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The emotional link: Leadership and the role of implict and explicit emotional contagion processes across multiple organizational levels
Abstract
Emotional contagion processes influence a wide range of organizational and leadership outcomes. In this paper, I review emotional contagion research as it relates to multiple levels of analysis within an organization and discuss the extent to which this process can be managed by leaders. The review begins with an explanation of the processes underpinning the emotional contagion process, highlighting the neurological mechanisms that give rise to implicit and explicit forms of emotional contagion. In the following section, I discuss some individual differences that moderate the experience of these two forms of emotional contagion. Subsequently, I review how emotional contagion processes impact leadership outcomes at the interpersonal, group and finally, organizational levels. The purpose of the current review is threefold. The first is to refine under-standings of the emotional dynamics of leadership influence from a neurological perspective, highlighting how implicit and explicit emotional contagion underpins much of leader-follower interactions. Second, the review extends on conceptualizations of emotional contagion in leadership interactions often captured at the interpersonal level, and illustrates how the process is relevant in influencing group level organizational leadership outcomes. Third, the review also highlights themes emerging from this area of research, and concludes with directions for further research. Ultimately, the review aims to show how emotional contagion processes are implicated as the 'emotional links' across multiple levels in organizations and organizational leadership.
... In organizations, emotions are generally seen to be a source of disruption that requires regulation and suppression to prevent contagion (Tee, 2015;Troth Lawrence, Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2018). ...
... That would likely cause further disruption in the social context, rather than resolution of the triggering issue. At the same time, social and organizational pressures towards the regulation of emotions can also have an effect on how moral emotions are handled on an intrapersonal level (Lindebaum, 2017;Tee, 2015;Troth et al., 2018), shutting off the potentially appropriate functions of moral emotions that an individual might otherwise mobilise. These selfto-context and context-to-self influences have the potential to reinforce or promote difficulties in handling moral emotions more broadly within particular contexts and situations, in ways that can affect both individuals and organizations. ...
... Organizational settings may be home to the full gamut of effects and influences that arise from the experience of moral emotions, butc that does not mean that all possible functions are equally favoured. Especially in times of crisis, those with management or leadership responsibilities, and those that work with them, are expected to regulate their emotions in order to maintain the effectiveness of the organization (Dasborough, Ashkenasy, Tee & Tse, 2009;Hay, 2013;Lindebaum, 2017;Tee, 2015;Troth et al., 2018). The underlying assumption behind this imperative is that emotions -especially negative emotions -are likely to be disruptive to the effective function of organizations. ...
Often, emotions are seen to be a threat to organizations; they are perceived to require regulation and containment to limit their disruptive effects. However, individuals’ moral emotions can have positive effects for organizations, by motivating appraisal of the context in which inappropriate conduct takes place to support adaptation and encouraging action. These are effects that organizations will likely wish to promote. To enable more thoughtful engagement with the positive potential of moral emotions, it is necessary to understand how and why these effects may be constrained in organizational contexts such that negative outcomes arise. Accordingly, this paper builds on current research on moral emotions and mobilises functional conflict theory to theorise how the communication or regulation of moral emotions – and the conflict between these alternatives – may exacerbate issues with authentic communication, effective learning and adaptation. The paper also theorises how limiting outcomes may arise when the organizational context for an experience of moral emotion favours rapid association of the context with earlier concerns, rather than a more adaptive pathway afforded by the alternative response of motivated, thoughtful appraisal. Practical suggestions for addressing these issues, along with suggestions for future research, are also outlined.
... The literature devoted to demonstrating that emotional contagion occurs in the workplace shows that it takes place in different types of jobs and functions and at different levels of analysis (Tee, 2015). Overall, most studies in this area tend to suggest positive effects of positive emotional contagion and negative effects of negative emotional contagion. ...
... Despite the relevant advances in the topic, the researchers should continue investing in analysis of the phenomenon to contribute to a greater understanding of it and produce new insights into the practice (Tee, 2015). For example, studies analyzing which emotional valence (positive or negative) is more likely to spread virtually are still needed, as well as a more detailed examination of the spread of specific emotions and their effects (Barsade et al., 2018). ...
... Thus, analyzing the emotional contagion in the context of leadership studies may be an avenue for further studies devoted to virtual contexts. Analyzing the bidirectional effect of emotional contagion (from leaders to followers and vice versa), as well as how this phenomenon influences leadership and the followers' outcomes is an example of these studies (Tee, 2015). Furthermore, future research may investigate the influence of individual characteristics (such as the personality) of the receivers, since the literature in face-to-face contexts (e.g., Sonnentag et al., 2009) suggests that such characteristics may influence the way the individuals are affected by the agents. ...
Facilitated by technology, and boosted by the COVID-19 pandemic, virtual work has become common in organizations. Recognizing the fundamental role of emotions on workers’ well-being and performance, this chapter is centered on the emotional side of working in virtual environments. In face of the specific demands of remote work to both the individual and the interpersonal relationships, three essential processes regarding emotions are the subject of our analysis: feeling emotions, expressing emotions, and regulating emotions. Hence, based on theoretical frameworks and previous research, this chapter aims to contribute to a better understanding of how working virtually affects both the emotions felt by individuals and the way they express and manage them, which in turn will affect others’ emotions and behaviors. Considering the analysis of the literature reviewed, some directions for future research and practical implications are also provided.
... Emotional contagion EC refers to the tendency to automatically imitate and synchronise with others' facial expressions, voices, postures, and movements, and this tendency is converted into behaviour through emotional blending with others (Tee, 2015). EC is a psychological process whereby empathy and perceived behavioural change in one individual automatically activate the same process in another individual. ...
... Individuals bring their feelings, thoughts, and perceptions to the workplace, and these emotional states will likely impact the organisation (Vijayalakshmi & Bhattacharyya, 2012). Group-level EC processes are also evident in the sharing and transferring of emotions among multiple individuals (Tee, 2015). Therefore, an individual's actions may aff ect the beliefs and behaviours of individuals and groups within the organisation (Nica & Molnar, 2014). ...
... To achieve these positive behavioural outcomes, administrators must create conditions in which employees may develop a strong psychological bond with their organisations (Vijayakumar & Padma, 2014). Simultaneously, EC processes are critical to understanding the emotional connections among the various levels of an organisation (Tee, 2015). Indeed, the fi ndings determined that OI increased as the EC level increased, except for low-level employees. ...
This article presents empirical research that aimed to determine the direction and strength of the relationships between emotional contagion and organisational identifi cation. Our study examined the eff ect of aviation sector employees' emotional contagion levels on organisational identifi cation and the moderating role of career characteristics, such as age diff erences and seniority, in this eff ect. Data collected from 296 aviation employees were analyzed using SPSS 25 and SPSS Process Macro programs for determining moderating eff ects. The fi ndings revealed that emotional contagion has a positive and signifi cant eff ect on organisational identifi cation. It has been determined that individuals' age and seniority diff erences have a moderating role in the eff ect of emotional contagion on organisational identifi cation. The fact that the scope of the research is a single sector and organisation hinders the fi ndings' generalizability. Additionally, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to explain the cause-and-eff ect relationships between psychological factors. The results proved that positive emotions aff ect individuals faster than negative emotions and are more eff ective on OI. Hence, the establishment of an organisational climate dominated by feelings of love and happiness and devoid of feelings of fear and anger is recommended for managers seeking to foster OI. By revealing the implicit relationships among the concepts with empirical evidence, we aim to fi ll a signifi cant gap, particularly with respect to organisational psychology, and to represent new insights to scholars and practitioners.
... At this level, emotions are studied not in isolation but with the understanding that multiple emotions can be experienced simultaneously. Leaders may try to induce and spread emotions through a group (Humphrey et al., 2016;Tee, 2015). Emotion contagion affects group performance, outcomes and members' experience of emotions (Sy et al., 2005). ...
... Despite the extant literature on emotions and leadership and the importance of emotions to leadership emergence (Côté et al., 2010), leader effectiveness (Tee, 2015), leader-follower relationships (Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2002), performance (Chi & Ho, 2014) and outcomes (Lindebaum et al., 2017), there is still considerable ambiguity and limited research on the understanding of emotions in leadership and organisations (Humphrey et al., 2016;Silard & Dasborough, 2021). This is particularly evident in the lack of research on the role of emotions in interpersonal interactions, groups and organisation-wide. ...
... Emotions can consciously and unconsciously influence ethical decisionmaking and behaviours (Salvador & Folger, 2009). However, leaders can also promote negative emotions among followers (Chi & Ho, 2014), which can spread throughout the organisation, hurting employee experiences and forming cynical perspectives towards the leader (Tee, 2015). Therefore, the role of emotions is not only relevant for effective styles of leadership but also important to furthering research on destructive and 'dark' leadership. ...
This paper examines the emotional processes in Machiavellian leadership. The leadership literature portrays Machiavellians as ‘dark’ individuals that engage in unethical actions, causing employee dissatisfaction, distress, emotional exhaustion and high turnover. However, research has seldom questioned the processes behind these unethical and negative outcomes. This study explores Machiavellian emotional processes at multiple levels—within-persons and relational levels (between-persons and interpersonal interactions in organisations). In this study, emotions and leadership are not explored in isolation but as social processes that occur in relationships between leaders and employees in evolving organisational settings. This study draws on 20 participants from four large multi-national construction firms in Sri Lanka. Open-ended semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore the emotions of Machiavellians in organisations. The findings suggest that Machiavellianism influences leader and employee emotional processes. Furthermore, the emotional processes, influenced by Machiavellianism, appear to facilitate the development of leader and employee relationships and emotional experiences at within-persons and relational levels in organisations.
... Emotional contagion relates to the transfer of emotional states between individuals, leading to the observer's emotional state corresponding to that of the sender [26]. Previous research has suggested that there are individual differences when people are infected by others' emotions [36]. Individuals who are more susceptible to emotional contagion will suffer stronger effects of emotional contagion [37]. ...
... According to AET, mistreatment by patients, as an affective event, may affect employees' attitudes and emotions [15]. Nurses who are susceptible to the negative emotional contagion process involved in the mistreatment by a patient will more readily experience negative emotional states that are consistent with those of the patients [36], and have more intense negative emotions after being mistreated because of the patients' emotions. In this case, their workplace well-being (e.g., job satisfaction and positive affect) and career commitment tend to be damaged. ...
... Unexpectedly, the moderation effect of emotional contagion susceptibility on the relationship between mistreatment by patients and workplace well-being is not supported in our study. One possible explanation is that nurses who are susceptible to emotional contagion are also better able to empathize with others; that is, they may perceive not only the patients' anger but also their worry and fears [36], thus forgiving them for their mistreatment and alleviating the negative feelings toward the current job brought about by their being mistreated. Therefore, nurses' perceived workplace wellbeing may not decrease after suffering mistreatment, at least in the case of nurses with high susceptibility to emotional contagion. ...
In recent years, patient mistreatment of healthcare workers, especially nurses, has been frequent, endangering the interests of organizations while also threatening nurses’ own development. This study aims to examine from the perspective of nurses’ personal interests whether mistreatment by patients decreases nurses’ workplace well-being and career commitment, and how their susceptibility to emotional contagion and emotional regulation ability might mitigate these negative effects. This study adopted a cross-sectional study design (data were collected through self-reported questionnaires with a two-month time lag between the months of August–October 2017). A total of 289 nurses from three hospitals in Shandong province, China, were recruited to participate in our study. The results reveal that mistreatment by patients is negatively related to nurses’ workplace well-being and career commitment. Emotional contagion susceptibility moderates the relationships between mistreatment by patients and career commitment, while there is no significant buffering effect of mistreatment by patients on workplace well-being. Emotional regulation ability moderates the relationships between mistreatment by patients and both workplace well-being and career commitment. These results suggest that improvements in nurses’ emotional regulation ability and susceptibility to emotional contagion can alleviate the harmful impacts of mistreatment by patients.
... In times of crisis, there is usually an expectation that those who find themselves in leadership or management situations are expected to contain their emotions to reassure (as manager or leader) or respond (as subordinate or follower) (Dasborough, Ashkanasy, Tee, & Tse, 2009;Hay, 2014;Tee, 2015;Troth, Lawrence, Jordan, & Ashkanasy, 2018). The dynamics in these situations are complex. ...
... Emotional containment in intense situations may involve giving the impression of coping through 'surface acting' or 'putting on a game face' (Fein & Isaacson, 2009). However, difficult organizational experiences can provoke different types of emotions (Boudens, 2005) that include positive and negative feelings for oneself and others (Fineman, 2006;Tee, 2015). Moreover, the impact of negative emotions such as contempt (Pelzer, 2005), shame (Pouthier & Sondak, 2019), jealousy and envy (Stein, 2005), or guilt and anger (Wijaya & Heugens, 2017) reveals the danger of treating such experiences as if they ought not to happen (Vince & Mazen, 2014). ...
... Our stories highlighted 'righteous anger', either in relation to one's situation or in response to harmful effects on others, although we felt overwhelmed or undermined by our reactions. We felt the need to 'contain' our own emotions to influence others (Tee, 2015) to avoid a damaging contagion of negative emotions in our organizational context (Dasborough et al., 2009). Thus, despite an initial emotional reaction, containment was still the proximal outcome. ...
We consider how reflexive practices can enable learning from negative emotional experiences. We study these experiences in academic organizations through a relationally reflexive autoethnographic method. Our findings contribute to theory in three ways. First, we show how learning involves practices with different modalities of emotion work and reflexive orientations that internalize or externalize the effects of this work. Second, the subsequent characterization of emotionally responsive reflexive practices shows how isolation and a sense of inadequacy can be avoided and, third, leads to a process model that shows how learning is potentiated in a supportive social context that accommodates emotional vulnerability.
... (16,17) Emotional contagion mechanisms have a significant impact on various organizational and leadership outcomes. (5) Behavioral responses can serve as a means of transmitting emotions to others. These reactions can be communicated either verbally or in writing format, such as by favorable or negative consumer reviews on online forums. ...
... https://doi.org/10.56294/sctconf2024902 5 Murugan M, et al ...
Petroleum products play a critical role in the global industry. India is the third most significant crude oil importer in the world, of which 22% from Russia in October 2022. Emotional Contagion refers to an entrepreneur influencing the emotions and behaviours of another entrepreneur and employees in the company to achieve operational excellence. Entrepreneurs' decision-making styles vary from analytical, conceptual, directional, and behavioural to attain the corporate goal. The utilitarian theory states that entrepreneurs, as utilitarians, lead the company with a highly ethical, moral, good environment & culture and, at the same time, target for the company's profit. We have considered twenty five companies from India and the Middle East region to study Entrepreneur's strategic business decision styles and emotional Contagion. We have used a Stratified sampling technique to collect data. We have used JAMOVI for the data analysis. This paper examines entrepreneurs' strategic business decision styles and emotional Contagion toward Utilitarianism in the Oil and Gas service industry. It provides positive and negative effects for which we have recommended that the government and MSMEs must focus on providing psychological training to entrepreneurs to achieve the highest positive emotional contagion, safe and healthy organizational culture positively.
... (3) The interpersonal interaction level emotional transmission mechanism. In interpersonal communication, shared emotions can affect behavioral outcomes, such as customers being influenced by the negative emotions of service staff (Barsade, 2002), or leaders' positive emotions impacting employees' attitudes, behaviors, and performance (Tee, 2015). (4) The group level emotion formation and transmission mechanism. ...
... unconsciously induced by the emotions of other members to share emotions, thereby affecting behavioral outcomes. Tee (2015) divides emotional contagion into implicit and explicit emotional contagion, with the former being an unconscious process and the latter a conscious one. Parents' education anxiety implicitly affects parenting styles, manifested in changes in educational beliefs and attitudes toward children when nurturing them. ...
Introduction
This study investigates the intricate relationship between parents’ education anxiety and children’s learning anxiety, examining the mediating role of parenting style and the moderating effect of extracurricular tutoring.
Methods
Utilizing data from the “Survey of Parents and Students in Primary and Secondary Schools,” the study employs stratified sampling (n = 3,298) and various psychological scales to measure education anxiety, parenting styles, and extracurricular tutoring.
Results
This study reveals that parents’ education anxiety significantly influences children’s learning anxiety, with a notable positive correlation (r = 0.301**). Parenting styles particularly rejection and overprotection style increase this anxiety, while emotional warmth style decreases it. Academic tutoring serves as a moderator, reducing the impact of parental anxiety on children’s learning anxiety (β = −0.033, p < 0.05).
Discussion
The study underscores the importance of addressing internal family dynamics to alleviate education anxiety. It advocates for a balanced approach to tutoring, emphasizing the benefits of arts and sports activities in reducing learning anxiety. Parents should be encouraged to adopt emotionally warm parenting styles and to engage their children in a variety of extracurricular activities.
... Emotional contagion is defined as the automatic imitation and synchronization of facial expressions, voices, postures, and movements with others. This phenomenon leads to behavioral alignment through emotional blending with those around us [48] and includes both positive and negative emotions. People with high emotional contagion are naturally better at expressing their emotions, which can significantly impact others [49], even if some people are more prone to it than others [50]. ...
... According to previous research by Vijayalakshmi and Bhattacharyya [11] emotional contagion is positively related to team cohesion, transformational leadership, and leadership outcomes [52,69]. In particular, the review proposed by Tee [48] concluded that implicit and explicit emotional contagion processes have an important impact on organizational leadership outcomes, which highlights the importance of contagion processes in explaining emotional connections between different levels of organizations [54]. Based on previous empirical evidence and theoretical arguments, we expected that the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational identification should be even stronger at high levels of employee emotional contagion. ...
Teachers and educators are experiencing turmoil under the drastic changes in educational practices caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to research, transformational leaders effectively facilitate organizational change by fostering teachers’ sense of belonging and boosting social identity in their team members, which can result in better team well-being via higher team cohesion. Recently, research has increasingly explored the role of emotional contagion and its relationship with leadership. Accordingly, the current study aims to delve deeper into the role of emotional contagion in linking transformational leadership to cohesion among teachers in the school setting. To this purpose, 581 teachers from northern Italy filled out a self-report questionnaire (72.1% female, Mage = 47.06, and SDage = 11.42). A moderated mediation model was tested to assess the mediating role of organizational identification in the relationship between transformational leadership and team cohesion and how emotional contagion may moderate this association. The obtained results provided support to the hypothesized model. Overall, the present study corroborates the critical role of school principals’ behavior in fostering greater organizational identification among teachers, which is associated with better team cohesion. This study constitutes an early attempt to gain more insight into the role of emotional variables in explaining the influence of leadership behavior.
... However, leadership also includes psychological and emotional adaptations of leadership agents, namely leaders and followers [2]. There is substantial evidence that demonstrates that leaders influence the emotional state of followers [3], a phenomenon called emotional contagion [4]. The reason is mainly linked to leaders' status role, which corresponds to access to resources and authority [5]. ...
... In other words, increased followers' state anxiety results in increased levels of leaders' state anxiety especially when the latter demonstrate less trait anxiety levels. The results above seem to support similar studies that found that followers' emotional states influence leaders' emotions and in turn leaders' performance [3,6]. In other words, this study provides strong empirical evidence supporting the argument that followers are not powerless and can indeed influence their leaders' emotional states even when interacting online. ...
Recent research has shown that organizational leaders’ tweets can influence employee anxiety. In this study, we turn the table and examine whether the same can be said about followers’ tweets. Based on emotional contagion and a dataset of 108 leaders and 178 followers across 50 organizations, we infer and track state- and trait-anxiety scores of participants over 316 days, including pre- and post the onset of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and crisis. We show that although leaders traditionally possess greater authority and power than their followers, followers have the power to influence their leaders’ state anxiety. In addition, this influence is particularly strong in the case of less trait anxious leaders.
... Studies indicate that a leader's display of positive emotions not only influences the followers' mood (Sy et al., 2005;Bono and Ilies, 2006;Sy and Choi, 2013) but also has a beneficial effect on group performance (Barsade, 2002;Visser et al., 2013). This phenomenon is known as emotional contagion, or the transfer of emotional states from one person to another (Hatfield et al., 1993;Hess and Blairy, 2001) and is likely to play an important role in organizational dynamics (Tee, 2015;Barsade et al., 2018). While emotional contagion in organizations is usually quantified using selfreport measures, methods from social neuroscience including electromyography to quantify facial mimicry (Minio-Paluello et al., 2020) or neuroimaging (Carr et al., 2003;De Gelder et al., 2004) could be applied in the future. ...
... While emotional contagion in organizations is usually quantified using selfreport measures, methods from social neuroscience including electromyography to quantify facial mimicry (Minio-Paluello et al., 2020) or neuroimaging (Carr et al., 2003;De Gelder et al., 2004) could be applied in the future. Moreover, the dialogic dynamics of emotional contagion might be investigated by taking into account the relationship between the characteristics of both the "sender" (i.e., expressivity, intensity of displayed emotions) and the "receiver" (i.e., sensitivity to emotional contagion), see Tee (2015) and Thorson et al. (2018). Future research investigating the neuroscience of emotional contagion in organizations might again rely on the hyperscanning approach, as anticipated by a recent study (Park et al., 2019) that measured emotional contagion and physiological synchrony between participants who were assigned the roles of leader (displayer of facial emotional expression) and follower (imitator of the same expression). ...
Organizations are composed of individuals working together for achieving specific goals, and interpersonal dynamics do exert a strong influence on workplace behaviour. Nevertheless, the dual and multiple perspective of interactions has been scarcely considered by Organizational Neuroscience (ON), the emerging field of study that aims at incorporating findings from cognitive and brain sciences into the investigation of organizational behaviour. This perspective article aims to highlight the potential benefits of adopting experimental settings involving two or more participants (the so-called “second person” approach) for studying the neural bases of organizational behaviour. Specifically, we stress the idea that moving beyond the individual perspective and capturing the dynamical relationships occurring within dyads or groups (e.g., leaders and followers, salespersons and clients, teams) might bring novel insights into the rising field of ON. In addition, designing research paradigms that reliably recreate real work and life situations might increase the generalizability and ecological validity of its results. We start with a brief overview of the current state of ON research and we continue by describing the second-person approach to social neuroscience. In the last paragraph, we try and outline how this approach could be extended to ON. To this end, we focus on leadership, group processes and emotional contagion as potential targets of interpersonal ON research.
... For example, Cheshin, Rafaeli [2] confirmed that the transfer of emotion also occurs in virtual teams and that these "text-based communications of emotion were detected and 'caught' by partners interacting via text-based instant messaging" (p. 3)]. And in dyadic CMC interactions partners exchanged messages slower and used shorter messages when experiencing negative emotions, compared to participants experiencing neutral emotions [11]. ...
... Interaction partners in CMC could also distinguish discrete emotions in messages, namely anger or happiness. Hence, it seems clear that when communicating electronically individuals may influence others affectively [7] and even impact behavioral outcomes [3]. ...
Do organizational leaders’ tweets influence their employees’ anxiety? And if so, have employees become more susceptible to their leader’s social media communications during the COVID-19 pandemic? Based on emotional contagion and using machine learning algorithms to track anxiety and personality traits of 197 leaders and 958 followers across 79 organizations over 316 days, we find that during the pandemic leaders’ tweets do influence follower state anxiety. In addition, followers of trait anxious leaders seem somewhat protected by sudden spikes in leader state anxiety, while followers of less trait anxious leaders are most affected by increased leader state anxiety. Multi-day lagged regressions showcase that this effect is stronger post-onset of the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic crisis context.
... The importance of coaches managing their own emotions is particularly crucial within the draining Olympic competition environment and during challenging training sessions (Mallett & Coulter, 2016;Olusoga et al., 2012). Due to emotional contagion (Tee, 2015), a coach displaying positivity will help an athlete to remain in a similar state. Emotional contagion is an automatic, unintentional, and unassuming tendency to mimic or synchronize with another person (Tee, 2015). ...
... Due to emotional contagion (Tee, 2015), a coach displaying positivity will help an athlete to remain in a similar state. Emotional contagion is an automatic, unintentional, and unassuming tendency to mimic or synchronize with another person (Tee, 2015). As coaches' positive emotions are passed onto athletes, the training environment will become more energized, with the positive emotions engendering higher optimism, creativity, cooperation, and motivation (Baas, De Dreu, & Nijstad, 2008). ...
Objectives
Researchers investigating the psychological aspects of Olympic coaching have studied coaches as a homogenous group, and the effect of coaches' psychological characteristics on performance-related outcomes remains unclear. The objective of this research, therefore, was to examine whether psychological factors discriminate between world-leading (i.e., Olympic gold medal winning) and world-class (i.e., Olympic non-gold medal winning) coaches.
Method
Self-reported psychometric questionnaires were completed by 36 Olympic coaches who had collectively coached 169 swimmers to win 352 Olympic medals, of which 155 were gold medals. The questionnaires assessed 12 variables within the Big Five personality traits, the dark triad, and emotional intelligence, and the data was analyzed using three one-way multivariate analysis of variance and follow-up univariate F-tests.
Results
The results showed that the 21 world-leading coaches were significantly more agreeable, had greater perception of emotion, were better at managing their own emotion, and were less Machiavellian and narcissistic than the 15 world-class coaches. The groups of coaches showed no differences in levels of conscientiousness, openness to experience, extraversion, neuroticism, psychopathy, managing other emotion, or utilization of emotion.
Conclusions
Psychological factors discriminate between world-leading and world-class coaches. The implications of these differences are discussed for psychology researchers and practitioners operating in Olympic sport.
... Followers may also interpret a leader's fun-oriented behavior as a cue of communion. First, playful behavior is likely to elicit expressed positive emotions that can spread from the leader to followers (Mainemelis & Ronson, 2006) through emotional contagion processes (Cooper et al., 2018;Tee, 2015;Visser et al., 2013). Recognizing the emotional benefits, followers are likely to view the leader as warm and friendly. ...
Although pursuing fun seems contradictory to work, it may yield beneficial outcomes for not only employees but also leaders in the workplace. The present paper aims to bridge the gap between the workplace fun/play literature and leadership research by introducing the concept of leader fun pursuit and examining its influence on followers' evaluations. Moreover, drawing on the dual perspective model of social evaluation and expectancy violation theory, we examine the effects of leader fun pursuit on followers' perceptions of leader attributes and evaluations of leadership, and posit a gender-contingent boundary condition. We conducted three studies to develop a scale and examine our hypotheses. Study 1 (four samples, total N = 734) developed a four-item scale to measure leader fun pursuit and established its reliability and validity. Study 2 (N = 309) used a multi-wave design to examine the full model. Study 3 (N = 279) used a vignette-based experiment to strengthen the internal validity of our conceptual model. We found that leader fun pursuit generally enhances followers' evaluations of the leader, and this effect was especially pronounced for female leaders. Overall, we introduce a novel approach to effective leadership and examine the gender differences therein.
... According to Tee (2015), the research indicates that varying degrees of surface or deep acting, which are required for the job, might increase or decrease the degree to which service providers can truly convey their feelings to others. There will be a greater emphasis on privacy issues and ethical considerations as emotion recognition technology spreads. ...
Emotions are psychophysiological processes that are sparked by both conscious and unconscious perceptions of things and events. Mood, motivation, temperament, and personality are frequently linked to emotions. Human-machine interaction will see the creation of systems that can recognize and interpret human emotions in a range of ways as computers and computer-based applications get more advanced and pervasive in people's daily lives. More sympathetic and customized relationships between humans and machines can result from efficient emotion recognition in human-machine interactions. Emotion recognition systems are able to modify their responses and user experience based on the analysis of inter-personal communication signals. The ability of virtual assistants to respond emotionally more effectively, the ability to support mental health systems by identifying users' emotional states, the improvement of customer support interactions with emotionally responsive Chabots, and the enhancement of human-robot collaboration are just a few examples of real-world applications. Reviewing the interpersonal communication elements of the emotional interaction models that are now in use is the aim of this chapter.
... This also depends on the organization culture and, among other things, defines how people express their feelings at work (Härtel & Ashkanasy, 2010) and whether the atmosphere at work is positive or negative (Geue, 2018;Halbesleben, 2010;Härtel & Ashkanasy, 2010). Positive emotions tend to spread from leaders to employees (Tee, 2015). Positive actions and interaction can develop a positive circle (Barker Caza & Milton, 2013;Sekerka & Fredrickson, 2013) if leaders pay attention to the employees' emotional states and try to create a positive atmosphere at work (Helpap & Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, 2016). ...
In the rapidly changing world of work, more research is needed on the impact of organization-level factors on personal-level work engagement and the mediating mechanisms between them. In this study, we adopted an organization-level perspective to work engagement, applying the positive organizational PRIDE theory as the research framework. The purpose of this research was to investigate the levels of work engagement among employees working in the public sector in North Finland and their association with the positive organizational PRIDE index. The following research question guided the research: What is the relationship between the PRIDE index and work engagement? This was a quantitative survey-based study, in which the data were collected through an online survey. The data collection occurred between October 6, 2020, and February 3, 2021, among public organization employees (N=606 respondents). The factors of PRIDE were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA). Further, the analysis focused on the connections between background factors and PRIDE and work engagement. A t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to determine the statistical significance between different groups. The results of this study indicated that there was at least a moderate correlation between all PRIDE index elements and work engagement, and each element of the index was associated with work engagement. When considering the entire index, the correlation was strong. Based on the results of this study, we recommend that the observation, identification, and utilization of strengths be systematically supported through leadership and organizational practices.
... We propose that a leader's humor style can influence the development of group humor due to their influence as role models for the team, whose behaviors are highly visible and easily imitable. We draw our arguments from the social influence literature providing evidence for the contagion-convergence relationship between leaders and team members (Barsade et al., 2018;Johnson, 2009;Sy and Choi, 2013;Sy et al., 2005;Tee, 2015;Yang and Yang, 2023;Son and Yang, 2023;Mayer et al., 2023). In their model of mood convergence in groups, Sy and Choi (2013) propose that the mood of a leader can activate emotional contagion processes, which are then spread among the group members and possibly amplified through emotion cycles (Hareli and Rafaeli, 2008), finally leading toward behavioral convergence. ...
Purpose-This study aims to explore the role of team personality and leader's humor style on the use of humor in group communication and the extent to which group humor mediates the association between team personality on the one hand, psychological safety, collective emotional intelligence and group satisfaction on the other hand.
Design/methodology/approach-The authors used a survey to collect data from 304 employees nested in 83 groups working in organizations from various sectors in Romania.
Findings-The study results show that extraversion is positively associated with group affiliative humor, while neuroticism has a positive association with group aggressive humor. The leader's affiliative humor style had a significant positive effect on group affiliative humor, while the effect of leader's aggressive humor style on the use of aggressive humor in groups was not significant. Furthermore, the authors examined the mediation role of group humor in the relationship between team personality and team emergent states and satisfaction. The authors found that group aggressive humor mediates the association between neuroticism and group emotional intelligence, psychological safety and satisfaction, while affiliative humor mediates the association between extraversion and emotional intelligence and team satisfaction.
Originality/value-The study reports one of the first attempts to explore the multilevel interplay of team personality and humor in groups as they relate to emergent states.
... Pemimpin Kristen seperti gembala jemaat memandang iman yang dimilikinya dapat ditransfer atau ditularkan kepada jemaat atau anggota gerejanya. Dalam gaya kepemimpinan karismatik, penularan atau impartasi dipandang sebagai kecenderungan untuk "menyinkronkan" keyakinan (iman) antara seseorang dengan orang yang lain, sehingga terjadi "pertemuan" secara emosional (Tee, 2015). Pemimpin kristen memaknainya sebagai impartasi (penularan) iman. ...
Servant leadership is generally positioned or placed as one of the leadership styles, where the consequences are not always used, but alternated with other leadership styles according to the needs of the organization. Based on these conditions, the aim of this article is to discuss how should Christian organizations such as churches and parachurchs place servant leadership, especially those referring to the teaching of Jesus Christ to His disciples in Matthew 20:25-28, Mark 10:42-45 and Luke 22: 24-27. Article is prepared using a qualitative approach with library research method. The result based on the values contained in Matthew 20:25-28, Mark 10:42-45 and Luke 22:24-26, apart from being a leadership style, the Bible shows that servant leadership is further a main characteristic or trait that will remain displayed, regardless of leadership style that is being used in a Christian organization. By placing servant leadership as the main characteristic, each member of the Christian organization as a whole will be brought to change to become like Christ. Abstrak Servant Leadership atau kepemimpinan hamba umumnya diposisikan atau ditempatkan sebagai salah satu gaya kepemimpinan, sehingga konsekuensinya tidak selalu digunakan, melainkan bergantian dengan gaya kepemimpinan lainnya sesuai keperluan organisasi. Berdasarkan kondisi tersebut, artikel ini bertujuan untuk membahas bagaimana seharusnya organisasi Kristen seperti gereja dan parachurch menempatkan servant leadership , khususnya yang mengacu pada pengajaran Yesus Kristus kepada murid-murid-Nya dalam Matius 20:25-28, Markus 10:42-45 dan Lukas 22:24-27. Artikel disusun menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan metode studi pustaka. Hasil pembahasan berdasarkan nilai-nilai yang terkandung dalam Matius 20:25-28, Markus 10:42-45 dan Lukas 22:24-26, disamping sebagai suatu gaya kepemimpinan, Alkitab menunjukkan servant leadership lebih jauh merupakan karakteristik atau ciri utama yang akan tetap ditampilkan, terlepas gaya kepemimpinan yang sedang digunakan dalam suatu organisasi Kristen. Dengan menempatkan servant leadership sebagai karakteristik atau ciri utama, setiap anggota organisasi Kristen secara keseluruhan akan dibawa pada perubahan untuk menuju keserupaan dengan Kristus.
... Дослідження також показують несприятливі впливи у плані стресу управлінців: наприклад, Бартон та ін. виявили (Burton, Hoobler, & Scheuer, 2012 (Tee, 2015). ...
У статті показано, що стрес на робочому місці оцінюється як постійно високий фактор, що має шкідливі наслідки для найманих працівників та організацій, зокрема низький рівень задоволення роботою, підвищене емоційне виснаження, погіршення роботи серцево-судинної системи та зниження продуктивності. Теорія імпліцитного лідерства зосереджується на двох типах прототипів наслідування: для першого характерна орієнтованість на ціль, на те, якими мають бути послідовники, а для другого властива реальна оцінка лідерами власних послідовників, або те, якими послідовники є насправді. Імпліцитні прототипи управлінців щодо їхніх послідовників впливають на те, наскільки останні демонструють просоціальні копінгові реакції-відповіді на стрес. Загалом наше дослідження показує, що різні види просоціальної копінгової поведінки приносять користь як управлінцям, так і їхнім підлеглим на індивідуальному та груповому рівнях. Конкретніше кажучи, наша робота демонструє, що управлінці отримують вигоду від подібної просоціальної поведінки через вищі показники робочої ефективності та відповідно нижчі показники кадрової плинності та намірів змінити роботу серед підлеглих співробітників, а співробітники також отримують кращий рівень продуктивності.
... It has been proved that users express more positive emotions when exposed to more positive emotions from others (Kramer et al., 2014). However, mimicry is not the only way for emotional contagion, since individuals' emotions can be aroused by further observation and interpretation (Barsade, 2002;Tee, 2015). This is called conscious emotional contagion, distinguished from primitive emotional contagion based on mimicry with less consciousness (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). ...
Pervasive emotional expression in cyberspace has increased uncertainties and brought challenges to governance. The occurrence mechanism of emotional communication can provide more ideas to tackle such problems. This study proposed the “Arousal-Homophily-Echo” model with multi-dimensional features as a frame of fine-grained research practice. The model divided Emotional Communication into three levels and we provided their definitions and measurements. Then we creatively combined machine learning and its interpretability to predict and explain how emotional communication happens. The data of the online public discussion on a representative incident was used to fit the prediction models, based on which we summarized important features and analyzed their influences. The optimal prediction models can be utilized to evaluate and monitor crisis communication in cyberspace, while the specific influences of important factors can guide the intervention strategies to alleviate adverse effects of emotional communication.
... Additionally, those who feel optimistic display activations in the amygdala and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (Sharot et al., 2007); Third, among the diverse mechanisms underlying TL, its rewarding value is particularly important. Those who experience TL feel rewarded (Tee, 2015), a feeling which again corresponds to activation in the dopaminergic reward circuit (Liu et al., 2011). Concluding, perceiving TL is thought to trigger the dopaminergic reward circuit. ...
This study examines the neural activation of followers who believe their leader to be
transformational. Therefore, 44 followers (29♀) participated in an fMRI-study and were
exposed to a transformational and nontransformational leader while their neural activation was assessed. Results show that when followers believe the leader to be more transformational, they show higher activation in parts of the dopaminergic reward circuitry. Notably, followers’ neural activation correlated with their motivation at work and predicted it beyond leadership ratings. The findings support the notion that leadership is partly a social construction and further suggest that the credition model can be applied in the business context.
... Contagion has also been shown to be important in resolving the work-family conflict in business (Baral and Sampath, 2019) and service relationships (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). It helps leaders to influence at different organizational levels (Tee, 2015) and politicians to persuade their voters (Sullivan, 1996;Gabriel and Masch, 2017). And certainly, it is impossible not to mention the fundamental role of contagion in creation and perception of art (Koelsch et al., 2006;Fritz and Koelsch, 2008). ...
The aim of the work was to develop and test the Russian version of the Emotional Contagion Scale. A sample of 518 volunteers from the general population filled in this questionnaire. We examined the one-factor model (all the items), the two-factor model (positive/negative), and the five-factor model (love/happiness/fear/anger/sadness). To measure its construct validity, we asked different subsamples to complete questionnaires of empathy and sensation seeking. The coefficients of test–retest reliability, internal consistency, and validity were acceptable. Only the one-factor model showed acceptable properties by all psychometric criteria. We also observed the gender effect, that is women were more contagious, according to the total scale and all subscales.
... Respecto de aquella, existe evidencia de que la motivación y el compromiso de los empleados están influenciados por las relaciones interpersonales dentro del equipo de trabajo (Salanova, Llorens, Cifre y Martínez, 2012). En cuanto a esta última, estudios han determinado que los trabajadores también responden a factores presentes en la relación con sus mandos superiores, es decir, el líder o líderes (Salanova, Rodríguez y Nielsen, 2022;Sivanathan, Arnold, Turner y Barling, 2004;Tee, 2015). ...
El objetivo de este trabajo fue validar la confiabilidad y validez estadística de la NOM-035-STPS-2018, en específico del dominio Relaciones en el trabajo. Metodológicamente, se aplicó la Guía de Referencia III para recopilar datos mediante un muestreo no probabilístico en tres compañías automotrices de Ciudad Juárez, México. En total, 250 supervisores respondieron el instrumento. En primer lugar, se verificó la confiabilidad mediante el alfa de Cronbach y alfa ordinal. Posteriormente se realizó la prueba de Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) y Bartlett. Entre los resultados, el dominio Relaciones en el trabajo obtuvo un alfa de Cronbach de 0.913, mientras que las dimensiones “Relaciones sociales en el trabajo” y “Deficiente relación con los colaboradores que supervisa” obtuvieron valores de este indicador de 0.879 y 0.975, respectivamente. Por otro lado, el alfa ordinal obtuvo valores superiores a 0.90 en las dos dimensiones. El KMO obtenido fue de 0.838 y la prueba de Bartlett resultó ser significativa (p = 0.000). En consecuencia, el análisis factorial exploratorio extrajo los dos factores propuestos por la norma. Dichos factores contribuyen a 79.11 % de la varianza acumulada. El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró un buen ajuste del modelo. En conclusión, el instrumento y las dimensiones propuestas pueden ser utilizados como herramienta de evaluación para medir el factor psicosocial Relaciones en el trabajo (dominio de la NOM-035), ya que muestran valores aceptables en términos de confiabilidad estadística.
... A metaanalysis of 40 results from 36 studies also provided substantial overall support for the proposition that depressive symptoms and mood are contagious (32). In the field of organizational behavior study, after reviewing the related literatures, Tee suggested that leaders' management and regulation of emotional contagion processes underlies the shape, form, and outcome of organization-wide culture, climate and change outcomes (33). Based on the group of students, a teacher's job is similar to that of a leader in an organization. ...
Background
According to the theory of emotional contagion, emotions in one person can trigger similar emotions in groups within social networks. In schools, the class just like a small social network, that teachers' emotion, such as depression, might be contagious to their students. However, until now there is few studies reporting this issue. This study aims to explore whether teachers' depression be contagious to students and what mechanics behind the phenomenon.
Methods
Using Children's depression and cognitive scales to assess 2,579 students, meanwhile using teachers' depression and emotional labor scales assess 529 teachers. The nested data from 112 classes were analyzed.
Results
Teachers' depression was positively correlated with emotional labor surface and deep acting, and teachers' depression cross-level predicted students' depression inversely. For teachers with higher levels of depression, the teacher's deep acting affected their students' depression significantly, the more effortful the teachers' deep acting, the lower the degree of the students' depression, however, for teachers with lower levels of depression, the deep acting was not significant.
Conclusion
The results maybe state that depression in teachers is not readily transmitted to students, one of reasons is that teachers' emotional labor may alleviate the influence of their depression on students. However, considered that teachers' emotional labor was positively correlated with their depression, the teachers' emotional labor may be like a double-edged sword, while alleviating the influence of teachers' depression on students, it also deteriorated their own depression, making it impossible sustainable. For students' depression interventions based in school, including teachers maybe a better selection.
... First, centralization fosters vertical as compared to horizontal communication patterns (Tushman, 1979), thereby providing plenty opportunities for family CEOs to transmit their emotions. Although emotional contagion is a bidirectional process (Tee, 2015), the power dynamics in centralized firms are likely to work in favor of the emotions radiating out from the family CEO as the central figure to employees throughout the firm (rather than vice versa; cf. Wróbel and Imbir, 2019). ...
Research suggests that firms with family CEOs differ from other types of businesses, yet surprisingly little is known about how employees in these firms feel and behave compared to those working in other firms. We draw from family science and management research to suggest that family CEOs, because of their emotion-evoking double role as family members and business leaders, are, on average, more likely to infuse employees with positive emotions, such as enthusiasm and excitement, than hired professional CEOs. We suggest that these emotions spread through firms by way of emotional contagion during interactions with employees, thereby setting the organizational affective tone. In turn, we hypothesize that in firms with family CEOs the voluntary turnover rate is lower. In considering structural features as boundary conditions, we propose that family CEOs have stronger effects in smaller and centralized firms, and weaker effects in formalized firms. Multilevel data from 41,200 employees and 2246 direct reports of CEOs from 497 firms with and without family CEOs provide support for our model. This research suggests that firms managed by family CEOs, despite often being criticized as nepotistic relics of the past, tend to offer pleasant work environments.
... The success of any drive for change depends on whether and how leaders engage their organisational culture (Jones et al., 2005;Schramm, 2017;Chou et al., 2021), all the more so in the COVID-19 situation (Spicer, 2020;Suprapti et al., 2020). However, it differs from other business topics: it is more implicit than explicit, more emotional than rational (Tee, 2015), that is why it is hard to work with, but that is why it is so essential to design it and set up HR activities, which influenced (Harrison and Bazzy, 2017;Narayana, 2017). Analysis of a practical approach to sustainable development mentions Pacana et al. (2020) and Harrison and Bazzy (2017). ...
The importance of organisational culture for the organisation's success is already proven today, and in this situation, COVID-19 for organisations continues to grow. No previous review has focused on the role of organizational culture in the context of human resource management and its activities with a focus on Czech organizations. The article aims to identify human resources (HR) activities primarily influenced by the organisational culture of the examined organisations in the Czech Republic by quantitative and qualitative research. Exploratory factor analysis identified critical factors related to the objective of the paper. The results have shown that the HR activities most affected by the organisational culture in the examined Czech organisations are as follows: internal and external communication, friendly relationships, and HR planning. The results have also revealed that only 40% of the examined organisations deal with organisa-tional culture, and 60% do not view organisational culture as a priority. Organ-isational culture is influenced by the industry, the sector and the market, the number of employees, and the existence or non-existence of the HR department. This paper encourages other researchers to apply and popularize concepts of organizational culture in the study of human resource management.
... As a complex process, the contagion of personal moods often occurs during social interactions when people mimic each other's voices, postures, facial expressions, or body language 25 . In addition to such physiological responses and processes 6 , as well as the valence of moods and other contextual factors, the extent of mood contagion may vary due to sociodemographic and network features such as gender 26 , power 27,28 and similarity between the actors 29 during contacts. Certain events or situations further affect how strongly people express their feelings. ...
Both viruses and moods are transmitted through interpersonal contacts, but it has been extremely difficult to track each unique chain of contacts through which particular moods diffuse. By analyzing 56,060 contact records from 113 interlocking, yearlong diaries collected through a web-based platform in Taiwan, we traced mood states before and after each specific contact along a triplet of persons where B contacts C and subsequently contacts A. Multilevel analyses show that both positive and negative emotions are contagious, but the two paths diverge markedly in how the diffusion stops. Positive contact between C and B (which leads to improved mood for B) spreads to A through B’s contact with A, making A feel better afterward, regardless of whether B’s mood deteriorated between the two interactions. Negative contact between C and B (which leads to worsened mood for B) also spreads to A, making A feel worse after the contact with B. However, the spread of a negative mood discontinues if B’s mood improved between the two contacts. The different patterns of diffusion suggest that a negative mood is harder to disperse, probably because people generally make efforts to keep their negative emotions from spreading to others.
... Historically, contagion was understood to be unconscious (George, 2002), but later authors allowed for conscious contagion (Bakker, Westman, & van Emmerik, 2009). With this in mind, Tee (2015) has argued that there are two types of contagion. Implicit contagion is automatic and unconscious, while explicit contagion is deliberate. ...
In this chapter, we review the literature on leadership and emotion. Progress in understanding the junction of these two ideas has been steady but slow. To address this concern, at the conclusion of this chapter, we briefly discuss two theoretical obstacles that, in our view, have slowed progress. However, we begin with the larger substance of our chapter, which focuses on leaders’ affect at three levels of analysis – the overall climate, the work team, and, finally, the leader himself or herself. We show that leader emotion can be important at all three levels of analysis. At the highest level of analysis, leaders create emotional climate through personnel practices, by rewarding (or punishing) culturally appropriate emotion displays, and by their treatment of individual employees. Moving to teams and dyads, we will see that emotions can influence followers through contagion or emotional correspondence. Finally, looking within the leader, our review underscores how emotional intelligence is crucial for effective leadership.
... Since mental disorder diagnosis is a binary (yes/no) assessment, the probability of being diagnosed depends on the severity of symptoms. But undiagnosed individuals can also have various symptoms of mental disorders that vary on a broad continuum (Ayuso-Mateos et al., 2010;Angermeyer et al., 2015;Tebeka et al., 2018) and might therefore also be contagious. This is in line with infectious disease epidemiology showing that individuals who have not been recorded as infective cases but who show subclinical signs or symptoms of that disease can be the source of further infection (Glass, Becker, and Clements, 2007;Straif-Bourgeois, Ratard, and Kretzschmar, 2014). ...
Combining management research with infectious disease epidemiology, we propose a new perspective on mental disorders in a business context. We suggest that—similar to infectious diseases—clinical diagnoses of depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders can spread epidemically across the boundaries of organizations via social contagion. We propose a framework for assessing the patterns of disease transmission, with employee mobility as the driver of contagion across organizations. We empirically test the proposed mental disorder transmission patterns by observing more than 250,000 employees and more than 17,000 Danish firms over a period of 12 years. Our findings reveal that when organizations hire employees from other, unhealthy organizations (those with a high prevalence of mental disorders), they “implant” depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders into their workforces. Employees leaving unhealthy organizations act as “carriers” of these disorders regardless of whether they themselves have received a formal diagnosis of a mental disorder. The effect is especially pronounced if the newcomer holds a managerial position.
... Invariably emotion applies a crucial influence upon the leader's communication, moral reasoning, and community building activities, which are all integral to the development of mutually beneficial relationships and, thus, organisational success. In this way, this research builds on the growing body of literature (see for example Lee, Stajkovic, & Cho, 2011;Sadri, Weber, & Gentry, 2011;Tee, 2015;Venus, Stam, & van Knippenberg, 2013) highlighting the important influence of the leader's emotional displays upon their leadership effectiveness. ...
Background
Intensive care units (ICUs) are environments where nurses are open to emotional interactions because of complex structures and dynamic relationships. Nurses' susceptibility to emotional contagion and their spiritual care competence may affect the quality of care by influencing their ability to manage and respond to the emotional dynamics present in these environments.
Aim
This study aimed to determine the level of emotional contagion and spiritual care competence in intensive care nurses.
Study Design
This study is a descriptive cross‐sectional study conducted with 199 nurses working in the ICUs of a training and research hospital in Turkey. The data were collected between December 2021 and June 2022 using the Emotional Contagion Scale (ECS) and the Spiritual Care Competence Scale (SCCS).
Results
The mean score of the nurses was 50.29 ± 15.36 on the ECS and 90.29 ± 29.53 on the SCCS. A statistically significant difference was found between the ECS and SCCS and gender, marital status, weekly working hours and some approaches about spiritual care ( p < .05). It was determined that there was a statistically significant positive correlation between the total scales and sub‐dimensions of the ECS and SCCS ( p < .05). In this study, it was found that intensive care nurses' susceptibility to emotional contagion was high, and that their spiritual care competence was at a moderate level. The results show that gender, marital status, weekly working hours, type of ICU and some approaches about spiritual care are crucial factors in nurses' emotional contagion and spiritual care competence. In addition, as the intensive care nurses' susceptibility to emotional contagion increased, their spiritual care competence also increased.
Conclusions
The results of this study will guide the planning of interventions to protect intensive care nurses from the negative effects of emotional contagion and increase their spiritual care competence.
Relevance to Clinical Practice
It is necessary to protect intensive care nurses from the negative effects of emotional contagion and to increase their competences in spiritual care.
Emotions are fundamental to daily decision-making and overall wellbeing. Emotions are psychophysiological processes that are frequently linked to human-machine interaction, and it is expected we will see the creation of systems that can recognize and interpret human emotions in a range of ways as computers and computer-based applications get more advanced and pervasive in people's daily lives. Emotion recognition systems are able to modify their responses and user experience based on the analysis of interpersonal communication signals. The ability of virtual assistants to respond emotionally more effectively, the ability to support mental health systems by identifying users' emotional states, and the enhancement of human-machine interaction applications. The aim of this chapter is reviewing the interpersonal communication elements of the emotional interaction models that are now.
This research analyzes the critical role of social acknowledgment in enhancing the association between hedonic lifestyles and irrational buy- ing behavior, especially in the context of luxury products and in genera- tions X, Millennial, and Z in Indonesia. Based on theory, although a he- donic lifestyle influences irrational buying behavior, it was revealed that social acknowledgment; as a moderating variable, plays a very significant role. Individuals who feel the urge to be acknowledged in their social con- text demonstrate more irrational buying behavior when they also choose a hedonic lifestyle. These findings imply that the desire to acquire recogni- tion from their social surroundings, whether it is friends, family, or co- workers, could impact their shopping decisions, perhaps driving them to- ward less reasonable or excessive decisions, especially in the setting of luxury products. This has major consequences for marketers and corporate policymakers, as it shows that marketing methods that focus on status goals and social acknowledgment can be more effective. This study used a pur- posive sampling technique and managed to get 256 samples. The results of this study prove that a hedonic lifestyle has a significant effect on irrational purchasing decisions, and Social Acknowledgement; as a moderating vari- able, greatly influencing the relationship between a hedonic lifestyle and irrational purchasing decisions.
We offer an alternative conceptualization of the construct of susceptibility to emotional contagion and four related studies where two separate measures were developed and initially validated. The Contagion of Affective Phenomena Scale-General (CAPS-G) is a 5-item scale that measures the general susceptibility to the contagion of affect, and the Contagion of Affective Phenomena Scale – Emotion (CAPS-E) assesses six distinct emotions. Study 1 generated items with experts. Study 2 explored and confirmed construct validity and the factorial structure of both measures using exploratory structural equation modeling. Study 3 established test–retest reliability, concurrent validity, and discriminant validity. Study 4 found predictive validity with a sample of competitive swimmers. In four separate samples, a 21-item and 6-factor first-order structure of CAPS-E provided the best model fit. We provide initial evidence that supports the use of CAPS-E and CAPS-G as reliable and valid measures of the susceptibility to contagion of affective phenomena.
Purpose
This study aims to explore the enabling and suppressing effects of leader affiliative and aggressive humor on employee knowledge sharing form the lens of emotional contagion process, which provides theoretical reference for the applications of different leader humor style, thereby enhancing employee knowledge sharing.
Design/methodology/approach
This study collected three waves of data and surveyed 379 employees in China. Regression analysis, bootstrapping and latent moderation structural equation were adopted to test the hypotheses.
Findings
Leader affiliative humor has a positive impact on employee knowledge sharing, whereas leader aggressive humor has a negative impact on employee knowledge sharing. Positive emotion plays a mediating role between leader affiliative humor and employee knowledge sharing, and negative emotion plays a mediating role between leader aggressive humor and employee knowledge sharing. Moreover, supervisor–subordinate Guanxi moderates the relationship between leader affiliative humor and positive emotion, and between leader aggressive humor and negative emotion, respectively.
Originality/value
This study not only adds to the knowledge sharing literature calling for the exploration of antecedents and mechanism of employee knowledge sharing, but also contributes to our comprehensive understanding of the suppressing and enabling effects of leader humor style on employee knowledge sharing. Besides, this study also unpacks the dual-path mechanism and boundary condition between leader humor style and employee knowledge sharing and augments the theoretical explanations of emotional contagion theory between leader humor style and employee knowledge sharing.
In this chapter, we discuss the role of empathy in ethical leadership development. Empathy as a social practice deeply relates to ethics. Particularly three ethical concepts including generosity, care, and responsibility have a strong link with empathy in leadership practice. Generosity forms the ethical basis that enables individuals to be open and recognize others’ emotional states, as opposed to being self-centered. Caring about and feeling responsible for others motivates leaders to share others’ emotions and empathize. Concerning empathy as a critical building block of ethical leadership, we introduce two methods for human resource development (HRD) scholars to examine empathy in ethical leadership. One is electroencephalography from a neuroscience perspective. The other is video-based methods with the use of AI-enabled verbal and non-verbal emotion expression analysis. The recent advancement of technology has enabled researchers to investigate neurobiological aspects of empathy and its relationship with ethics. Furthermore, a video-based AI-enabled method can help examine people's interactions with a focus on empathy. Using neurobiological and video-based social cognition approaches, we discuss how leaders can develop empathy that leads to ethical leadership. We conclude the chapter with future research and practice recommendations.
Leader Work provides a guide to the ways in which reflexivity can support leaders in their development and professional practice. The book does not present a tick-box toolkit to being a better leader, instead it provides the prompts and deeper reflexive space for leaders to consider their own self-development.
The book draws on reflexive practice, but goes beyond this method to guide the reader on how to consider both inward and outward work, and provides useful suggestions for application. The inward work involves developing our knowledge of ourselves, our capabilities and our limitations through self-examination and connecting with others, and so building up our capacity for judgment, and gaining confidence in using intuition and imagination thoughtfully in situations of complexity and uncertainty. The outward work involves learning to express a leader identity that is both true to ourselves and recognized by relevant groups and the organizations in which we work, so that we are trusted to help navigate and narrate a path through uncertainty.
This book has been written for leaders and would-be leaders looking to develop and shape their practice, as well as scholars studying and teaching leadership classes.
Purpose
Trust is an important facilitator of successful B2B relationships. The purpose of this study is to investigate affect-based antecedents of both interpersonal and interorganizational trust, and their impact on the performance of buyer–supplier relationships. The authors ask two research questions: (1) What are affect-based dimensions of interpersonal and interorganizational trust? (2) How do interpersonal and interorganizational trust influence buyers’ operational performance?
Design/methodology/approach
The authors use data from an original survey of 156 buyer–supplier relationships between multinational enterprise subsidiaries and local suppliers in the Thai manufacturing sector to develop a structural model in which the authors test the hypotheses.
Findings
Consistent with social exchange theory and social psychology, the empirical analysis shows that affect-based dimensions at the individual level, namely, likeability, similarity and frequent social contact, and at the organizational level, namely, supplier firm willingness to customize and institutionalization of cooperation, are important for establishing trust. In addition, interpersonal trust enhances buyers’ operational performance indirectly via interorganizational trust.
Practical implications
Buying and selling firms may develop organizational trust by developing processes that enhance organizational trust. Individuals with purchasing or sales responsibilities may enhance trust in their personal relationship. However, such interpersonal trust needs to be translated to the organizational level to benefit organizational performance.
Originality/value
The findings contribute to the literature on affect-based antecedents and outcomes of trust. Specifically, the authors offer theory and empirical evidence regarding the contribution of salespersons toward affect-based dimensions of trust and its impact on buyer’s operational performance.
هدفت الدراسة إلى تحليل أثر القيادة الإيجابية في الاستغراق الوظيفي من خلال الذكاء العاطفي في الجامعات السعودية. ولتحقيق أهداف الدراسة واختبار فرضياتها تم استخدام المنهج الوصفي التحليلي الارتباطي، وتم استخدام الاستبانة كأداة رئيسية لجمع البيانات، وتكونت عينة الدراسة (وحدة التحليل) من 210 قائداً من القيادات الأكاديمية في الجامعات السعودية. وتوصلت نتائج الدراسة إلى وجود تأثير ذي دلالة إحصائية للقيادة الإيجابية بأبعادها المختلفة في الاستغراق الوظيفي، وكشفت الدراسة أن هناك تأثيراً للقيادة الإيجابية في الذكاء العاطفي، علاوة على وجود أثر للذكاء العاطفي في الاستغراق الوظيفي، مع وجود أثر غير مباشر للذكاء العاطفي كمتغير معدل في العلاقة بين القيادة الإيجابية والاستغراق الوظيفي. وأوصت الدراسة بضرورة تنمية مهارات القيادة الإيجابية لدى القيادات بما يتوافق والأهداف الرئيسية للجامعات السعودية.
The combined effect of coercion (public and private pressure), self‐interest (competitive advantage) and conviction (intrinsically motivated or genuine) explain why environmental issues have become a key priority for companies. While research has explored coercion and competitive advantage, the role of conviction has received little attention. This paper aims to address this gap. Conviction, which has been correlated with institutional and individual drivers, offers more stable results and a potential multiplier effect as good examples are disseminated by imitation throughout an industry. While the role of imitation has drawn increasing attention of business management studies, it has received scant attention in research on sustainability. This is the second gap this paper aims to address, contributing to the literature on sustainability in two ways: firstly, we will further explore the role of conviction in environmental sustainability; secondly, employing a compartmental model of epidemic propagation, used for other social phenomena, we model the role genuine examples by leaders can play within an industry and the dissemination of good behavior by imitation. Defining genuine conviction as the voluntary mitigation of the externalities of a firm's operations beyond that required by law or the market, substantiated in the responsible behavior of its leaders, our model discovers patterns that policymakers could use to create a “sustainability epidemic”. We suggest mathematical models of epidemics can be applied to sustainability, offering a fresh perspective on the phenomenon of imitation, allowing us to discover how some cultural and social habits can be used.
Rethinking charismatic leadership in organizations: an evolutionary approach
This integrative review of literature offers a new perspective on a research object that generates as much fascination as distrust in the research field: charisma as a source of leadership. This research is conceptual and uses the evolutionary perspective to rehabilitate charismatic leadership as a relevant object of study in organizations. Charisma is studied as a signal, and charismatic leadership as a signaling process aiming at unifying a group toward a common goal. This research draws on early developments in the evolutionary approach to propose an in-depth reflection on the identification of charismatic signals, their effects on the group, and the information that is communicated. The objective is to propose a precise and complete understanding of what charismatic leadership is and how it can be used in organizations. The contributions of this research are therefore firstly theoretical: to extend the first developments of the evolutionary approach applied to charismatic leadership and to answer the main criticisms of the concept. The originality of this work is also to have rehabilitated the role of the body as a tool for the transmission of information in the leadership process. But the contributions are also managerial: by converting charismatic signals into verbal and non-verbal communication techniques, we show that they can be used as a strategic resource in organizational leadership.
To identify the causal impact of emotional contagion, recent studies mainly rely on online or lab experiments. This paper examines the causal impact of emotional contagion among middle school students, using a nationally representative school-based survey in China. We focus on schools that randomly assign students to classrooms and isolate the variations in classmates’ emotions based on a factor that originates outside the classroom: whether the classmate had a serious illness before primary school. We find that the effect of emotional contagion in a real-world setting is larger than previous findings from experimental studies have shown.
Recognizing the dynamic nature of affect, we consider observed leader affect and its variability as important social signals that jointly impact employees’ daily affective reactions and work engagement. Integrating the emotion as social information model and adaptation-level theory, we hypothesized that the impact of daily observed leader affect on employees’ affect and subsequent work engagement is moderated by observed leader affect variability. To test the model, an experience sampling method (ESM) involving two surveys per day over 10 days was employed with a sample of 75 employees. Results indicated that observed leader affect variability weakened the positive relationship between observed leader positive affect and employee work engagement via employee positive affect. Also, observed leader negative affect was negatively related to employee work engagement via employee negative affect, but this indirect effect was not moderated by observed leader affect variability. Our results highlight the critical role of observed leader affect variability in understanding leaders’ affective influence on employee affect and engagement.
Background
Recent theoretical work suggests that self-reflection on daily stressors and the efficacy of coping strategies and resources is beneficial for the enhancement of resilient capacities. However, coping insights emerging from self-reflection, and their relationship to resilient capacities, is an existing gap in our understanding.
Objectives
Given that insights come in many forms, the objective of this paper is to delineate exemplar coping insights that strengthen the capacity for resilience.
Methods
After providing an overview of self-reflection and insight, we extend the Systematic Self-Reflection model of resilience strengthening by introducing the Self-Reflection and Coping Insight Framework to articulate how the emergence of coping insights may mediate the relationship between five self-reflective practices and the enhancement of resilient capacities.
Results
We explore the potential for coping insights to convey complex ideas about the self in the context of stressor exposure, an awareness of response patterns to stressors, and principles about the nature of stress and coping across time and contexts.
Conclusions
This framework adds to existing scholarship by providing a characterization of how coping insight may strengthen resilient capacities, allowing for a guided exploration of coping insight during future research.
Two studies investigated whether people's moods are influenced by the collective mood of their work teammates over time. In the first study, 65 community nurses in 13 teams recorded their moods and hassles daily for 3 weeks. A pooled time-series analysis showed a significant association between the nurses’ moods and the collective mood of their teammates, which did not depend on shared hassles. The association was greater for nurses who were older, were more committed to their team, perceived a better team climate, or experienced fewer hassles with teammates. In Study 2, a team of 9 accountants rated their own moods and the moods of their teammates 3 times a day for 4 weeks using pocket computers. The accountants’ moods and their judgments of their teammates’ moods were significantly associated with the collective mood of their teammates. The findings suggest that people's mood at work can become linked to the mood of their teammates.
Extraversion is a broad, multifaceted trait, yet researchers are still unsure of its defining characteristics. One possibility is that the essential feature of extraversion is the tendency to enjoy social situations. An alternative possibility is that extraversion represents sensitivity to rewards and the tendency to experience pleasant affect. In three studies, participants rated situations that varied on two dimensions: (a) whether they were social or nonsocial and (b) whether they were very pleasant, moderately pleasant, moderately unpleasant, or very unpleasant. Extraverts only rated social situations more positively than introverts did when the situations were pleasant, and extraverts also rated nonsocial situations more positively than introverts did if the situations were pleasant. Thus, the pleasantness of situations was more important than whether they were social or nonsocial in determining extraverts' and introverts' enjoyment.
Emotional labor is the display of expected emotions by service agents during service encounters. It is performed through surface acting, deep acting, or the expression of genuine emotion. Emotional labor may facilitate task effectiveness and self-expression, but it also may prime customer expectations that cannot be met and may trigger emotive dissonance and self-alienation. However, following social identity theory, we argue that some effects of emotional labor are moderated by one's social and personal identities and that emotional labor stimulates pressures for the person to identify with the service role. Research implications for the micro, meso, and macro levels of organizations are discussed.
The phenomenon of empathy entails the ability to share the affective experiences of others. In recent years social neuroscience made considerable progress in revealing the mechanisms that enable a person to feel what another is feeling. The present review provides an in-depth and critical discussion of these findings. Consistent evidence shows that sharing the emotions of others is associated with activation in neural structures that are also active during the first-hand experience of that emotion. Part of the neural activation shared between self- and other-related experiences seems to be rather automatically activated. However, recent studies also show that empathy is a highly flexible phenomenon, and that vicarious responses are malleable with respect to a number of factors--such as contextual appraisal, the interpersonal relationship between empathizer and other, or the perspective adopted during observation of the other. Future investigations are needed to provide more detailed insights into these factors and their neural underpinnings. Questions such as whether individual differences in empathy can be explained by stable personality traits, whether we can train ourselves to be more empathic, and how empathy relates to prosocial behavior are of utmost relevance for both science and society.
I present a multilevel theory of emotion and change, which focuses on attributes of emotional intelligence at the individual level and emotional capability at the organizational level. Emotional intelligence facilitates individual adaptation and change, and emotional capability increases the likelihood for organizations to realize radical change. I also present a mesolevel framework relating emotion-attending behaviors to three dynamics of change: receptivity, mobilization, and learning. These behaviors, which I term emotional dynamics, constitute the organization's emotional capability.
Reference: Torrente, P., Salanova, M., & Llorens, S. (2013). Spreading engagement: On the role of similarity in the positive contagion of team work engagement. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 29, 153-159.
Emotional contagion theory applied to work and organizations posits that positive emotions are shared among team members, thus enabling them to converge in desirable shared states such as team work engagement. The aim of this study is to analyze how similarity among team members in terms of gender and company tenure is related to convergence in work engagement at the team level. Similarity in terms of gender and company tenure was expected to be positively related with convergence in team work engagement. Hierarchical regression modeling in 161 work teams showed that similarity in terms of gender was positively related to convergence in team work engagement, whereas, unexpectedly, similarity in company tenure was negatively related to convergence in team work engagement.
A theoretical framework is offered to explain mood contagion processes in groups. Specifically, we describe and test a two-stage leader activation and member propagation (LAMP) model that starts with the activation of the contagion process by leaders (Stage 1), followed by the mutual propagation of the mood among members (Stage 2). Results from 102 self-managing groups provide support for the LAMP model. Group mood convergence was negatively related to attribute diversity (in extroversion and neuroticism) between the leader and group members (Stage 1) and among group members (Stage 2). In both stages, group members’ susceptibility to emotional contagion and interpersonal attraction had positive main effects on group mood convergence, and moderated the relationship between attribute diversity and mood convergence in groups. The findings offer new insights into group mood convergence, as it unfolds over time.
Several provocative studies on organizational neuroscience have been published of late, many in the domain of leadership. These studies are motivated by the prospect of being able to better explain what causes and constitutes ‘good’ leadership by examining brain activity. In so doing, these studies follow an established path in organizational research that seeks to reduce complex social phenomena to more basic (neurological) processes. However, advocates of organizational neuroscience reveal very little about the fundamental problems and challenges of reductionism. Therefore, our aim in this article is to scrutinize the reductionist assumptions and processes underlying the fast-evolving domain of organizational neuroscience as it is applied to the study of leadership. We maintain that without explicit consideration of, and solutions to, the challenges of reductionism, the possibilities to advance leadership studies theoretically and empirically are limited. In consequence, inferential ambiguities that flow from such insights run the danger of informing organizational practice inadequately. Thus, we find suggestions that we are at the brink of a neuroscientific revolution in the study of leadership premature, and a sole focus on neuroscience, at the expense of insights from other social science disciplines, dangerous.
Although leadership is fundamentally a social psychological (and group) phenomenon, interest in the social psychology of leadership has waxed and waned over the years. The present article briefly reviews this chequered history and then discusses recent theoretical and empirical developments that extend the study of social cognition and social identity to the domain of leadership. In addition, we consider how the eight empirical articles that constitute this Special Issue relate to, and further, the study of leadership as a group process, and conclude by identifying fertile areas for future research.
The project aims at an analysis of interactions of personality variables and individual peculiarities of self-regulation of one's voluntary activity. A questionnaire to diagnose individual peculiarities of self-regulation has been developed. It includes the following scales: planning of achievements, modeling of significant achievement conditions, programming of activities and assessment of results, independence and reliability, general level of self-regulation. The results of the study showed a unique finding-the existence of several profiles of self-regulation for extraverts and introverts. Thus, the typical Eysenck classification of personality types has been extended to the emerging domain of self-regulation of voluntary activity.
Advancements in communication technology constantly change organizational functioning in many ways. One of the aspects these changes bring about is an emergence of individual and reciprocal emotional encounters online in ways that differ from those typically observed in face-to-face settings. In this paper I analyze the existing research on this topic and build a theoretical model of emotion transfer in the electronic communication context in organizations. In particular, drawing on a social contagion theory (Levy & Nail, 1993; adapted for electronic communication exchange by Thompson & Nadler, 2002), I propose a conceptual model of dyadic emotional contagion in the online context and address several key factors that may influence this process and its outcomes. The paper concludes with some guidelines for operationalization and empirical testing, as well as a brief discussion of limitations and theoretical and practical implications of the proposed model.
"In private life, we try to induce or suppress love, envy, and anger through deep acting or "emotion work," just as we manage our outer expressions of feeling through surface acting. In trying to bridge a gap between what we feel and what we "ought" to feel, we take guidance from "feeling rules" about what is owing to others in a given situation. Based on our private mutual understandings of feeling rules, we make a "gift exchange" of acts of emotion management. We bow to each other not simply from the waist, but from the heart. But what occurs when emotion work, feeling rules, and the gift of exchange are introduced into the public world of work? In search of the answer, Arlie Russell Hochschild closely examines two groups of public-contact workers: flight attendants and bill collectors. The flight attendant's job is to deliver a service and create further demand for it, to enhance the status of the customer and be "nicer than natural." The bill collector's job is to collect on the service, and if necessary, to deflate the status of the customer by being "nastier than natural." Between these extremes, roughly one-third of American men and one-half of American women hold jobs that call for substantial emotional labor. In many of these jobs, they are trained to accept feeling rules and techniques of emotion management that serve the company's commercial purpose. Just as we have seldom recognized or understood emotional labor, we have not appreciated its cost to those who do it for a living. Like a physical laborer who becomes estranged from what he or she makes, an emotional laborer, such as a flight attendant, can become estranged not only from her own expressions of feeling (her smile is not "her" smile), but also from what she actually feels (her managed friendliness). This estrangement, though a valuable defense against stress, is also an important occupational hazard, because it is through our feelings that we are connected with those around us. On the basis of this book, Hochschild was featured in Key Sociological Thinkers, edited by Rob Stones. This book was also the winner of the Charles Cooley Award in 1983, awarded by the American Sociological Association and received an honorable mention for the C. Wright Mills Award. © 1983, 2003, 2012 by The Regents of the University of California.
The chameleon effect refers to nonconscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one's interaction partners, such that one's behavior passively rind unintentionally changes to match that of others in one's current social environment. The authors suggest that the mechanism involved is the perception-behavior link, the recently documented finding (e.g., J. A. Bargh, M. Chen, & L. Burrows, 1996) that the mere perception of another' s behavior automatically increases the likelihood of engaging in that behavior oneself Experiment 1 showed that the motor behavior of participants unintentionally matched that of strangers with whom they worked on a task. Experiment 2 had confederates mimic the posture and movements of participants and showed that mimicry facilitates the smoothness of interactions and increases liking between interaction partners. Experiment 3 showed that dispositionally empathic individuals exhibit the chameleon effect to a greater extent than do other people.
This research presents a "meso" level approach that models charismatic leadership in organizations as a function of contextual factors (such as work unit structure, work group collectivism, and crisis), an issue that has rarely been explored in charismatic leadership research. Data were collected from 596 managers and subordinates embedded in 101 work units in a large, complex organization and were analyzed at the individual, group, and cross-levels of analysis. Results indicate that organic structure and collectivistic cultural orientation were positively associated with the emergence of charismatic leadership, whereas perceptions of crisis were negatively related to charismatic leadership. Further, subordinates' ratings of leader charisma were related to leader ratings of work unit performance. The implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.
This study examined the effects of vision content, delivery and organizational performance on perceptions of leader charisma and effectiveness. Subjects included 304 undergraduates who were presented videotaped speeches by a bogus CEO of a software company. A 2 × 2 × 2 design was employed in which message content (visionary/non-visionary), delivery (strong/weak), and organizational performance (high/low) were manipulated. A modified, 7-item version of Meindl and Ehrlich's (1988) Romance of Leadership Scale (RLS-D) served as a covariate. A MANCOVA analysis indicated significant effects of delivery, content, and organizational performance on both perceived leader charisma and effectiveness. The RLS-D was unrelated to either dependent variable as a covariate. The results suggest that strength of delivery is an especially important determinant of perceptions' of leader charisma and effectiveness. Although speech content and organizational performance cues likewise accounted for variance in these perceptions, their effects were at times offset by those of delivery.
Stimulus-response compatibility (SRC)-the fact that some stimulus-response pairs are faster than others-is attributed in part to automatic activation of the stimulus-compatible response representation. Cognitive models of SRC propose that automatic response activation can be strategically suppressed if the automatic response is likely to interfere with behavior; in particular, suppression is thought to occur in preparation for incompatible responses and when the required stimulus-response mapping is unknown before stimulus presentation. We test this preparatory suppression hypothesis in the context of imitation, a special form of SRC particularly relevant to human social behavior. Using TMS, we measured muscle-specific corticospinal excitability during action observation (motor resonance) while human participants prepared to perform imitative and counterimitative responses to action videos. Motor resonance was suppressed during preparation to counterimitate and for unknown mappings, compared to preparation to imitate and a baseline measure of motor resonance. These results provide novel neurophysiological evidence that automatic activation of stimulus-compatible responses can be strategically suppressed when it is likely to interfere with task goals. Insofar as motor resonance measures mirror neuron system activity, these results also suggest that preparatory control of automatic imitative tendencies occurs through modulation of mirror neuron system activity.
How do followers react to their leaders' emotional expressions, and how do these reactions influence followers' perceptions of their leaders' effectiveness? This research examines cognitive and emotional reactions to leaders' expressions of positive and negative emotions, and demonstrates how these reactions affect perceptions of leadership effectiveness. We show that follower interdependence (dispositional or manipulated) plays an important moderating role in understanding reactions to leaders' emotions. Results of three studies demonstrate that followers not only share their leaders' emotions, but also make attributions about the sincerity of their leaders' intentions, and these attributions affect their perceptions of their leader's effectiveness. Results also demonstrate that interdependent followers are sensitive to leader emotional valence and react more positively to leader positivity; non-interdependent followers do not differentiate positive from negative emotions in their leader. We discuss the implications of our research for the literature on leadership.
Based on the notion that leadership involves affective exchange (Dasborough, Ashkanasy, Tee & Tse, 2009), we hypothesize that a leader's mood and task performance can be determined in part by follower mood displays. In two laboratory experiments, leaders supervised teams where the team members were confederates instructed to display positive or negative moods. Results were that followers' mood influenced leader mood and task performance. Moreover, leaders of positive mood followers were judged to have performed more effectively and expediently than leaders of followers who expressed negative mood states. We replicated these findings in Study 2 and found further that leaders high on neuroticism performed less effectively than their low neuroticism counterparts when interacting with negative-mood followers. Collectively, by demonstrating that follower moods influence leader affect and behaviors, our studies provide support for a core element of the Dasborough et al. (2009) reciprocal affect theory of leadership.
Departing from the static perspective of leader charisma that prevails in the literature, we propose a dynamic perspective of charismatic leadership in which group perceptions of leader charisma influence and are influenced by group mood. Based on a longitudinal experimental study conducted for 3 weeks involving 116 intact, self-managing student groups, we found that T1 group perceptions of leader charisma mediate the effect of leader trait expressivity on T2 positive and negative group moods. T2 positive and negative group moods influence T3 distal charisma perceptions by affecting T2 proximal perceptions of leader effectiveness. The current findings offer critical insights into (a) the reciprocal relationship between group perceptions of leader charisma and group mood, (b) the dynamic and transient nature of group perceptions of leader charisma, (c) the importance of understanding negative mood in charismatic leadership, and (d) the mechanism through which charismatic leadership perceptions can be formed and sustained over time.
We provide an overview of how the emerging field of social cognitive neuroscience can be linked to leadership theory and practice. A number of challenges are addressed, including theory development, as well as technical, measurement and methodological issues. In addition, we review recent leadership research that involves neuroscience applications, as well as areas that are closely related to leadership, such as emotional regulation and ethical reasoning and decision-making. Consideration is also given to how neuroscience might inform leadership development processes. We conclude with a discussion of the institutional challenges in conducting leadership research that incorporates neuroscience, and we consider potential limitations of such applications.
We extended past research on the display of positive emotions within customer service settings by focusing on customer traits. Adopting an emotional contagion perspective, we found that customer traits relate to the display of positive emotions by the service provider. This display of positive emotions was also found to relate to customer satisfaction. Implications for emotion management and service personnel training are discussed.
This study examined the moderating effects of emotional contagion, including leaders' emotional contagion and subordinates' emotional susceptibility, on the relationship between transformational leadership and subordinates' job involvement. By investigating 210 soldiers from eight companies of the Taiwan Army, a three-way interaction effect was found. For leaders with high emotional contagion, the positive relationship between transformational leadership and subordinates' job involvement was stronger for subordinates' with high (versus low) susceptibility. For leaders with low emotional contagion, no such interaction was found. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research in this area.
Abstract Affective displays of front-line employees predict beneficial customer reactions, but employees,cannot feel positively at all times. Surface acting (modifying facial expressions) and deep acting (modifying inner feelings) are tested as predictors of emotional exhaustion, and coworker-rated affective service delivery. As predicted by the dramaturgical perspective, surface acting was more detrimental for both stress and service delivery than deep acting, beyond job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Implications for future research and service work are discussed. Submitted as a Research Note 3 “Employers are wise to want workers to be sincere, to go well beyond the smile that’s ‘just painted on’” (Hochschild, 1983: 33). Research has shown that positive affective displays in service interactions, such as smiling and conveying friendliness, predicts important customer outcomes such as the intentions to return, to recommend the store to others, and overall service quality (e.g., Parasuraman, et al., 1985; Pugh, 2001; Tsai, 2001). Service providers do not always feel positively, however, and qualitative research
This research examines mood as a collective property of work groups. We argue that work group members experience group moods when they can detect and display mood information through observable behavioral expressions. To test the hypothesis that work group moods are manifested behaviorally, we developed an observational instrument and compared observers' reports of work group mood with self-reported measures from 70 work groups. As predicted, groups converged for eight distinct mood categories, and observers' reports of work group mood were consistent with groups' aggregated self-reported values. Convergence in members' moods was positively associated with task and social interdependence, membership stability, and mood regulation norms. Theoretical and practical implications of work group mood are discussed.
Most clinical and counseling psychologists have identified three distinct skills required in true empathy: the ability to share the other person’s feelings, the cognitive ability to intuit what another person is feeling, and a “socially beneficial” intention to respond compassionately to that person’s distress. Scholars from various disciplines, including sociology, biology, neuroscience, social psychology, and life-span psychology, argue that primitive emotional contagion—a basic building block of human interaction that allows people to understand and to share the feelings of others—can shed light on human cognition, emotion, and behavior. This chapter discusses emotional contagion and describes three stages in the process of emotional contagion: mimicry, feedback, and contagion.
Transformational leadership has been widely researched and associated with followers' performance, attitudes, health and well-being. However, less research has focused on the antecedents of transformational leadership behaviors. A few studies have examined the characteristics of followers and the attitudes of transformational leaders themselves. There is, however, a lack of knowledge on how the context may encourage transformational leadership behaviors. A study of 58 middle managers from two companies in Denmark; a private accountancy firm and a public elderly care explored this. Using the Experience Sampling Method and questionnaires it was found that both situational factors and working conditions were associated with transformational leadership behaviors at work. The results suggest that research strategies using multiple levels and methods can provide additional information on the antecedents of transformational leadership behaviors in middle managers.
Leadership is a process enacted in the context of a shared group membership, and leadership effectiveness is contingent on followers' perceptions of the leader as a group member. Addressing this role of group membership, the social identity theory of leadership puts leader group prototypicality, the extent to which the leader is perceived to embody group identity, center-stage in leadership effectiveness. I review empirical research in leader group prototypicality, concluding there is a robust empirical basis for the key propositions of the social identity theory of leadership. I also identify newer developments that extend and enrich the social identity analysis of leadership, including attention to the roles of uncertainty, leader fairness, leader–follower relationship, leader self-perceived prototypicality, and leadership of creativity and innovation.
Advances in cognitive neuroscience and other approaches to understanding human behavior from a biological standpoint are only now beginning to filter into leadership research. The purpose of this introduction to the Leadership Quarterly Special Issue on the Biology of Leadership is to outline the organizational cognitive neuroscience approach to leadership research, and show how such an approach can fruitfully inform both leadership and neuroscientific research. Indeed, we advance the view that the further application of cognitive neuroscientific techniques to leadership research will pay great dividends in our understanding of effective leadership behaviors and as such, a future symbiosis between the two fields is a necessity.