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Climate Change, Biodiversity and Human Health

June 2015

In book: Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health. A State of Knowledge Review
Publisher: WHO, Geneva
Editors: World Health Organisation- Convention on Biological Diversity

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Cristina Romanelli

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13. Climate change, biodiversity

and human health

1. Introduction

Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of

our time. It is now widely recognized that climate

change and biodiversity loss¹ are interconnected,

and that both are increasingly influenced by

human activity (IPCC 2014; Pereira et al. 2010;

Campbell et al. 2009; Bellard et al. 2012; Parmesan

et al. 2011; Rockström et al. 2009; Beaumont et al.

2011; CBD 2009, 2003). he recently released Fifth

Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) supports previous

ﬁndings that climatic change will probably be

perilously aggravated unless robust climate

adaptation and mitigation measures are adopted.²

Tot al g ree nho use gas ( GHG ) emi ssions ³ resulting

from anthropogenic activity have risen more

rapidly between 2000 to 2010 than in any other

period in human history (IPCC 2014b),⁴ and the

potential impacts of anthropogenic activity on

biodiversity under business-as-usual scenarios

are but another reminder of the critical need for

action (CBD 2010; 2014). he impacts of climate

change will be ampliﬁed as it interacts with a

range of other drivers; a warming climate not

only threatens the stability and functioning of our

planet’s biological and physical systems but also

poses direct and indirect threats to global public

health, with more pronounced impacts on the

world’s most vulnerable populations (McMichael

et al. 2006, 2012; Parmesan and Martens 2009;

Haines et al. 2006).

¹ he Fifth Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD highlighted the risks of climate change, in particular, to coral reefs

(decision V/3) and to forest ecosystems (decision V/4), and drew attention to the serious impacts of biodiversity loss on

these systems and their associated livelihoods. he cross-cutting issue on biodiversity and climate change was included in

the work under the Convention in 2004 through decision VII/15 of the COP. Among other subsequent COP decisions on

climate change, at its tenth meeting the COP in decision X/20 para 17b requested the executive Secretary to explore avenues

for bridging the gaps between work being carried out to address the impacts of climate change on public health and work

to address the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.

² hese reports of the working groups and the synthesis report of AR5 are available at http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/.

³ Based on the most recent IPCC estimates, the greatest contributors of greenhouse gases are: CO

2 (76%); CH4 (about 16%),

N2O (about 6%) and the combined F-gases contribute about 2% (IPCC 2014a).

⁴ From 2000 to 2010, GHG emissions grew on average 2.2% per year compared to 1.3% per year over the entire period from

1970 to 2000. Moreover, although more recent data are not available for all gases, “initial evidence suggests that growth in

global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion has continued with emissions increasing by about 3% between 2010 and

2011 and by about 1–2% between 2011 and 2012” (IPCC 2014b). By sector, the largest sources of GHG emissions came

from energy production, agriculture, forestry and land use (AFOLU), and industry (IPCC 2014a).

222 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

C. Romanelli, A.G. Capon, M. Maiero, D. Campbell-Lendrum, C. Butler, C. Corvalan, R. Issa, R.

McFarlane, C. Tirado von der Pahlen (Chapter authors)

he chapters in this volume have drawn attention

to a number of risks posed to human societies

by the degradation of the earth’s ecological and

climatic systems, including threats to water

and food security, air quality, the availability of

natural resources used for medicinal, spiritual or

recreational purposes and livelihoods, population

displacement, conﬂict and disasters, and potential

inﬂuences on patterns of disease. hese burdens,

however, are not evenly distributed. he greatest

impacts often fall upon the most vulnerable

populations, including women, children and

poverty-stricken communities who are often

least directly responsible for global environmental

change, yet particularly vulnerable to the risks

posed by multiple environmental stresses

(Türkeş 2014). hey are also, most frequently,

the least able to assess and address these risks.

Vulnerable communities face a double challenge:

the combined effects of climate change and

biodiversity loss undermine the partial progress

made to achieve the Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs), which in turn further weakens

not only ecosystem integrity but also country or

community ability to respond to these risks.

1.1 Impacts of climate change on

human health

hough anthropogenic climate change has been

scientifically recognized since the nineteenth

century, real interest in the topic began in 1957,

during the International Geophysical year, with

the prophetic remark that “human beings are now

carrying out a large-scale geophysical experiment

of a kind which could not have happened in the

past nor be reproduced in the future”(Callendar

1958). By the time of the establishment of the

IPCC by the World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) and the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) in 1988, this was clearly

understood, as the IPCC was called on to assess

“the scientific, technical and socioeconomic

information relevant for the understanding of the

risk of human-induced climate change.”

In the health literature, recognition of links

between public health and climate change is

now over a quarter century old, with pioneering

papers in 1989⁵ published in the world’s two

leading English-language medical journals – the

Lancet and the New England Journal of Medicine

(Anonymous 1989; Leaf 1989). In the latter,

Alexander Leaf stated that the “United States,

with more than 19,000 km of coastline, will not

be spared. For example, much of Florida sits

on porous limestone. Miami has such a porous

aquifer that a protective dike against rising sea

levels would have to start more than 45 m (150

ft) beneath the surface to prevent salt water

from welling up behind it. Displaced people and

less arable land would compound the problem

of feeding the world’s increasing population.”

He added: “Probably the most widespread and

devastating consequences of global environmental

changes are likely to result from their eﬀects on

agriculture and food supplies for the world’s

burgeoning population” (Leaf 1989).⁶

Health awareness and expertise on the subject of

climate change and health was too young for the

topic to be explicitly included in the ﬁrst IPCC

report (1990). his was corrected in the second

report, shortly followed by publication of the

ﬁrst edited book on climate change and health

(McMichael et al. 1996; see also McMichael et al.

2003). he World Health Organization (WHO) –

which published the books – continues to play

a leading role in developing the topic. Today,

the issue of climate change and health attracts

widespread interest from the public health sector

and is increasingly prominent in the international

scientiﬁc literature. Increased attention by the

scientiﬁc community has been accompanied by

growing awareness of the issues among broader

public and civil society. Some analysts have

expressed the hope that a general awakening by

the public to the health risks of climate change will

accelerate the nascent “sustainability transition”

needed to ensure the survival of civilization

⁵ hat same year, the World Health Organization (WHO) set up a task group on the subject and in 1990 published a report

on the “potential health eﬀects of climate change”. Available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1990/WHO_PEP_90_10.pdf

⁶ An article published in the Lancet that same year raised the additional possibility of conﬂict associated with climate change

(Anonymous 1989).

223Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

(McMichael et al. 2000), even beyond that of

commensurate awareness in other disciplines.

he myriad health eﬀects of climate change can

be categorized into three broad categories (Butler

2014a): direct, indirect and tertiary. While it is

diﬃcult to catalogue all the impacts of climate

change on human health, Box 1 summarizes a

threefold approach that can help us conceive

primary, secondary and tertiary impacts that

aﬀect the biodiversity–health nexus.

⁷ Several plausible reasons have been put forth to explain their lack of prominence – the most likely being the interdisciplinary

nature of these issues in the context of a scientiﬁc community that is still poorly equipped to equitably hear, consolidate

and incorporate numerous competing interests, including those of social scientists (Castree et al. 2014; Heller and Zavaleta

2009). hus, recent scientiﬁc culture has been reluctant to venture beyond a fairly narrow band of thinking, eﬀectively

tabooing integrative cross-sectoral analysis and written reﬂection on challenges such as diﬀerences in economic, political,

cultural and other forms of power, population growth, the “right” to unbridled consumption and limits to growth and

corresponding impacts on health, biodiversity and life-sustaining ecosystem services.

Direct

Direct health impacts are those that are directly, causally attributable to climate change and/or

climate variability, such as cardiovascular risk associated with heat waves, or risk of injury associated

with more intense and frequent storms. The recent ƥndings of Working Group III of the IPCC have

indicated, with a high degree of conƥdence, that the impacts of recent climate-related extremes,

including heat waves, droughts, Ʀoods, cyclones and wildƥres, have already led to vulnerability

and exposure of some ecosystems and several human systems to current climate variability. Such

extreme weather events impact vulnerable groups such as the poor and elderly the most, though the

adverse eƤects on human health can be ameliorated to a certain extent by social and technological

mediators, such as improved urban design and building standards (e.g. Santamouris 2013; Brown and

Southworth 2004; Birkman et al. 2010).

Despite scientiƥc argument over whether the witnessed increase in heat waves, ƥres and adverse

crop yields in Eurasia in 2010 were random or had been exacerbated by anthropogenic climate

change, the event still directly contributed to 50 000 excess deaths (Barriopedro et al. 2011). The

subsequent rise in global grain prices further indirectly impacted human health and food security

among vulnerable populations worldwide ()ohnstone and Mazo 2011). As such, the eƤects of climate

change on water, food security and extreme climatic events are likely to have profound direct impacts

on global public health (Costello et al. 2009). Heat-wave induced mortality of food source species,

ecological keystone species, and disease vectors and reservoirs are other examples of primary eƤects.

Indirect

Indirect health impacts arise as downstream eƤects of climate change and variability. These impacts

are broad and variable in their etiology, such as change in infectious disease vector distribution and

air pollution interacting with heat waves.

The changing ecology of disease-bearing vectors was raised by Leaf in 1989, though the health impacts

of climate change on vector-borne diseases has been contested by some ecologists (e.g. LaƤerty

2009) and experts from within the disease community (e.g. Gething et al. 2010; Randolph 2009). The

debate is ƥnally showing signs of abatement for some of the most prevalent vector-borne diseases,

including malaria. Consensus is emerging that, indeed, climate change does magnify such risks (Siraj et

Box 1. Direct, indirect and tertiary impacts of climate change on human health

224 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

Many authors in this volume point to numerous

synergies (“co-beneﬁts”) that could ﬂow to both

human well-being and ecological “health” from a

more biosensitive approach to our relationship

with nature (Boyden 2004), such as the co-beneﬁts

of cycling on both health and environment.

Awareness of these co-beneﬁts may also accelerate

global social transformation (Haines et al. 2009;

Raskin et al. 2002). On the other hand, many

forms of inertia: social, institutional, technological

and perhaps, above all, climatological, slow and

impede the likelihood of a successful transition,

most notably an enormous countermovement,

funded and fuelled by vested interests proﬁting

from “environmental brinkmanship” (Butler

2000). Delay is also worsened by the scientiﬁc

knowledge gaps of many economists and policy-

makers, who have been very slow to awaken to the

risks we face, and who are instead wedded to more

conservative or sectoral measures of progress, or

to the hope that technological innovation alone

will eventually solve the problem.

1.2 Vulnerability of biodiversity to

impacts of climate change

The earth’s biota was shaped by fluctuating

Pleistocene concentrations of atmospheric

carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitation;

it has undergone multiple evolutionary changes

and adopted natural adaptive strategies. Until

the advent of industrialization, changes in

climate occurred over an extended period of

time, in a landscape much less degraded and

fragmented than today, and with considerably

less – if any – pressure from anthropogenic

activity. Habitat fragmentation has confined

many species to relatively small areas within

their previous ranges, resulting in reduced genetic

variability (Parmesan and Matthews 2006) and

other changes to structure and composition (CBD

2009). Warming beyond the highest temperatures

reached during the Pleistocene will continue to

stress biodiversity and ecosystems far beyond

the levels imposed by the climatic changes that

occurred in the evolutionary past (Templeton et

al. 1990; Parmesan 2006).

he impacts of climate change on biodiversity

operate at diﬀerent levels (including microbial,

individual, population, species, community,

ecosystem and biome), with variable responses

at each level (Bellard et al. 2012; Parmesan

and Martens 2009). For example, increased

temperatures coupled with decreases in the

distribution of precipitation may reduce

freshwater levels in lakes and rivers (Campbell

et al. 2009). Warmer temperatures cause ﬁsh

al. 2014), though advances in technology, prevention and treatment can combine to reduce the burden

of diseases like malaria (Feachem et al. 2010). Climate change directly contributes to damage of both

infrastructure and human settlements, resulting in human mortality and morbidity that includes the

mental health and well-being of survivors (IPCC 2014d). In countries at all stages of development, these

impacts are consistent with a lack of preparedness for climatic variability in some sectors; the most

salient manifestations will be among the poorest and most vulnerable populations (IPCC, 2014d).

Tert i a ry

The third – “tertiary impacts” – category is, by a number of magnitudes, the most important health

risk associated with climate change (Butler 2014b). These include the health impacts of large-scale

famine, forced migration and human conƦict, which result from the geophysical and ecological

consequences of climate change, including the alteration of ecosystems, sea-level rise, and long-

term disruptions in water supply and food production. Surprisingly, with rare exceptions, this group

of eƤects has been little mentioned in the intervening decades, including in the most recent IPCC

reports released in 2014.ƺ These must be considered more holistically as we prepare to embark upon

new global commitments on climate change and a post-2015 Development Agenda.

225Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

populations to redistribute towards the poles, and

tropical oceans to become relatively less diverse

(CBD 2010). In other systems, drought may cause

some tree species to disappear and in turn also

fundamentally aﬀect both vegetation structure

and species composition (February et al. 2007).

Models of future biome distributions in tropical

South America have found that substantial

shifts in the region may lead to the substitution

of Amazonian forest cover by savannah-like

vegetation (Salazar et al. 2007; Lapola et al.

2009). he interaction between climate change,

deforestation and ﬁre can also lead to widespread

forest dieback, with some parts moving into a

self-perpetuating cycle of more frequent ﬁres and

intense droughts. At the same time, more frequent

and powerful forest ﬁres can compromise both the

productivity of forests and their ability to store

carbon (Barlow and Peres 2008; Bush et al. 2008).

hese combined impacts often lead to a reduction

in regional rainfall, compromising agricultural

production, livelihoods and food security (CBD

2010). Other models examining changes in natural

vegetation structure and function in response to

climate change predict that changes in vegetation

cover in the tropics,⁸ particularly in portions of

West and southern Africa and South America,

also include forest dieback (Alo and Wang 2008;

Barlow and Peres 2008). Continued warming

trends in oceans will accompany acidiﬁcation as

a result of increased carbon emissions, resulting

in widespread degradation of tropical coral

reefs⁹ (Doney et al. 2009; Carpenter et al. 2008;

Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007; Orr et al. 2005), and

aﬀecting the genetic and species diversity and

composition of marine species such as molluscs,

with corresponding impacts on our own sources

of food, medicines, recreation and transportation

(Bellard et al. 2012). Pollution is another pressure

interacting with climate change (Seinfeld and

Pandis 2012), and causing disruption to aquatic

(Schiedek et al. 2007), terrestrial (Cramer et al.

2001) and marine ecosystems (Harvey et al. 2006).

It is diﬃcult to analytically separate the inﬂuence

of each of these drivers, as anthropogenic climate

change and its eﬀects are intimately dependent on

interactions with other pressures such as land-use

change and attendant habitat loss, and changes in

water use, which themselves feed back into the

hydroclimatic cycle (Elmhagen et al. 2015). hese

interactions in turn inﬂuence the ability of natural

systems to respond at various spatial and temporal

scales (Campbell et al. 2009). Further research on

the complex interactions between these variables is

critical, and we must also consider the underlying

socioeconomic and other drivers of land-use change

at multiple scales (Elmhagen et al. 2015; Lambin

et al. 2001; Myers et al. 2013), and integrate input

from a larger number of disciplines.¹⁰

An abundant number of predictive scenarios

have shown no signs of abatement without the

implementation of additional measures, including

robust climate mitigation and adaptation

strategies (e.g. IPCC 2014; CBD 2014). Alarmingly,

some recent studies suggest that the impact of

climate change on biodiversity has been estimated

to have surpassed that attributed to land-use

change and habitat loss (Selwood et al. 2014). As

scientiﬁc research on individual drivers continues

to proliferate, the impact of simultaneous multiple

drivers, such as climatic changes driven by human

water use for both food and energy production,

remains a critical area for further research (Bellard

et al. 2012; Destouni et al. 2013; Elmhagen et al.

2015).

⁸ It should be noted that simulated biosphere responses are model-dependent.

⁹ Tropical coral reefs and amphibians have already been among the most negatively aﬀected global biota, and range-restricted

species, most notably polar and mountaintop species, have already led to species extinctions (Parmesan 2006). Current

rates and magnitude of species extinctions (terrestrial, freshwater and marine) far exceed normal background rates, with

increases of up to 1000 times that of historical background rates (MA 2005).

¹⁰ For example, Lambin et al. (2001) suggest that land-use change is driven by both proximate causes (which are local and

direct, and explain how and why anthropogenic activity acts on land cover and on ecosystem processes at a local scale), and

underlying causes (indirect or root causes based on regional and sometimes global policies, economic forces and technological

advancement that interact with and mediate the relationship at the local scale). he complex interactions between proximate

and underlying causes interact over time (in a limited number of ways) to drive land management decisions and practices.

226 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

2. Climate change challenges at

the intersection of biodiversity

and human health

Climate change and variability have irreversible

impacts on the global environment by altering

hydrological systems and freshwater supplies,

advancing land degradation and loss of

biodiversity, and debilitating food production

systems and ecosystem services, thus aﬀecting

health outcomes (WHO 2005). hese factors are

closely interrelated, as deforestation, industrial

agriculture and centralized livestock production

systems further accelerate climate change and

biodiversity loss, thus contributing potential risks

to food security, nutrition, and other aspects of

health, livelihoods and well-being.

he IPCC has identiﬁed key risks across sectors

and regions including, among others: (i) risk of loss

of biodiversity of marine and coastal ecosystems,

the goods and services they provide for coastal

livelihoods, especially for ﬁshing communities

in the tropics and the Arctic, challenging

sustained ﬁsheries and aquaculture; (ii) risk of

loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems,

biodiversity, and the ecosystem goods, functions

and services they provide for livelihoods; and (iii)

risk of food insecurity and the breakdown of food

systems linked to warming, drought, ﬂooding,

and precipitation variability and extremes,

particularly for poorer populations (Field et al.

2014). In addition, rising CO2 levels over the next

century is likely to aﬀect food nutritional quality,

including the decrease of protein concentration

and other nutrients of many human plant foods

(Taub 2008; Fernando 2012; Myers 2014). Ocean

acidiﬁcation due to increased CO2 concentration

poses substantial risks to marine ecosystems,

especially polar ecosystems and the biodiversity

of coral reefs, thus challenging invertebrate

ﬁsheries and aquaculture (Portner et al 2014).

Reductions in marine biodiversity due to climate

change and ocean acidiﬁcation might reduce the

discovery of marine genetic resources useful in the

pharmaceutical, aquaculture and other industries

(Arrieta et al. 2010).

Climate-driven shifts in species distribution,

abundance, seasonal cycles, desynchronized timing

of life history events and ecosystem disruptions

caused by extreme weather events have profound

potential to disrupt and erode ecosystem services,

release pathogens from previous constraints, and

leave human populations ill-equipped to deal with

compounding health challenges. However, studies

of human health as a complex social–ecological

system, replete with climate vulnerability,

are relatively recent (McMichael and Wilcox

2009). Figure 1 shows the complexity of the

nexus between climate, biodiversity and social

interactions. Resilient or vulnerable communities

may cope better, or worse, with both climate and

biodiversity changes. Although building resilient

communities is essential, in particular, given

existing pressures on climate and ecosystems, the

most eﬃcient response is to jointly halt carbon

emissions and ecosystem destruction.

Attributing causality is complex (Parmesan et al.

2011; Parmesan and Yohe 2003) and presents a

challenge to meta-analyses and the translation

of scientiﬁc research into simple strategies for

health or conservation agencies. Despite this

challenge, observation and predictive studies

of the direct, indirect and cumulative eﬀects of

climate change on human health acting through

multiple levels of biodiversity are increasing. his

body of information is guiding surveillance and

further targeted research.

he breadth of interest in addressing climate

change within the context of interlinked human,

animal and ecosystem health at a global scale

is discussed in the subsections below. We can

identify several complex relationships with the

primary, secondary and tertiary eﬀects introduced

in Box 1.

2.1 Climate change, food security and

nutrition

he combined risks noted in the preceding section

and in the chapters on agricultural biodiversity and

nutrition constitute a challenge for food security

and nutrition. his is particularly the case for the

least developed countries and most vulnerable

227Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

communities, such as indigenous populations,

subsistence farmers and gatherers, pastoralists,

coastal populations and artisanal ﬁsherfolk (FAO

2008; Tirado et al. 2010). According to the IPCC,

the risks of global aggregate impacts are moderate

for additional warming between 1°C and 2°C,

reﬂecting impacts to both the earth’s biodiversity

and the overall global economy. However,

extensive biodiversity loss with associated loss

of ecosystem goods and services results in high

risks at around 3°C additional warming (Field et

al. 2014).

Major climate impacts on water availability and

food security aﬀect disproportionately the welfare

of the poor, including indigenous populations,

women and girls, female-headed households

and those with limited access to land, modern

agricultural inputs, infrastructure and education

(Field 2014). Indigenous peoples rely on their

natural resources for the provision of traditional

foods, fuel and medicines, and will be particularly

aﬀected by the impacts of climate on ecosystems,

biodiversity and the environment (FAO 2008;

Tirado et al. 2010). Traditional food systems are

further threatened because of increasing loss of

indigenous peoples’ traditional territories due to

climate change mitigation measures such as carbon

sinks and renewable energy projects (FAO 2008).

he demand for biofuel is likely to remain high,

and this may result in the clearing of biodiverse

land, such as tropical forests and wetlands, for the

purpose of biofuel cultivation (Tirado et. al 2010).

In this context, it is essential to look for the

co-benefits of nutrition-sensitive climate

ǡǤǢǰǭǠɻ Interactions between climate, biodiversity and social factors. Health is at the centre, in the

intersection of these three drivers. The arrows are not causal but an expression of the dynamics inherent

in the drivers. Social factors may be protective or harmful to health and well-being; climate drivers impact

on biodiversity, on the social factors and directly or indirectly on health. Changes in biodiversity and

ecosystems interact synergistically with climate change and are inƦuenced by social factors. These feedback

loops may magnify biological change and they sometimes exacerbate negative human health outcomes,

directly or indirectly.

Resilient or

vulnerable

communiƟes

FuncƟoning

or impaired

ecosystem

services

Health

Direct,

Indirect,

Ter Ɵary

impacts

Water

Food

Air

Climate drivers:

Temp e rat ure

PrecipitaƟon

Extreme climate

Health &

nutriƟonal

status

MigraƟon

Community

Engagement,

TradiƟonal

knowledge

228 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

adaptation and mitigation strategies (Tirado et

al. 2013). Across varying global landscapes, the

ability for family farms, integrated agroforestry

and farming systems to conserve, restore or

augment biodiversity (e.g. species, genetic

and ecosystem diversity) offer opportunities

to enhance dietary diversity and nutrition,

and promote climate resilience, especially as

considered within broader social, economic and

environmental policy frameworks. Adaptation

measures targeting biodiversity (and ecosystem

diversity) can simultaneously provide nutrient-

rich food, and beneﬁt the environment through

supporting services such as pollination, nutrient

cycling, temperature and water regulation, soil

formation and pest control (CBD 2010).

2.2 Climate change and water security

As the chapter on freshwater and agricultural

biodiversity in this volume describes, the

provision of clean water for drinking, sanitation

and agricultural uses is both an essential service

regulated by ecosystems and an important health

determinant (WHO 2012). While the long-term

impacts of climate change on water resources

are diﬃcult to quantify, it is well established that

human communities are reliant on groundwater

for drinking, sanitation and other uses essential to

human survival; yet rising sea levels cause saline

water intrusion into essential groundwater aquifers

near coastal regions, decreasing the availability of

water resources for human purposes (Vörösmarty

et al. 2000). Climate change contributes to more

intermittent and intense precipitation patterns,

increases the risks of ﬂoods, droughts and other

hazards, causes the melting of glaciers and

increases evapotranspiration rates, amplifies

existing global public health challenges, and

further destabilizes the balance of environmental

and social systems (WHO 2012).

Variations in the hydrological cycle resulting

from climate change must be closely monitored

(Vörösmarty et al. 2000), together with the

physical, biological and chemical processes that

drive them at multiple levels, with consideration

for the socioeconomic and political contexts of

our human-dominated earth system (Bogardi et

al. 2012). In this context, eﬀective responses will

necessitate innovative cross-sectoral initiatives

and integrative climate adaptation and mitigation

strategies, such as ecosystem based-adaptation

(e.g. see Box 3).

2.3 Climate change impacts on

traditional medicines, pharmacology

and toxicology

Diversity in the production of secondary chemical

products remains an important source of existing

and new metabolites of pharmacological interest

in medicinal plants, and this may be aﬀected by

climate change (Ziska et al 2009). Few studies

have examined how pharmacological compounds

might respond to recent or projected changes in

CO2 and/or temperature. For example, increases

in growth temperature and CO2 affect the

production and concentration of atropine and

scopolamine in jimson weed (Datura stromonium)

(Ziska et al. 2005), and recent and projected

CO2 concentrations increase the production of

morphine in wild poppy (Papave r setige rum) (Ziska

et al. 2008).

More than 700 plant species are poisonous to

humans. Rising temperatures and longer growing

seasons would in principle increase the presence

of such species in the environment, but the

interaction between CO2 and on the concentration

or production of such poisons and plant toxicology

is largely unknown (Ziska 2015) and needs to be

explored. More than 100 diﬀerent plant species

are associated with contact dermatitis, which

occurs by contact with plant chemical irritants

present in leaves, ﬂowers, savia roots, etc. One

well-known chemical is urushiol that induces

contact dermatitis in the poison ivy group

(Toxicodendron/Rhus spp.). Poison ivy growth and

urushiol congeners are highly sensitive to rising

CO2 levels (Mohan et al. 2006). hese results

suggest possible links among rising CO2, plant

biology and increased contact dermatitis. his area

deserves further research.

229Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

2.4 Climate change and infectious

disease emergence and re-emergence

The complex interactions between ecological

factors and climate change increasingly predict

changes in the global epidemiology of many

vector-borne and waterborne diseases (WHO

2012). his is of growing interest and concern

for scientists from a variety of ﬁelds, including

ecology, microbiology, epidemiology and related

medical ﬁelds (Lipp et al. 2002). Additionally,

interest is garnered from experts in the social

sciences, aware of the close relationship between

the geophysical environment and the economic

and social systems it sustains. Such interest

emerges from concerns over human and animal

health problems vulnerable to the interaction

between climate change and other factors, such

as increasing antibiotic resistance (Patz et al.

2005; Epstein 2001), emerging infectious diseases

(Jones et al. 2008; Wilson 1991), and potential

vulnerabilities of medicinal and aromatic plant

(MAP) species.¹¹ hese, in turn, have subsequent

influence on the cultural and socioeconomic

determinants of health (Cavaliere 2009; Padulosi

et al. 2011).

here is mounting evidence that climate change

will alter the patterns of animal (Altizer et al. 2013;

Harvell et al. 2002), plant (Pautasso et al. 2012)

and human (Patz et al. 2005; Purse et al. 2005)

diseases. Additional evidence suggests that rising

temperatures and changing humidity and rainfall

patterns have already altered the distribution of

some waterborne illnesses and disease vectors

(IPCC 2014d), notably affecting populations

with little or no acquired resistance and, as such,

causing health systems to be destabilized (WHO

2012). For example, as the chapter on water

quality indicates, cholera (causative agents Vibrio

cholerae O1 and Vibrio cholerae 0139) remains

a major public health problem, with ongoing

outbreaks occurring in low-income countries with

poor access to sanitation infrastructure¹² (Ali et

al. 2012). Rising ocean temperatures aﬀect the

ecology of the aquatic environment, for example,

by increasing algal blooms, with corresponding

implications for the epidemiology of diseases

such as cholera. he population dynamics of this

pathogenic microorganism in the environment is

strongly inﬂuenced by environmental factors such

as salinity, seasonal patterns and the presence of

copepods,¹³ which in turn are modulated by larger-

scale changes in climate (Lipp et al. 2002; Vineis et

al. 2011). Prolonged ﬂoods and droughts may also

contribute to water contamination and potentially

exacerbate the risks of cholera and other forms of

diarrhoeal disease (WHO 2012).

In natural systems, changing climatic variables can

fundamentally inﬂuence successional processes

and community dynamics. For example, a 12-year

warming experiment in Colorado, USA, to evaluate

the damage of pathogens and herbivores on six

of the most common plant species (i.e. Artemisia

tridentata, Helianthella quinquenervis, Erigeron

speciosus, Potentilla gracilis, Potentilla hippiana and

Lathyrus leucanthus) found that plants exposed to

warmer temperatures suﬀered the most damage

and were attacked by a larger number of species.

The study concluded that climatic changes

are likely to result in changes to community

composition (Roy et al. 2004). Although there are

few long-term datasets (for examples, see Jeger

and Pautasso 2008; Fabre et al. 2011), a large

number of other scientiﬁc analyses and modelling

projects have been carried out to examine the

impacts of climate change on plant pathogens

and many have reached similar conclusions (see

Pautasso et al. 2012 and references therein).

¹¹ Whether climate change poses a more prominent threat to MAP species than other threats such as unsustainable use is

not established. However, the potential eﬀects on MAPs may be particularly signiﬁcant due to their cultural and medical

value within traditional medicine systems (Cavaliere 2009). Moreover, given that many wild species, including MAPs, grow

in mountainous regions, it is likely that at least some will be at risk (Padulosi et al. 2014).

¹² According to recent WHO estimates, only 5–10% of the actual number of cholera cases occurring worldwide are reported,

and of the estimated 3–5 million cases that occur globally every year, about 100 000 to 120 000 people die (Ali et al. 2012).

¹³ he causative agents of cholera include brackish waters (Tamplin et al. 1990) and crustacean copepods (Huq et al. 1983),

and climate change contributes to an increase in both.

230 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

Box 2 discusses the impact of heat waves and other

extreme weather events on fruit bats and bat-borne

diseases. Loss of host predators and competitors,

changes in parasite and pathogen survival and

reproduction are additional mechanisms by which

climate change impacts infectious disease. For

malaria, disease transmission-enhancing changes

have been described in the population dynamics

of both the mosquito vector, and the pathogen

within it, including altitudinal and latitudinal

range shifts in Africa and South America (Siraj

et al. 2014). While for many human diseases the

potential eﬀects of climate change are obscured

by socioeconomic factors and control eﬀorts,

strong evidence of climate eﬀects on infectious

disease comes from invertebrate, animal and plant

diseases (Altizer et al. 2013).

Bats, and fruit bats in particular, became the focus of increased human health interest after

novel diseases, including Nipah virus disease and SARS, emerged in the 1990s–2000s. Land-use

change and bush meat hunting are the suspected primary reasons for shifts in host and pathogen

relationships (Luis et al. 2013) but the impact of climate is likely to be an additional factor in their

emergence and continued transmission, as these species are capable of Ʀying long distances to

optimize resources and ƥnd alternative roosts. Widespread bushƥres in Sumatra were suspected of

inƦuencing fruit bat–pathogen dynamics prior to the emergence of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1998

(Chua 2003). While epidemic enhancement and agricultural intensiƥcation are co-factors (Pulliam et

al. 2012), it remains possible that the ƥres and other climatic stress factors on food resources have

inƦuenced viral loads and spillover (Daszak et al. 2013).

More speculatively, climate change, together with deforestation and other land-use changes, has

been hypothesized as a contributing factor in the recent outbreak of Ebola virus in West Africa (see

also the chapter on infectious diseases in this volume). It is diƧcult to isolate climate as a driver in

the context of extensive deforestation and profound economic and public health failures, further

undermined by years of civil conƦict (Bausch and Schwarz 2014). However, prolonged depression

of primary forest production during lengthy droughts in central Africa followed by sudden rainfall

events appears to enhance the opportunity for Ebola transmission between bats and other wildlife

that concentrate on available resources (Tucker et al. 2002).

During the Australian summer of 2014, an estimated 100 000 fruit bats fell dead in the streets

of Brisbane and south-eastern Queensland towns. (The number that died outside urban areas is

unknown.) The bats are highly temperature sensitive (Welbergen et al. 2008) and it is unlikely they

could survive a heat wave with temperatures above 43°C. Removing corpses was a major exercise

for the urban authorities, and gloves and collection bins were supplied to residents. At least 16

people were treated for possible Australian bat lyssavirus (related to rabies and fatal without

immunoglobulins) after they were scratched or bitten by dying bats. It is yet to be understood

what eƤect the deaths will have on the bat colonies themselves. The 2011 spike and dispersed

distribution of another zoonotic (transmissible to humans) Australian bat-borne disease, Hendra

virus, is believed to be a consequence of the dispersal of bats after widespread Ʀooding in south-

east Queensland following Cyclone 8asi in 2010. The higher latitude range extension of two host

species of this disease, and increased urbanization of all four, in preceding decades are suspected

factors in disease emergence (Plowright et al. 2011).

Box 2. Bat-borne diseases, climate, heat waves and extreme weather events:

mounting evidence of important relationships

231Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

2.5 Climate change and disaster risk

reduction

Based on recent data from the United Nations

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

(UNISDR), well over 80% of disasters are related

to climate, contribute enormously to economic

losses and, as the chapter on disaster risk

reduction in this volume also indicates, trigger

short- and long-term population displacement.¹⁴

he impact of climate change on the frequency

and intensity of extreme weather events, such as

extreme precipitation, coastal ﬂooding and heat

waves, is already exacerbating risks to unique and

threatened ecosystems, costing human lives and

decreasing the viability of human settlements. In

the last decade of the twentieth century, extreme

weather events accounted for the death of some

600 000 people and caused damages worth billions

of dollars (Hales et al. 2003). Based on the most

recent ﬁndings of Working Group II of the IPCC,

the risks posed by some extreme events, such as

heat waves, are likely to be enhanced with only 1°C

of additional warming. A large number of species

and systems with limited adaptive capacities,

including Artic sea ice and coral reef systems, are

considerably threatened by a warming climate

and, from a human perspective, many cultures

are already at risk. he distribution of impacts

from extreme weather events is uneven, with

disadvantaged and vulnerable populations in

countries at all levels of development being at

greatest risk (IPCC 2014d).

Rising sea levels caused by the warming of the

ocean, glacial melt and wetlands alteration (e.g.

Syvitski et al. 2009) can cause increased ﬂooding

and the erosion and inundation of coastal

ecosystems, further endangering wetlands

and posing concomitant threats to coastal

communities, including those of small island

developing states (SIDS).¹⁵ Without a signiﬁcant

scaling up of climate adaptation eﬀorts, it has

been projected that the rise in sea levels could

increase the number of people exposed to coastal

ﬂooding more than tenfold by 2080 (a rise of

more than 100 million people a year) (CBD 2010).

Rising seas could also impact on human health

and well-being through an increase in salination

of coastal freshwater aquifers, and by disrupting

storm water drainage and sewage disposal (Patz

2001). In turn, repeated ﬂooding or increased

salination can lead to population displacement,

thereby further heightening the vulnerability

of populations (Costello et al. 2009). As several

case studies in the chapter on disaster risk have

shown, refugees suﬀer substantial health burdens,

overcrowding, lack of shelter and competition for

resources, which is also often associated with

conﬂict (WHO 2012).

he United Nations (UN) World Conference on

Disaster Risk Reduction recently adopted the

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

2015–2030, recognizing the intimate links

between disaster risk, climate change and

poverty. he conﬂuence of these conditions lead

to a convergence of less resilient built, natural and

human environments, making populations more

vulnerable to displacement, disease and the loss

of livelihoods. To meet the resulting ambitious

global targets, as well as those that may emerge

from other global frameworks in 2015 – including

under the UN Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) process on climate change and

in the UN post-2015 Development Agenda – each

of the sectors must meaningfully engage, together

with political authorities, local communities, civil

society, and the public at large to understand and

address the combined risks of poverty, land-use

change, ecosystem degradation, climate change

and poor urban planning.

¹⁴ See http://www.unisdr.org/archive/42862 from 6 March 2015.

¹⁵ he recently concluded “SAMOA Pathway” that emerged from the third UN Conference on Small Island Developing States

held in September 2014 highlights the importance of a range of issues at the nexus of biodiversity, health and development,

including climate change, in the context of particular threats faced by SIDS. See for example: http://www.sids2014.org/

index.php?menu=1537.

232 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

ã.5.1 %ountain e;osQsteEs and ;liEate

;hange at the interse;tion of Oater and

food se;uritQ disease eEergen;e and

extreEe Oeather eNents

Mountain ecosystems are critically important

centres of biodiversity. hey play a unique role in

the supply of services essential to human survival,

especially critical to mountain dwellers and

lowland communities. Occupying approximately

one ﬁfth of the land’s surface, mountains play a

critical role in the water cycle both by capturing

moisture from air masses and as water sources¹⁶

stored as snow, ice and permafrost, which provide

fresh water to sustain communities, agriculture,

energy production (primarily hydroelectric

power), downstream industries and livelihoods

(Price 1998). he large majority of the planet’s

major rivers and tributaries depend on water

that begins the terrestrial phase of its cycle in

mountain regions (Bajracharya and Shrestha

2011; Bandyopadhyay et al. 1997; MA 2005; CBD

2012). In arid and semi-arid regions, over 90% of

river ﬂow is derived from mountains (Price, 1998).

Mountain ecosystems are particularly vulnerable

to the impacts of climate change, with

corresponding impacts on the populations reliant

upon the critical resources and services they

provide, including water, energy, timber and food

(see Box 3).

The Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH), otherwise referred to as the greater Himalayan region, extend

from eastern Nepal and Bhutan to northern Afghanistan, and have among the most extensive areas

covered by glaciers and permafrost on the planet. They contain water resources that drain through

ten of the largest rivers in Asia,ƴƻ from which over 1.3 million people derive their livelihoods and

upon which many more depend for water and other resources (Eriksson et al. 2009). The region has

been recognized as a uniquely biodiversity-rich area with equally unique topographic characteristics

and socioeconomic and environmental challenges. The accelerated rate of warming,ƴƼ glacier ice

melt and related implications on the hydrological systems of central, south and east Asia are among

the most widely cited (Armstrong 2010; Eriksson et al. 2009). The retreating of glaciers (in this region

and elsewhere) is a sentinel indicator of climate change but also one of the most diƧcult to quantify,

given the physical and spatial complexity of glaciers and data collection.ƵƳ

Ongoing challenges in regions in which large proportions of the population live in mountain

communities, such as Bhutan and Nepal, include poverty, poor medical support, less access to

education and shorter life expectancies. While climate change may bring some beneƥts to mountain

Box 3. Climate change and ecosystem-based adaptation in the Hindu Kush HimalayasƸƾ

¹⁶ In the greater Himalaya region, it is estimated that snow and glacial melting contribute approximately 50% of annual river

ﬂows (Eriksson et al. 2009).

¹⁷ Here, the term Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) sometimes referred to as greater Himalayan region, includes the Himalayan,

Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Pamir and Tien Shan mountain ranges, where there is currently glacier coverage. he HKH,

however, does not constitute one single region, as the eastern Himalayas are separated from the Karakoram–Hindu Kush

mountains by approximately 2000 km, though there is no sharp separation between east and west. Diﬀerences in climate

and in glacier behaviour and dynamics have been reported across the area, with variations in these conditions throughout

(Armstrong 2010).

¹⁸ hese are the Amu Darya, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus, Irrawaddy, Mekong, Salween, Tarim, Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.

¹⁹ It has been estimated that global warming in the region has been 0.6 ºC per decade versus 0.74 ºC per hundred years as a

global average (Eriksson et al. 2009).

²⁰ Several glaciers in the extended HKH region are retreating but the extent of the impact of climate change on glacier ice is not

well known as glacier data in the Himalayas and surrounding mountains are very sparse and conditions vary signiﬁcantly

along the south–east to north–west transect of the Himalayan–Karakoram–Hindu Kush mountain ranges (Armstrong 2010).

233Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

2.6 Climate change and urbanization

he global urban transition provides challenges

and opportunities for health at the intersection

of climate change and biodiversity. Currently,

urban populations are growing by more than

1 million people every week and, by 2030, it is

estimated that 2 in every 3 people will live in

urban areas – a total of more than 6 billion urban

dwellers worldwide. Most future population

growth will be in small- and medium-sized

cities in low- and middle-income countries.

Urban health inequalities are well documented

(WHO and UN-HABITAT 2010), and rapid,

unplanned urbanization threatens biodiversity

and exacerbates public health challenges across

diﬀerent levels of economic development. Climate

change especially ampliﬁes health risks among

regions (e.g. longer growing seasons), mountain dwellers and lowland communities also face a

broad and unique range of climate-related health risks. These include water and food shortages,

increased risk of natural disasters and the expansion of water-related and vector-borne diseases

(Ebi et al. 2007; Ahmed and Suphachalasai 2014).Ƶƴ Increased variability in precipitation patterns

(including variability in monsoon and more frequent extreme rainfall), coupled with increased risk

of extreme weather events and glacial ice melt are predicted to increase the risk of Ʀoods (carrying

rock, sediments and debris), landslides, threats to forest ecoregions including increased forest ƥres

in some areas, soil erosion, and habitat and ecosystem disruption,ƵƵ damage to infrastructure and

property, injury and loss of human life (Ahmed and Suphachalasai 2014; Armstrong 2010; Ebi et

al. 2007). Of particular concern in the region are the potentially devastating impacts on mountain

dwellers and lowland communities from glacial lake outburst Ʀoods, which have become more

frequent since the latter half of the twentieth century (WHO 2005; Armstrong 2010).

Addressing the threats posed or compounded by climate change demands the development of

integrated and holistic approaches for the management of mountain ecosystems that sustain the

Ʀow of life-supporting services. This can be achieved with innovative adaptation solutions (including

ecosystem-based adaptation), such as sustaining highland wetland systems that provide water

regulation, other services and habitats for critical animal and plant species (including medicinal

plants), or new technologies such as drip irrigation systems (CBD 2012; Chettri 2011).

Ecosystem-based adaptation in fragile mountain ecosystems such as HKH can not only provide

co-beneƥts at the global or national level but may also be integrated into regional policies to

jointly encourage climate change adaptation, biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, and

development at a landscape level (Sharma et al. 2010). In the HKH, holistic ecosystem-based

adaptation strategies that emphasize adaptation as an interdisciplinary issue have been advocated.

These interventions seek to achieve the sustainable management of the transboundary reserve

system through the application of landscape-based solutions to jointly reduce the vulnerabilities

of biodiversity and local communities to climate change and other drivers by restoring endemic

vegetation, developing connectivity between ecosystems, and monitoring large-scale changes to

increase the social and economic resilience of local populations (Chattra et al. 2009).

²¹ For example, the reduced availability and quality of freshwater or changes in monsoon patterns can at once aﬀect agricultural

production by decreasing crop yield, increasing water and food insecurity (particularly for those living at altitudes of 2500

m or higher) and lead to a rise in the prevalence of waterborne diseases such as diarrhoeal disease (Ebi et al. 2007). he

impacts on agriculture and food production can also be especially severe. For example, in Nepal, an estimated 64% of all

cultivated area is dependent on monsoon rainfall (Chaudhary and Aryal 2009).

²² Some species may even become extinct as a result of gradual habitat loss resulting from global warming, particularly in

mountain biota above the tree line, and in high latitude and high altitude biomes (Chaudhary and Aryal 2014; Chapin 2004).

234 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

poor and vulnerable communities, including

through inundation in low-lying cities and the

health risks from inadequate water supply,

sanitation and housing. However, aﬄuent urban

areas also face new challenges. In addition to other

negative health impacts described throughout

this volume, recent ﬁndings suggest that climate

change may contribute to an increased incidence

in allergies, particularly in urban areas.

Climate change may alter the diversity,

production, allergenicity, distribution and timing

of airborne allergens. hese changes contribute

to the severity and prevalence of allergic disease

in humans. Increased CO2 and temperature

is altering seasonality and beginning to aﬀect

the quantitative and/or qualitative aspects of

the three distinct plant-based contributions to

allergenic pollen: trees in the spring, grasses and

weeds in the summer, and ragweed (Ambrosia

spp.) in the fall (autumn) (Ziska et al. 2015). For

example, a recent study on changes in climate

in the United States has found that rising

temperatures, altered precipitation patterns,

and increasing atmospheric CO2 are expected to

contribute to increasing levels of some airborne

allergens, and associated increases in asthma

episodes and other allergic illnesses, compared

to a future without climate change (Neal et al.

2015). Several prior studies using urban areas as

proxies for both higher temperatures and CO2 also

showed earlier ﬂowering of pollen species, which

may lead to a longer total pollen season (Neil

and Wu 2006; George et al. 2007). Microclimatic

eﬀects of urbanization have been associated with

longer pollen seasons and earlier ﬂoral initiation

in European cities (Rodriguez-Rajo et al. 2010).

As climate change, biodiversity loss and other

pressures combine to pose new challenges, they

also present new opportunities for positive

development to protecting biodiversity, health

and well-being, including in urban areas and at

subnational levels (Puppim de Oliveira et al.

2010). Further multidisciplinary study of these

various intersections and greater collaboration

across various scales of governance, including

local governance and communities, are a necessary

prerequisite to meeting these challenges (Reid

2015). As the next section discusses, ecosystem-

based conservation and adaptation provide

important opportunities for communities to play

a central role in the development of strategies to

address climate change.

3. Ways forward

3.1 Ecosystem-based adaptation and

ecosystem-based mitigation

Biodiversity conservation can support eﬀorts

to reduce the negative eﬀects of climate change

through ecosystem-based approaches to mitigation

and adaptation.²³ Conserved or restored habitats

can remove CO

from the atmosphere, thus helping

to address climate change by storing carbon (for

example, reducing emissions from deforestation

and forest degradation). Mangroves are natural

sources of biodiverse food, ﬁsh, shells, fruits,

fuel, medicines, and they act as natural bioshields

that protect coastal lands and local communities

from the impacts of climate-related extreme

weather events, and also contribute to carbon

sequestration. Adaptation strategies to conserve

intact mangrove ecosystems or to repopulate them

can thereby help attenuate potentially severe

impacts of climate change, including ﬂooding

and storm surges, while contributing to climate

mitigation eﬀorts and saving human lives (Das

and Vincent 2009).

Many successful examples of ecosystem-based

approaches are beginning to emerge.²⁴ Ecosystem-

based adaptation (EBA) activities can include:

establishing diverse agroforestry systems to

²³ Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) integrates the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services into an overall climate change

adaptation strategy, while ecosystem-based mitigation (EBM) involves using ecosystems for their carbon storage and

sequestration abilities, by creating, restoring and sustainably managing ecosystems as a climate mitigation strategy.

²⁴ For example, the forest rehabilitation project in Krkonoše and Sumaya National Parks in the Czech Republic is one of several

examples of the implementation of ecosystem-based adaptation strategies and the challenges they have encountered (see

Naumann et al. 2011; Dowald and Osti 2011).

235Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

cope with increased risk from climate change;²⁵

sustainable management of upland wetlands

and ﬂoodplains for maintenance of water ﬂow

and quality; conserving agrobiodiversity to

provide speciﬁc gene pools for crop and livestock

adaptation to climate change; maintaining or

restoring mangroves or other coastal wetlands

to reduce coastal flooding and erosion; and

conservation and restoration of forests to

stabilize land slopes and regulate water ﬂows

(Munang et al. 2013). EBA and ecosystem-based

mitigation (EBM) strategies and approaches can

additionally be highly cost–eﬀective options that

provide a range of social, economic and cultural

co-beneﬁts while proactively responding to the

adverse impacts of climate change, safeguarding

biodiversity and contributing to the livelihoods of

local communities (CBD 2009; Doswald and Osti

2011; Goulden et al. 2009).

In Central and South America, there are

several examples of EBM strategies that

support the establishment of protected areas,

conservation agreements and community

resource management. Resilient crop varieties,

climate forecasts and integrated management

of water resources are also being adopted in the

agricultural, aquaculture and silviculture sectors

(IPCC 2014d). Aqua–silviculture systems, which

integrate mangrove forestry with ﬁsh and crab

aquaculture ponds, are commonly used in South-

East Asia. hese systems are more resilient to

shocks and extreme events, and they also lead to

increased production due to improved ecosystem

services. While climate change adaptation is

becoming embedded in some planning processes,

the implementation of responses remains variable

and requires strengthening (IPCC 2014d). EBM

and EBA strategies that include communities as

a central component of planning, address the

governance and policy context within which they

are developed, and build on interdisciplinary

scientiﬁc inquiry, provide valuable opportunities

to address these challenges, and to scale up

these strategies through mainstreaming and

diversiﬁcation across sectors (Reid 2015).

4. Conclusion

A range of local (e.g. invasive species) and global (e.g.

long-range pollution) stressors can make natural

adaptation more diﬃcult in the face of accelerating

climate change. In the absence of robust climate

mitigation and adaptation strategies, the rate and

extent of anthropogenic activity contributing to

climatic changes will continue to aﬀect biodiversity,

constrain the capacity of ecosystems to deliver

essential services, and aﬀect human health both

directly and in combination with other drivers and

pressures. hese include land-use change, pollution,

population growth, urbanization and globalization

(Campbell et al. 2009; Parmesan and Martens

2009). hese demand the adoption of a broad range

of multilevel sustainable-use and conservation

practices (e.g. strengthening protected area

networks; ensuring adaptive management through

monitoring and evaluation). he full involvement

of communities and policy-makers alike is a key

determinant of their success (Martínez et al.

2012). Additionally, climate change adaptation

and mitigation strategies cannot be dissociated

from health equity considerations, without which

equity gaps are likely to increase with a resounding

impact on the social determinants of health for the

poorest, most vulnerable communities (Costello

et al. 2009).

There is a reservoir of important indigenous

traditional knowledge, which is an invaluable

resource for climate change adaptation and

biodiversity conser vation in indigenous

populations, and increases the effectiveness

of adaptation planning strategies (Field et al.

2014; Bennett et al. 2014). Indicators of climate

adaptation and resilience should also include

nutrition outcomes such as the Dietary Diversity

at the Household level (HDDS), including

Women’s Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS) or the

new indicator Minimum Dietary Diversity for

²⁵ Forests provide a carbon reservoir as they contain about 60% of all carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems (CIFOR 2007),

and they can serve as important buﬀers for climate adaptation strategies. As deforestation contributes a large proportion

of global carbon emissions, curbing deforestation and investing in reforestation activities are a critical adaptation strategy

(Chaudhary and Aryal 2009).

236 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

Women (MDD-W ), which has been suggested

for consideration as one of the priority nutrition

indicators for the post-2015 Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs).

Conserving natural terrestrial, freshwater and

marine ecosystems and restoring degraded

ecosystems (including their genetic and species

diversity) are also essential for the overall goals

of both the CBD and the UNFCCC. he key role of

ecosystems in the global carbon cycle, for climate

change adaptation, for the provision of a wide

range of ecosystem services essential to human

health and well-being, and for the broader goals of

sustainable development, including the MDGs and

SDGs that will follow (Haines et al. 2012), make

an ecosystem approach indispensible. Since 2008,

WHO has also adopted a very active programme

to guard human health from the impacts of

climate change²⁶ and it recently hosted its ﬁrst

international conference on related health issues.²⁷

While somewhat buﬀered against environmental

changes by culture and technology, human health

is fundamentally dependent on the continuing

ﬂow of ecosystem services (Corvalán et al. 2005).

Among poor and vulnerable populations in

particular, climate change is already aﬀecting

health in myriad ways and, more generally,

climate change presents increasing future health

threats worldwide (McMichael et al. 2012).

Climate change aﬀects health through primary,

secondary and tertiary mechanisms, including

its impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem service

provision (Butler 2014a), adding urgency to the

task of addressing other international health

priorities (Haines et al. 2012). he recognition

that climate change mitigation strategies can

have substantial beneﬁts for both health and

biodiversity conservation presents policy options

that are potentially both more cost–eﬀective and

socially attractive than are those that address these

priorities independently (Haines et al. 2009).

he magnitude and breadth of these impacts

will require large-scale cross-sectoral efforts

and integrative approaches to the analysis of

environmental change and health outcomes.

In turn, these must draw not from an isolated

analysis of health impacts but also draw on

historical and contemporary insights about the

underlying “factors that have determined the

structure and distribution of biodiverse systems”

(Hoberg and Brooks 2015). Holistic strategies for

climate change mitigation and adaptation, which

jointly consider multiple objectives, including

biodiversity conservation and livelihoods, will

likely be more eﬀective and sustainable than

stand-alone strategies that focus on any single

objective, such as carbon sequestration (Heller

and Zavaleta 2009).

Looking ahead, global health leaders are now

calling for a “planetary health” approach with

strengthened focus on threats to human

civilizations and, ultimately, human survival,

from disturbances in planetary systems (Horton

2013; Lancet-Rockefeller Foundation Commission

on Planetary Health 2015), and an ecosocial

understanding of health, which acknowledges

its ecological, economic and social foundations.

here is a pressing need to formally recognize

key environmental limits and processes, and

the thresholds that we must respect in order

to maintain the sustainability of our planet

(CBD 2014; Rockström et al. 2009). he current

reliance on gross domestic product (GDP) as the

primary indicator of success has led to perverse

outcomes and has not delivered fair levels of well-

being for society or individuals (Fleurbaey and

Blanchet 2013). Contraction and convergence

will bring potential health beneﬁts (Stott 2006).

Accounting for beneﬁts to health and well-being

in development decision-making can encourage

transitions to more sustainable and equitable

patterns of resource use and consumption and,

at the same time, improve population health (Dora

et al. 2014). hese changes are essential to avoid

widespread and profound damage to ecosystems,

upon which human survival ultimately depends.

²⁶ World Health Assembly resolution 61.19: Climate change and health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008. Available

at: http://www.who.int/phe/news/wha/en/index.html.

²⁷ http://www.who.int/globalchange/mediacentre/events/climate-health-conference/en/

237Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health

Williams, D. R., & Huffman, M. G. (1986). Recreation

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Environmental influences on childhood asthma: Climate change

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May 2023
PEDIATR ALLERGY IMMU

Climate change is a key environmental factor for allergic respiratory diseases, especially in childhood. This review describes the influences of climate change on childhood asthma considering the factors acting directly, indirectly and with their amplifying interactions. Recent findings on the direct effects of temperature and weather changes, as well as the influences of climate change on air pollution, allergens, biocontaminants and their interplays, are discussed herein. The review also focusses on the impact of climate change on biodiversity loss and on migration status as a model to study environmental effects on childhood asthma onset and progression. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are urgently needed to prevent further respiratory diseases and human health damage in general, especially in younger and future generations.

Are all the flowers the same? A Citizen Science mobile app for increasing awareness about insect pollinators

Conference Paper

Jul 2022

Can pikas hold the umbrella? Understanding the current and future umbrella potential of keystone species Pika (Ochotona spp.)

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

The umbrella species concept is a frequently used concept in conservation since the conservation of an umbrella species may benefit other species. Keystone species are often suggested as potential umbrella species, but the validity of this approach remains uncertain. Moreover, climate change can have a multidirectional effect on the distribution of species, in which the distribution of umbrella species can be affected differently than that of beneficiary species. The validity of applying the umbrella species concept in conservation may thus be jeopardized by climate change. This study assessed the potential of two keystone species, the plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) and the Daurian pika (Ochotona dauurica), to be umbrella species for 13 potentially beneficiary species under current and future environmental conditions. Of these 13 species, five currently only co-occur with the plateau pika, five only with the Daurian pika, and three with both pika species. Current and future distributions of the pika species and potentially beneficiary species were predicted using bioclimatic and land-use variables. Range overlaps, Pearson correlations, niche similarity tests and relative suitability tests were performed to assess the umbrella potential of both pika species. Our results show that at present, both pika species may be considered to be umbrella species, benefitting several co-occurring species. However, species that currently co-occur with both pika species will not benefit from conservation of either of the pikas in the future years under climate change scenarios. The plateau pika loses its potential to act as umbrella species for two of the four species which currently may benefit. We can conclude that keystone species like pikas can act as umbrella species for carefully selected potentially beneficiary species under current conditions. Due to climate change related shifts in species distributions, they may however lose their umbrella species status in the future, which should be considered when selecting species conservation strategies.

Occupational exposure to airborne pollen and associated health risks among gardeners: a perception-based survey

Article

Full-text available

May 2022
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

Airborne pollen are considered a major trigger of respiratory diseases that causes morbidity and subsequently affects a person’s quality of life (QOL). Outdoor workers, such as gardeners, florists, etc., are at greater risk of allergies due to continuous exposure to the high concentration of allergens. The current study aims to assess the associated health risks among gardeners due to occupational exposure to airborne pollen. A semi-structured questionnaire-based survey was conducted among gardeners (496) in Chandigarh, covering their socio-demographic status, occupational and environmental history, and respiratory and other health-related problems. Out of 496 respondents from 26 gardens in the city, 72.58% fall under the category of plantsman (mali), followed by 15.72% of grass cutters and 3.02% of headmali/supervisor. The majority of gardeners were males (95.76%) and a maximum number of respondents were in the age group of 29–38 years (27.41%). Among all, 4.2%, 3.6%, and 3.2% of respondents perceived the problem of shortness of breath and breathing problems. At the same time, 3.2% of respondents perceived that their breathing is never wholly satisfactory and surprisingly, all of them are plantsman (mali). Moreover, 18.9% of the respondents covered their faces with a cloth and only 0.5% of the respondents wore both spectacles and covered their faces with a cloth. Out of all respondents, 6.5% reported irritation in the eyes without wearing any personal protective device. The results show that a large proportion of gardeners are illiterate and unaware of occupational hazards and pollen allergies in their workplaces. Moreover, the regulatory authorities conduct no formal health awareness and training/education sessions to minimize the exposure and associate risk. The findings of the study will aid in a better understanding of the working conditions and health status of occupational gardeners, as well as the development of appropriate methods to improve their working conditions.

Public Health Issues from the Exposure to Nitrogen Oxides: A Brief Review

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017

Changes in the modern way of life happened due to the industrial revolution, along with the evolution and increase in the use of technology. Despite the existing benefits, these changes caused the accumulation of pollutants and the proliferation of environmental pollution. From this perspective, the problem of exposure of humans to pollutants and contaminants in everyday life and working environments has been emerged. Air pollutants are a special category of which an interesting subcategory is the pollutants of nitrous oxides, rising sharply in the years of industrialization and automation of human life. In the present study, we will examine the properties of air pollutants, and in particular those of nitric oxides, referring to their environmental impacts and hence to the working environment, since the effects are similar along with some public health issues emerging from human exposure to the oxides of nitrogen.

Atopic eczema is an environmental disease

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Aug 2021

It is obvious that social, biogenic, and anthropogenic environmental factors, as well as nutrition contribute to the development and course of atopic eczema. Social deprivation and stress have a negative impact on atopic eczema symptoms, and social change in recent decades has led to a "westernized" lifestyle associated with high prevalence of atopic eczema in industrialized countries. Urbanization leads to an increase in air pollution and a decrease in biodiversity, which negatively affects atopic eczema. Climate change alters the allergenicity of pollen, which increases atopic eczema symptoms in some patients during the pollen season. Protective natural and social factors for the prevention of atopic eczema and for the promotion of "climate resilience" should be given greater consideration in future research.

Effects of future climate change on birch abundance and their pollen load

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021

Climate change impacts on the structure and function of ecosystems will worsen public health issues like allergic diseases. Birch trees (Betula spp.) are important sources of aeroallergens in Central and Northern Europe. Birches are vulnerable to climate change as these trees are sensitive to increased temperatures and summer droughts. This study aims to examine the effect of climate change on airborne birch pollen concentrations in Central Europe using Bavaria in Southern Germany as a case study. Pollen data from 28 monitoring stations in Bavaria were used in this study, with time series of up 30 years long. An integrative approach was used to model airborne birch pollen concentrations taking into account drivers influencing birch tree abundance and birch pollen production and projections made according to different climate change and socio‐economic scenarios. Birch tree abundance is projected to decrease in parts of Bavaria at different rates, depending on the climate scenario, particularly in current centres of the species distribution. Climate change is expected to result in initial increases in pollen load but, due to the reduction in birch trees, the amount of airborne birch pollen will decrease at lower altitudes. Conversely, higher altitude areas will experience expansions in birch tree distribution and subsequent increases in airborne birch pollen in the future. Even considering restrictions for migration rates, increases in pollen load are likely in Southwestern areas, where positive trends have already been detected during the last three decades. Integrating models for the distribution and abundance of pollen sources and the drivers that control birch pollen production allowed us to model airborne birch pollen concentrations in the future. The magnitude of changes depends on location and climate change scenario.

Wildfire. In: Dalton, M., and E. Fleishman, editors. 2021. Fifth Oregon Climate Assessment. Oregon Climate Change Research Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.

Technical Report

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Wildfire dynamics are affected by climate change, past and contemporary land management and human activity, and expansion of non-native invasive grasses. From 1984 through 2018, annual area burned in Oregon increased considerably. Over the next 50 to 100 years, area burned and fire frequency are projected to increase substantially, initially east of the crest of the Cascade Range and then in the western Cascade Range. Over the long term, depending on how vegetation and fire weather shift with climatic changes and fuel and fire management, fire severity also may increas.e

Aerobiological Monitoring and Metabarcoding of Grass Pollen

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Grass pollen is one of the leading causes of pollinosis, affecting 10–30% of the world’s population. The allergenicity of pollen from different Poaceae species is not the same and is estimated from moderate to high. Aerobiological monitoring is a standard method that allows one to track and predict the dynamics of allergen concentration in the air. Poaceae is a stenopalynous family, and thus grass pollen can usually be identified only at the family level with optical microscopy. Molecular methods, in particular the DNA barcoding technique, can be used to conduct a more accurate analysis of aerobiological samples containing the DNA of various plant species. This study aimed to test the possibility of using the ITS1 and ITS2 nuclear loci for determining the presence of grass pollen from air samples via metabarcoding and to compare the analysis results with the results of phenological observations. Based on the high-throughput sequencing data, we analyzed the changes in the composition of aerobiological samples taken in the Moscow and Ryazan regions for three years during the period of active flowering of grasses. Ten genera of the Poaceae family were detected in airborne pollen samples. The representation for most of them for ITS1 and ITS2 barcodes was similar. At the same time, in some samples, the presence of specific genera was characterized by only one sequence: either ITS1 or ITS2. Based on the analysis of the abundance of both barcode reads in the samples, the following order could describe the change with time in the dominant species in the air: Poa, Alopecurus, and Arrhenatherum in early mid-June, Lolium, Bromus, Dactylis, and Briza in mid-late June, Phleum, Elymus in late June to early July, and Calamagrostis in early mid-July. In most samples, the number of taxa found via metabarcoding analysis was higher compared to that in the phenological observations. The semi-quantitative analysis of high-throughput sequencing data well reflects the abundance of only major grass species at the flowering stage.

Hitchhiking microbes: Declining biodiversity & emerging zoonoses

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

The connection between nature conservation and human wellbeing is well known, however, the role of declining biodiversity and emerging diseases is relatively less studied. The presence of a thriving biological diversity is known to have therapeutic effects on human health. On the other hand, human economic activities have contributed to a sharp decline in species, resulting in poor ecosystem health. Several studies have shown how microorganisms have switched from animals to humans, leading to novel diseases. This review describes studies on zoonotic diseases and biodiversity, with examples from India. It is argued that conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems and changes in economic activities must be made to ward off new diseases, and why cooperation between ministries is critical to restrict the decline of biological diversity in a megadiverse country like India.

The global burden of cholera

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2012
B WORLD HEALTH ORGAN

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the global burden of cholera using population-based incidence data and reports. METHODS: Countries with a recent history of cholera were classified as endemic or non-endemic, depending on whether they had reported cholera cases in at least three of the five most recent years. The percentages of the population in each country that lacked access to improved sanitation were used to compute the populations at risk for cholera, and incidence rates from published studies were applied to groups of countries to estimate the annual number of cholera cases in endemic countries. The estimates of cholera cases in non-endemic countries were based on the average numbers of cases reported from 2000 to 2008. Literature-based estimates of cholera case-fatality rates (CFRs) were used to compute the variance-weighted average cholera CFRs for estimating the number of cholera deaths. FINDINGS: About 1.4 billion people are at risk for cholera in endemic countries. An estimated 2.8 million cholera cases occur annually in such countries (uncertainty range: 1.4-4.3) and an estimated 87 000 cholera cases occur in non-endemic countries. The incidence is estimated to be greatest in children less than 5 years of age. Every year about 91 000 people (uncertainty range: 28 000 to 142 000) die of cholera in endemic countries and 2500 people die of the disease in non-endemic countries. CONCLUSION: The global burden of cholera, as determined through a systematic review with clearly stated assumptions, is high. The findings of this study provide a contemporary basis for planning public health interventions to control cholera.

Global Warming in Nepal: Challenges and Policy Imperatives Design and Layout Corrected proof, in press Global Warming in Nepal: Challenges and Policy Imperatives

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2009

Information on climate change is so far scattered and documents are written in technical language often obscured by sophisticated jargons and complicated mathematical models. As a result, information about causes and consequences of climate change is not understood by general public. The problem is particularly acute in developing countries such as Nepal where literature on climate change is too insufficient to make firm conclusion and develop adaptation and mitigation measures. Hence, we make an attempt to summarize available information to develop a conceptual framework with a view to make it easily accessible among wider audience. Impacts of global warming on ecological factors, ecosystem process and functions, and also on human wellbeing are outlined first for global context. The issues are then discussed for Nepal using available evidences, models, and predictions supplemented by some primary data on local perception and knowledge. Finally, outlooks for future action, research and policy are discussed.

On the Amount of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere

Article

Full-text available

May 1958

G. S. Callendar

Of late years there has been much interest in the effect of human activities on the natural circulation of carbon. This demands a knowledge of the amount of CO2 in atmosphere both now and in the immediate past. Here the average amount obtained by 30 of the most extensive series of observations between 1866 and 1956 is presented, and the reliability of the 19th century measurements discussed. A base value of 290 p.p.m. is proposed for the year 1900. Since then the observations show a rising trend which is similar in amount to the addition from fuel combustion. This result is not in accordance with recent radio carbon data, but the reasons for the discrepancy are obscure, and it is concluded that much further observational data is required to clarify this problem. Some old values, showing a remarkable fall of CO2 in high southern latitudes, are assembled for comparison with the anticipated new measurements, to be taken in this zone during the Geophysical Year.

Climate change and global health: A new conceptual framework - Mini Review

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2014

Colin D Butler

Climate change's burden of disease seems orders of magnitude too low to justify claims that it is this century's greatest threat to health. However, such claims can be more easily understood by considering how climate change acts as a risk multiplier, compounding pre-existing socially and politically-mediated drivers of adverse health consequences including conflict.

Ecosystems and human well-being : health synthesis

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2005

This report synthesizes the findings from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment's (MA) global and sub-global assessments of how ecosystem changes do, or could, affect human health and well-being. Main topics covered are: Food, fresh water, timber, fibre, and fuel, nutrient and waste management, pollution, processing and detoxification, cultural, spiritual and recreational services, climate regulation, and extreme weather events. <br /

Energy and Climate in the Urban Built Environment

Book

Jun 2013

Under the same urbanization pressure, the local climate in large metropolitan areas is also altered. This is especially apparent when certain climatic characteristics are considered, e.g. temperature, humidity and wind. In fact, all the main meteorological parameters are severely affected, resulting in the development of a local climatic regime, which is characterized by increases in temperature (the heat-island effect) and reduction of humidity and wind. Furthermore, in central areas particularly, the continuous replacement of vegetation with buildings and roads severely affects the radiation balance and this further influences the temperature regime of the environment. Under these circumstances the comfort index for those living in big cities is quite different from that for those living in suburban and rural areas.

Climate change and human health: Risks and responses

Article

Jan 2003