offspring. We investigated the hypothesis that the most widely used neonicotinoid insecticide, imidacloprid, has a negative impact on insectivorous bird populations. Here we show that, in the Netherlands, local population trends were significantly more negative in areas with higher surface-water concentrations of imidacloprid. At imidacloprid concentrations of more than 20 nanograms per litre, bird populations tended to decline by 3.5 per cent on average annually. Additional analyses revealed that this spatial pattern of decline appeared only after the introduction of imidacloprid to the Netherlands, in the mid-1990s. We further show that the recent negative relationship remains after correcting for spatial differences in land-use changes that are known to affect bird populations in farmland. Our results suggest that the impact of neonicotinoids on the natural environment is even more substantial than has recently been reported and is reminiscent of the effects of persistent insecticides in the past. Future legislation should take into account the potential cascading effects of neonicotinoids on ecosystems.
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Significance Protection of freshwater ecosystems from organic pollutants is important to preserve biodiversity and the goods they provide to society, such as clean drinking water and recreation. Organic chemicals have been shown to adversely impact freshwater ecosystems in local and regional studies. Nevertheless, due to paucity of studies on larger spatial scales, it remains unknown how widespread the risk from organic chemicals is. For the first time, to our knowledge, we provide strong evidence that chemicals threaten the ecological integrity and consequently the biodiversity of almost half of the water bodies on a continental scale, based on the analysis of governmental monitoring data from 4,000 European sites. Due to limitations associated with the monitoring programs, our results are likely to underestimate the actual risks.
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A comprehensive assessment of pesticides in surface waters is challenging due to the large number of potential contaminants. Most scientific studies and routine monitoring programs include only 15-40 pesticides, which leads to error-prone interpretations. In the present study, an extensive analytical screening was carried out using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry, covering 86% of all polar organic pesticides sold in Switzerland and applied to agricultural or urban land (in total 249 compounds), plus 134 transformation products; each of which could be quantified in the low ng/L range. Five medium-sized rivers, containing large areas of diverse crops and urban settlements within the respective catchments, were sampled between March and July 2012. More than 100 parent compounds and 40 transformation products were detected in total, between 30 and 50 parent compounds in each two-week composite sample in concentrations up to 1500 ng/L. The sum of pesticide concentrations was above 1000 ng/L in 78% of samples. The chronic environmental quality standard was exceeded for 19 single substances; using a mixture toxicity approach, exceedances occurred over the whole measurement period in all rivers. With scenario calculations including only 30-40 frequently measured pesticides, the number of detected substances and the mixture toxicity would be underestimated on average by a factor of 2. Thus, selecting a subset of substances to assess the surface water quality may be sufficient, but a comprehensive screening yields substantially more confidence.
Article
FOCUS models are used in European regulatory risk assessment to predict the frequency and magnitude of individual pesticide surface water concentrations. A recent study showed that these models are not protective in the prediction of insecticide concentrations in surface waters and sediments. Since fungicides differ with regard to their physicochemical properties, application patterns and entry routes, we compared a larger data set of 417 measured field concentrations (MFC) of agricultural fungicides in surface waters and sediments from 56 studies to the respective predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) calculated with FOCUS step 1-4. Although the fraction of the underestimation of fungicide MFC values was generally lower than that obtained for insecticides, 12% of step 3 and 23% of step 4 PECs were exceeded by surface water MFCs. Taking only the 90th percentile concentration of every substance and only E.U. studies into account (E.U. studies: n = 327; 90th percentile + E.U. studies: n = 136), a maximum of 25% of the step 3 and 43% of the step 4 PECs were exceeded by surface water MFCs, which is an even worse outcome than that obtained for insecticides. Our results demonstrate that FOCUS predictions are neither protective nor appropriate for predicting fungicide concentrations in the field in the context of European pesticide risk assessment.
Article
: Intensity and duration of exposure dictate the effect of a toxicant. Consequently, any assessment of ecological risk that does not include a sound understanding of both concentration and duration effects is compromised. This being the case, it is surprising that the predominant approach in ecotoxicology (concentration-effect modeling) inefficiently includes exposure duration. Ecological risk assessment can be enhanced with time-to-event models that can easily include concentration, exposure duration, and other important covariates. Time-to-event methods are described and linkage made to relevant ecological techniques, i.e. life table analyses and genetic selection models.
Article
Crop protection chemistry has come a long way from its "alchemic" beginnings in the late 19th century to a high-tech science that supports the sustainable production of food, feed, and fiber for a rapidly growing population. Cutting-edge developments in the design and synthesis of agrochemicals help to tackle today's challenges of weed and pest resistance, higher regulatory safety margins, and higher cost of goods with the invention of selective, environmentally benign, low use rate, and cost-effective active ingredients.
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Pesticides are authorized in the European Union under Directive 91/414/EEC. This is a two-stage process that involves EU-wide assessment for Annex I listing followed by individual Member State assessment. Recently the concept of an Ecologically Acceptable Concentration (EAC) has been used during both stages of environmental risk assessments. The EAC is a concentration at which no “unacceptable” ecological effects occur and has been interpreted as a concentration at which “acceptable” effects may be allowed to occur. This article reviews the implications of the EAC concept for pesticides risk assessment and proposes improvements to make its use more objective.
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The biodiversity crisis is one of the greatest challenges facing humanity, but our understanding of the drivers remains limited. Thus, after decades of studies and regulation efforts, it remains unknown whether to what degree and at what concentrations modern agricultural pesticides cause regional-scale species losses. We analyzed the effects of pesticides on the regional taxa richness of stream invertebrates in Europe (Germany and France) and Australia (southern Victoria). Pesticides caused statistically significant effects on both the species and family richness in both regions, with