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On the Role of Brand Stereotypes in Shaping Consumer Response toward Brands: An Empirical Examination of Direct and Mediating Effects of Warmth and Competence
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to contribute to the branding literature by examining the critical role of
brand stereotypes in shaping consumers’ brand-related responses. Drawing on the Stereotype
Content Model, this article examines how warmth and competence stereotypes impact consumers’
emotional reaction toward brands and in turn consumers’ brand attitudes and behavioral intention.
In addition, this article examines how brand stereotypes mediate the relationships between brand
personality and consumers’ brand emotions. The results from this study support the dual role of
brand stereotypes as relevant predictors of brand emotions, and intervening variables mediating the
effects from brand personality perceptions on brand emotions. The findings support the view that
mechanisms of social perception apply to brand perception and provide new insights about the
relationship between consumers’ brand perceptions and their responses toward brands.
... Warmth reflects good intentions and encompasses traits such as kindness and sincerity, whereas competence denotes the ability to act on these intentions, which are represented by traits such as intelligence and capability Wojciszke & Abele, 2008). These dimensions influence others' perceptions, evaluations, and behaviors Ivens, Leischnig, Muller, & Valta, 2015;Kunda & Spencer, 2003). ...
... SCM has been extensively applied in stereotyping research across various social groups and contexts (Aaker, Vohs, & Mogilner, 2010;Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2008;Kervyn et al., 2012b;Sevillano & Fiske, 2016). For instance, elderly individuals are often stereotyped as being high in warmth but low in competence, whereas wealthy individuals are stereotyped as being highly competent but low in warmth Ivens et al., 2015). Generally, the higher a person's perceived competence and warmth, the more favorable the attitudes toward them (Wojciszke, Abele, & Baryla, 2009;Wortman & Wood, 2011). ...
... Moreover, SCM has been applied in marketing and consumer research to investigate various topics such as branding (Brown & Dacin, 1997;Kervyn et al., 2022), consumer perceptions of organizations (Aaker et al., 2010;Peiffer, Villotti, Vantilborgh, & Desmette, 2020), brand evaluation (Aaker, Garbinsky, & Vohs, 2012;Kolbl, Diamantopoulos, Arslanagic-Kalajdzic, & Zabkar, 2020), and brand anthropomorphism (Liu, Wei, Zhu, & Chen, 2022). For example, Aaker et al. (2010) found that consumers employ warmth and competence stereotypes to form impressions of companies, often perceiving nonprofit companies as warmer but less competent than for-profit ones (Ivens et al., 2015). Positive perceptions in both dimensions are known to enhance purchase intention and brand loyalty (Kervyn et al., 2022). ...
This study investigates the negative consequences of warmth appeal in advertising, particularly in competitive cluttered contexts where consumers encounter multiple advertisements with varying warmth levels. Drawing upon the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), which suggests an inverse relationship between perceptions of warmth and competence, the study explores the "compensation effect", where increased perceptions of warmth lead to reduced perceptions of competence. Specifically, this study explores how advertisement exposure conditions (single advertisement vs. competitive clutter) with varying warmth levels affect consumer perceptions and purchase intention. The findings reveal that advertisements with high warmth appeal, when presented alongside advertisements with low warmth appeal, result in lower purchase intention owing to reduced perceptions of brand competence. Additionally, consumers’ self-monitoring was found to moderate these effects, with high self-monitoring exhibiting more pronounced negative reactions in a cluttered advertising context. These findings highlight the importance of strategically using warmth appeal, especially in competitive settings, and considering individual differences in consumer behavior, such as self-monitoring. This study offers valuable insights for advertisers and marketers to optimize warmth-based strategies in cluttered advertising environments.
... Numerous applications of the SCM substantiate its capacity to explain consumer responses to marketing stimuli EJM 58,5 (including brands) through two fundamental characteristics: judgments of warmth and judgments of competence (e.g. Aaker et al., 2012;Ivens et al., 2015;Kolbl et al., 2019). While studies on brand heritage have yet to account for the SCM perspective, warmth and competence should closely correlate with key characteristics of brand heritage perceptions (Frizzo et al., 2018;Rose et al., 2016;Wiedmann et al., 2011). ...
... The branding literature offers considerable evidence that consumers' assessments of a brand's warmth and competence successfully capture stereotypes that predict relevant outcomes, including attitudes (Ivens et al., 2015), purchase intention (e.g. Aaker et al., 2012;Halkias and Diamantopoulos, 2020), satisfaction (e.g. ...
... A substantial body of research in social psychology shows that stereotyping impacts perceptions, evaluations and behavior (Kunda and Spencer, 2003). Stereotypes represent simplified and generalized beliefs about an object; the central tenet of stereotyping is the attribution of characteristics of a generalized category to an individual object (Ivens et al., 2015). For example, if one holds the stereotype that Swiss chocolate is made competently and with passion, they will generally assume that a specific Swiss chocolate brand is of high quality. ...
Purpose
Research has started exploring how brand heritage perceptions affect people. However, little attention has been paid to the underlying mechanisms and the link between brand heritage and relational outcomes. This study aims to integrate research on brand heritage with the stereotype-content model (SCM) to offer a novel explanation of why and when consumers identify with heritage brands.
Design/methodology/approach
Two quasi-experimental studies with consumers in Germany ( N = 312 and N = 300) focus on multiple real brands to test the mediating roles of warmth and competence. Given the central role of anthropomorphism in brand applications of the SCM, two corresponding variables are examined as moderators, one relating to the brand (brand anthropomorphism) and the other relating to the individual (a person’s feeling of loneliness). Category involvement, state anxiety, brand familiarity, past orientation and consumer age are included as controls.
Findings
The findings indicate that warmth and competence mediate the brand heritage consumer–brand identification relationship. In addition, they highlight the moderating role of brand anthropomorphism and loneliness.
Research limitations/implications
This study offers a novel process explanation for how brand heritage perceptions influence consumer–brand relationships, contingent upon loneliness and anthropomorphism.
Practical implications
The findings help marketers better understand how and when warmth and competence transmit positive brand heritage effects, resulting in more favorable responses.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this work is among the first to adopt a stereotype-content and anthropomorphic perspective on consumer responses to brand heritage perceptions.
... Due to the critical need for building identification-based relationships with consumers, as previously argued, we draw from Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and extent the BIAF by examining how brand stereotypes contribute to consumer-brand identification. Importantly, we integrate gendered brand personality into this analysis, recognizing its role as an antecedent of identity-based bonds with brands (Ivens et al., 2015). This integration allows us to unify three previously isolated research streams -brand stereotypes, brand personality, and consumer-brand identification -and elucidate the unique contributions of warmth and competence in explaining consumers' identification with brands. ...
... In support to the BIAF's central claim that social perceptions can also be applied to brand perceptions, a comprehensive review of prior research (see Appendix A) highlights the influence of brand positioning (Gong et al., 2021;Peter & Ponzi, 2018), brand personality (Ivens et al., 2015), brand logo (Japutra et al., 2018), and the assignment of brands to categories such as for-profit/non-profit (Bernritter et al., 2016), global/ local (Kolbl et al., 2019(Kolbl et al., , 2020 or country of origin (Diamantopoulos et al., 2021) on the formation of warmth and competence judgements. Notably, only a minority of studies has examined how gendered brand representations through the use of colours and shapes (Hess & Melnyk, 2016), size cues in brand names (Zhang et al., 2022), and brand name gender (Pogacar et al., 2021) influence stereotypical judgements of warmth and competence despite the fact that they are imbued with subtle gender stereotypes (Eagly & Wood, 2012). ...
... Particularly, no research has touched upon the role of gendered brand personality, being gender one of the most salient and accessible brand personality characteristics (Machado et al., 2019) that is vital in brand identity and positioning (Ulrich et al., 2020). By exploring this connection, this paper further enriches the BIAF model by expanding upon the work of Ivens et al. (2015) by delving into the gendered dimensions of brand personality as antecedents of warmth and competence. ...
... al.'s (2019) seven-item instrument, luxury brand warmth and -competence (four items each) were gauged by using the scales ofIvens et al. (2015),Fiske et al. (2002), and Kolbl et al. ...
... This luxury brand's AR-based features make it intelligent. Ivens et al. (2015) Fiske et al. (2002) Kolbl et al. (2020 WRW1 This luxury brand's AR-based features make it friendlier. ...
Though augmented reality (AR) is increasingly adopted in marketing, its capacity to foster consumers' engagement and attachment remain tenuous, exposing an important literature-based gap. Addressing this gap, we deploy social presence theory and luxury consumption theory to develop and test a model that proposes that consumers' engagement with AR-deploying luxury brands drives the development of their perceived brand warmth, social value, and brand competence, in turn impacting their brand attachment. To explore these issues, we draw on survey data from a sample of 537 luxury apparel and automotive consumers. The results using structural equation modelling (SEM) show that first, luxury consumers who exhibit high engagement with the AR-deploying brand perceive higher levels of brand warmth,-competence, and social value, in turn raising their attachment to the AR-deploying luxury brand. Overall, the findings highlight AR's strategic capacity to engage consumers and raise the brand's perceived brand warmth, competence, and social value, in turn boosting individuals' attachment to the AR-deploying brand.
... Thus, the internal structure of stereotypes may help uncover the main themes underlying individuals' views of SMM. Moreover, marketing studies show that the integration of warmth and competence dimensions simplifies consumers' decisionmaking process by allowing consumers to evaluate a product primarily based on the knowledge attached to the category membership rather than specific attributes (Ivens et al. 2015). Stereotypes thus have significant implications for consumers' attitudinal reactions and behavioural intentions (Puddifoot 2019), which provides us with the theoretical basis for connecting the public's views and acceptability of SMM. ...
... In the APA Dictionary of Psychology, for example, VandenBos (2015, p. 1031) defines stereotypes as 'a set of cognitive generalisations (e.g., beliefs, expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the members of a group or social category.' In contrast, some studies have taken more generalised definitions that stereotypes are views or mental representations (i.e., images) an individual associates with a certain category (Ivens et al. 2015, Stangor et al. 2014, Van Knippenberg and Dijksterhuis 2000. Despite the disparities, scholars have come to the agreement that a stereotype corresponds to an individual's self-or social-relevant categorical knowledge (Lee et al. 2013) and that stereotyping always includes evaluative components (Gilmour 2015). ...
... A number of studies have recognized that brand stereotypes can result in positive brand evaluations (e.g. Gong et al., 2021;Ivens et al., 2015;Japutra et al., 2018). The question of whether perceived green brand authenticity can bring about a positive effect on brand stereotypes is yet to be verified. ...
... This underlines the dual role of brand stereotypes in green brand perceptions. The study supports the significance of the stereotype content model in the context of branding (Ivens et al., 2015). This study indicates that green brand authenticity is an important driver in activating customer perceptions of a green brand's warmth and competence, which draws on signaling theory. ...
Drawing on the logic behind customer-brand relationships, this study presents a model outlining the role of brand authenticity in the context of green hospitality brands. A cross-sectional survey was administered to 352 Korean consumers who visited green hospitality premises. The results indicated that functional qualities and stakeholder involvement are essential to building perceived green brand authenticity. The study supported that an authentic green brand is instrumental in increasing customer beliefs about its warmth and competence. Surprisingly, the results showed that evaluating a green brand as warm is the key to building green brand trust, while found a non-significant influence of green brand competence on green brand trust. This study also provided evidence that when green brand trust is formed, its effect on both green brand love and green brand identification is noticeable, which then translates into green brand choice. Overall, this study enriches the significance of the perception of green brand authenticity in fostering a favorable relationship between customers and green brands. In green brand management, brand stereotypes play a dual role in the brand choice formation. Furthermore, contextually induced green stimuli, which include operations, employee behavior, and customer engagement, are required to influence customer perception of green brand authenticity.
... When assessing brands, consumers consider relational aspects in addition to functional aspects, by asking "what intentions does this brand have?" (Ivens et al., 2015). Brands with positive intentions are seen as kind, friendly, and approachable, and are perceived as warm (Kervyn et al., 2012). ...
... Exclusion increases feelings of KIM ET AL. | 3 loneliness, which reflect deficient social needs and support (DeWall & Richman, 2011). As warm brands signal positive intentions toward consumers (e.g., care and kindness), similar to supportive others that provide connection, acceptance, and support (Fournier, 1998;Fournier & Alvarez, 2012;Ivens et al., 2015), warm brands may serve as an alternative social resource and alleviate felt loneliness. Therefore, H3: Socially excluded consumers will feel less lonely after they encounter warm (vs. ...
Consumers' feelings of being excluded—which indicate a deficit in important social resources such as connection, acceptance, and support—have increased over the last 50 years. In this research, by adopting a resource‐based view of brands, we examine how and why brands play a role in socially excluded consumers' lives. Across a series of studies, we find that excluded consumers perceive warm (vs. less warm) brands as better relationship partners. Because of this, excluded consumers choose warm (vs. less warm) brands more often, and they feel less lonely as a result. We also test the role of brand warmth relative to brand competence and to individual differences in self‐acceptance. We find that excluded consumers' preferences for warm brands persist even when the warm brands are low in competence and even when consumers possess high self‐acceptance. This research reveals the relational, resource‐restorative role of warm brands and provides implications for consumers' coping and emotional well‐being in our increasingly isolated society.
... The model further distinguishes between in-and out-group perception and has been applied to different domains in social sciences to understand, for example, racism [52], sexism [53], and ageism [54]. Previous work showed that the SCM can not only be applied to understand the stereotypical perception of human stereotypes but also the stereotypical perception of other entities such as animals [55], products [17,56], or brands [16,57]. Findings by Schwind et al. [21] show that higher ratings in warmth and competence correlate with ratings of social acceptability of mobile devices. ...
... The SCM provides a promising alternative through not directly assessing the social acceptance of devices for each possible context but the stereotypical perception of an indirect view on the user-device combination within all contextual dimensions that can possibly be stereotypical perceived as well [19,21]. We derive this assumption from previous findings that even non-human social concepts are being stereotypically perceived [16,17,[54][55][56][57]. Thus, our research question is whether a context can be stereotypically perceived and systematically "attract" ratings of a device (such as mobile devices for human stereotypes [19,21]) when the device is supposedly used in a certain context. ...
Assessing social acceptability is vital when designing body-worn mobile devices. Previous research found evidence that using stereotyping content model (SCM) mobile devices can systematically predict ratings of the warmth and competence of their wearers. However, it is currently unknown if other contextual dimensions of mobile device usage can also systematically affect those ratings. In two studies, we investigate if and how shape and body location of a body-worn mobile device as well as the activity in which the device is being used can systematically influence stereotypical ratings. Our results suggest that this is evident in some but not all cases. We conclude that people further differentiate between the placement of the device, particularly devices in the user’s hand, and during an activity in which the device can contextually be misused. This indicates that users further differentiate the context and that more contexual information is helpful while operationalizing the SCM as a measure for social acceptability.
... Past psychological research frequently models emotional reactions of contempt, admiration, envy, and pity, as explanatory mechanism of the differential effects of warmth and competence stereotypes on various outcomes (e.g., Ivens, Leischnig, Muller, & Valta, 2015;Kervyn et al., 2012). The reliance on emotions is not surprising given the theoretical roots of stereotyping literature focusing on emotional reactions to person and/or group perceptions . ...
... In particular, we show the relevance of capability and relational concerns in explaining the effect of stereotypes on purchasing managers' decisions (Das & Teng, 2001;Güntürkün et al., 2020). Past consumer research commonly models emotional reactions as explanatory mechanism of the differential effect of warmth and competence stereotypes on various outcomes (e.g., Ivens et al., 2015;Kervyn et al., 2012). Recent research, however, suggests alternative mechanisms including how stereotypes help to reduce uncertainty and latent concerns about the capability and goodwill of others (e.g., Abele & Brack, 2013;Güntürkün et al., 2020). ...
In B2B markets, vendor companies increasingly rely upon influential individuals in the digital environment to communicate information about their offerings to client organizations. Given the growing B2B digital engagement, cues that help to differentiate highly impactful digital influencers are crucial for vendor companies. Drawing from Stereotype Content Model, we analyze competence and warmth as relevant cues of digital influencers. Employing experimental studies, we examine how competence and warmth influence B2B purchasing managers' evaluation and selection of vendors' solutions. We find that the digital influencers' competence enhances purchasing managers' intention to buy the advocated vendor's offering. When compared with warmth, competence minimizes capability and relational concerns associated with the purchase decision. Further, we show that such effect of competence is prominent when manager-influencer identification is low. Our research advances knowledge on the characteristics of digital influencers that shape B2B purchasing managers' evaluation and selection of vendors. We identify concern-based psychological mechanisms underlying the effect of influencers' characteristics, and related boundary conditions. Our findings provide implications for digital influencers seeking to expand reach in B2B markets, and for vendor companies and marketing agencies in the selection of digital influencers.
... Warmth reflects consumers' perceptions of a brand's good intentions, encompassing attributes such as sincerity, empathy, and ethical responsibility, while competence refers to a brand's ability to fulfill these intentions through professionalism, efficiency, and problem-solving capability [74]. Warmth and competence have been independently and well validated as predictors of consumers' brand perceptions and purchase intentions [75][76][77]. ...
Brand crises frequently lead to the erosion of consumer trust, with corporate apologies serving as a widely utilised strategy for trust repair. While existing research supports the effectiveness of apologies in repairing brand trust, limited attention has been given to the underlying psychological mechanisms from the consumer perspective. Drawing on the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), a dual-path trust repair mechanism was proposed to systematically examine how corporate apologies influence brand trust repair through perceived warmth and perceived competence. Unlike previous studies, the SCM framework was employed to provide a more comprehensive explanation, demonstrating how corporate apologies in brand crisis contexts impact trust recovery via both emotional (perceived warmth) and cognitive (perceived competence) dimensions. Utilising structural equation modelling (SEM) to analyse questionnaire data from consumers of new energy vehicles (n=412), the findings indicate that corporate apologies not only directly enhance brand trust but also indirectly facilitate trust repair by increasing perceived warmth and perceived competence, which function as mediating variables in the repair process. These insights extend the theoretical framework of brand crisis management and trust repair research while offering empirical support for optimising corporate apology strategies. Doi: 10.28991/HEF-2025-06-01-07 Full Text: PDF
... According to the stereotype content model (SCM), individuals typically make overall judgments of others based on two primary dimensions: warmth and competence (Ivens et al., 2015). Judgments of warmth and competence can arise from different types of SMIs (Carvalho, 2021) and various information formats (Hu & Pan, 2024). ...
Destination marketing organizations often invite influencers to promote destinations, yet research on improving influencer endorsement efficacy through matching the influencer type and information content remains limited. This study explores how the match between influencer type and information format influences destination visit intention, with perceived expertise and intimacy as mediators and color hue as a moderator. Four scenario-based experiments revealed that consumers were more willing to visit a destination promoted by informer influencers using list-based information due to greater perceived expertise; by contrast, consumers preferred a destination promoted by entertainer influencers using narrative-based information due to higher perceived intimacy. Additionally, color hue moderated these effects: warm hues amplified positive responses to narratives by entertainer influencers, whereas cool hues enhanced responses to lists by informer influencers. These findings contribute to the tourism literature on influencer marketing and provide valuable insights into tailoring influencer marketing strategies to maximize their effectiveness.
... Kesesuaian ini akan menyebabkan peningkatan niat beli (Ivens et al., 2015) dan kepercayaan merek (Li et al., 2008). ...
Kepribadian merek merupakan topik yang banyak dibahas dalam banyak penelitian. Namun, sebagian besar penelitian tersebut berbicara tentang kesesuaian kepribadian merek dengan kepribadian pengguna. Belum banyak yang membahas mengenai kesesuaian antara kepribadian pemilik-manajer di UMKM dengan kepribadian merek yang mereka miliki. Padahal dengan menyadari adanya kesesuaian antara kepribadian pemilik-manajer dengan kepribadian merek yang dibentuknya, akan lebih mudah bagi pelaku UMKM untuk menentukan tujuan dan strategi bisnis. Dengan demikian, tujuan artikel ini adalah untuk menunjukkan bahwa memang ada keselarasan antara kepribadian pemilik-manajer UMKM dengan kepribadian merek yang mereka bentuk, meskipun proses ini tidak mereka sadari. Penelitian kualitatif ini menggunakan pendekatan studi kasus dan data dikumpulkan melalui wawancara semi-terstruktur mendalam dengan empat manajer pemilik UMKM di destinasi wisata belanja dan kuliner Kota Bandung. Berdasarkan hasil tersebut, didapatkan hasil bahwa pemilik-manajer UMKM secara naluriah memanusiakan usahanya. Peta jalan manajerial untuk membentuk kepribadian merek juga diberikan berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini. Ini adalah studi pertama yang membuktikan dampak atribut pribadi pemilik-manajer UMKM destinasi wisata belanja dan kuliner terhadap personifikasi merek yang terlihat melalui identitas dan citra merek yang sesuai dengan nilai diri dan sifat pemilik. Studi ini membantu memberikan saran dalam pemulihan sektor pariwisata khususnya di Kota Bandung. Para pemilik-manajer UMKM dapat menggunakan model yang dikembangkan oleh penulis untuk menerapkan strategi pemerekan yang lebih baik dalam menarik wisatawan. Semakin banyak bisnis yang mampu mengembangkan citra merek yang berbeda, maka semakin tinggi daya saing mereka.
... Thus, from the perspective of external threats, this paper introduces impersonal situational factors as a potential boundary. Previous research identifies warmth perception as a key determinant of consumer behavioral responses (Aaker, Garbinsky, and Vohs 2012;Ivens et al. 2015) and purchase intention (Fournier and Alvarez 2012). In private domain communities, warmth perception reflects consumers' sense of friendly intent within the community atmosphere (Xue et al. 2020). ...
In recent years, private domain communities have become key hubs for connecting businesses and users. However, many private domain communities remain “rigid” rather than “activated,” limiting their marketing potential. This paper, grounded in psychological reactance theory, examines how dual‐channel responsibility affects consumer citizenship behavior beneficial to community members. Using surveys, experiments, and regression analysis across seven studies, the research shows that taking charge boosts freedom and promotes citizenship behavior beneficial to community members. In contrast, responsibility diffusion limits such behavior by imposing constraints. Community warmth moderates the effects of responsibility diffusion and taking charge on these behaviors.
... These associations might change among different consumers (e.g., based on demographics), and due to the interaction with other variables, such as the use of humor (Brender-Ilan and Reizer, 2021;Howe et al., 2023) or emoticons when communicating the brand (Ivens et al., 2015). Other studies examined the interaction of W/C with the type of narration used to present the brand (i.e., in first vs. ...
The stereotypes content model indicates that two traits (i.e., warmth and competence) govern individuals’ impression formation. The great variety of research that has used this theory since the early 2000s leads to a need for a structured overview of prior findings. The goal of this study is to provide a concise map of research streams and present a research agenda. We conducted a systematic literature review of 955 articles. A bibliographic coupling analysis showed four clusters, i.e., (1) the general theoretical foundations of the SCM, (2) the societal impact of key stereotypes (with emphasis on gender), (3) research in clinical psychology and child development, and (4) marketing. Taking a closer look at research in marketing (using co-occurrence analysis), six research streams were identified, including research on branding, country-of-origin, front-line service providers, prosocial consumer behavior, perception of endorsers, and, more recently, on artificial intelligence (AI). The review presents key findings and research gaps across these topics. Finally, we reviewed the few articles that, although not falling into these streams, opened important research veins. This process provided the essential information to present a promising and complete research agenda, to continue building knowledge with impactful implications in different contexts.
... It was originally proposed by Fiske et al. (2002) to explain the different variations in individuals' perceptions of social groups. According to SCM, people tend to form comprehensive judgments of others based on two main dimensions: warmth and competence (Ivens et al., 2015). Warmth is an indicator of measuring others' behavioral intentions, reflecting people's need to form and maintain social bonds, characterized by kindness, trustworthiness, tolerance, friendliness, and sincerity (Aaker et al., 2010); competence is used to evaluate the degree and possibility of others achieving their intentions and goals, characterized by intelligence, skillfulness, cleverness, and confidence (Hoegg & Lewis, 2011). ...
... Various cues, such as voice and physical attractiveness (Zuckerman & Driver, 1988), are known to result in the formation of stereotypical impressions regarding individuals' personalities. In the context of brands, human-like warmth and competence stereotypes influence consumers' feelings about brands (Ivens et al., 2015). The stereotype content model (SCM; Fiske et al., 2002) suggests that warmth and competence are the fundamental dimensions shaping people's views about others (Halkias & Diamantopoulos, 2020). ...
... Along with and expanding this literature, scholars have examined the important role of mind perceptions in various nonhuman contexts, such as brands and products. For example, Ivens et al. (2015) illustrated that warmth and competence perceptions are influential in shaping consumers' responses toward brands. Furthermore, van Doorn et al.'s (2017) conceptual research proposed that perceived warmth and competence could explain customers' responses to automated social presence (e.g. ...
Purpose
Drawing on anthropomorphism and the stereotype content model, this study aims to explore the impacts of robot anthropomorphism on hotel guests’ word of mouth and continuous usage intention through perceived warmth and competence. This study also investigates the moderating effects of guests’ expertise.
Design/methodology/approach
A total of 524 valid data was collected with Chinese hotel guest through an online survey. Data were analyzed by using structural equation modeling.
Findings
The results indicate that robot anthropomorphism positively affects perceived warmth and competence. Perceived warmth positively affects guests’ word of mouth and continuous usage intention, while perceived competence only positively influences guests’ continuous usage intention. The findings further show that guest expertise weakens the positive relationship between robot anthropomorphism and perceived warmth and competence.
Originality/value
This study advances robot service literature by integrating the stereotype content model with robot anthropomorphism in exploring hotel guests’ perceptions on service robots. This study also discovers the vital boundary role of guest characteristics in human–robot interaction. This study provides valuable information for hoteliers to design and adopt better robots for optimal guest experiences.
... Diamantopoulos et al. (2017) noted that stereotypes such as sincerity and competence play a substantial role in predicting consumers' positive behavior and cultivating relationships between consumers and brands. This study examines how competence and warmth stereotypes directly affect consumers' attachment toward a destination, which, in turn, influences their attitudinal and behavioral responses toward it (Ivens et al., 2015). Furthermore, DBL is a new marketing concept that strategically builds long-term consumerbrand relationships (Ghorbanzadeh and Rahehagh, 2021;Loureiro et al., 2012). ...
Purpose
The main purposes of this article are twofold: (1) to investigate the unexplored connections among destination gender personality, destination stereotypes, brand attachment and destination brand love and (2) to examine the moderating role of destination involvement in the association between destination stereotypes and destination brand attachment (DBA).
Design/methodology/approach
The conceptual model is evaluated using qualitative methods (i.e. three focus groups, six academic experts and a pilot study). In addition, using an empirical study with 610 international travelers who visited Egypt selected by systematic random sampling, 8 hypotheses were analyzed and tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) by AMOS 23, confirmatory factor analyses and exploratory factor analyses.
Findings
The study’s results suggest that destination gender plays a vital role in enhancing stereotypes, stereotypes positively affect attachment and DBA positively affects destination brand love. Finally, the results show that destination involvement moderates the dual influence of the warmth and competence of stereotypes on destination attachment.
Practical implications
The research supports the contention that social perception mechanisms are crucial in destination brand perception. It offers new understandings of the association between customers' destination brand perceptions and their responses to destinations.
Originality/value
This paper contributes to the travel literature by analyzing a novel model of destination gender personality, stereotypes, DBA and destination brand love using both social role (SR) theory and a stereotype content model (SCM). Besides attempting this task, it explores the moderating role of destination involvement in the association between stereotypes and destination attachment using the elaboration likelihood model.
... Focusing on the critical role of brand stereotypes, some studies argue that consumers' perceptions of warmth and competence can effectively predict their brand-related emotions (Ivens et al., 2015). Different gendered tourists may have different reasons for engaging with a destination, and might express differences in their preferences for certain activities offered by a destination (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021). ...
This article proposes and tests a conceptual model to investigate a new mechanism among destination gender, stereotypes, destination attitudes, and destination revisit intention. Furthermore, it explores the moderating role of destination congruity in the link between destination gender and stereotypes on one hand and between stereotypes and destination attitudes on the other hand. The theoretical model is examined utilizing a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to test eight hypotheses using AMOS 28 and PROCESS MARCO. This article provides significant practical and theoretical implications to the gender-based destination marketing research agenda as well as dependable guidance for destination officials and policymakers.
... Emotions can be defined as a form of affection that manifests as visceral responses to a catalyst (Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001). Literature has posited that emotions are created by critical factors that impact how consumers perceive, feel, and behave toward brands and organizations (Ivens et al., 2015). Roeser (2012) examined the role emotions play in determining moral judgement and individual behaviors. ...
Consumer reaction toward corporate social advocacy (CSA) stances can often be swift and visceral. These reactions may be due to messages evoking emotions that are self-transcendent-bigger than the individual and bigger than the company or its products or services. However, no research to date has examined the nature of self-transcendent emotions in CSA messages. Through a content analysis of CSA messages (n = 352), this exploratory study examined characteristics of CSA messages to understand the nature and prevalence of self-transcendent emotional elicitors within company CSA stances-as manifested in both written statements and video messages-which are typically the two mediums that companies use to communicate their CSA stances. Results indicate that most CSA messages do contain transcendent emotional elicitors with appreciation for beauty and excellence being the most prevalent. This study holds implications for research and practice at the intersection of public relations and media psychology.
... Consumer researchers have utilized SCM to explain how consumers perceive and respond to humanized objects such as brands (Ivens et al., 2015) and chatbots (Seiler & Schär, 2021). AI-related research has also demonstrated the usefulness of warmth and competence as the two dimensions that significantly predict user preferences for AI-powered technologies (Gilad et al., 2021). ...
There is an emerging interest in examining user attitudes towards voice assistants (VAs); however, there is limited research on how user attitudes are formulated in different contexts. Drawing from the stereotype content models, the current study attempts to investigate how users perceive and evaluate voice assistants (VAs) in different contexts (i.e., functional vs. social tasks) based on warmth, competence and trustworthiness. Study 1 (N = 123) employs a within‐subjects design to examine how task type (functional vs. social) affects user perceptions and attitudes towards a VA (i.e., Google Assistant). Study 2 (N = 116) and Study 3 (N = 61) examine the boundary effect of perceived psychological power and ease of use. The findings show that attitude is significantly more positive in functional tasks (vs. social), and this effect is mediated by perceived competence. This indirect effect is also significantly moderated by perceived ease of use. Perceived warmth does not mediate the effect of social tasks on attitude, and trust in VAs is a direct outcome of functional tasks. Taken together, this study contributes to both theory and practice in many ways. Specifically, the findings are the first to demonstrate a direct effect of task type on consumer perceptions and attitudes. Additionally, the findings indicate that user evaluations of VAs are still dominated by user perceptions of the competence of the VAs.
... Previous studies have associated social competence and emotional regulation, and this link leads to emotion-related regulatory processes and specific emotional behaviors (Blair et al., 2015). Ivens et al. (2015) viewed that customers' emotional responses are influenced by warmth and competence personality cues. Numerous studies highlight that the perceived level of competence acts as the predictor of satisfaction (Judge et al., 2005;Caprara et al., 2006). ...
This study investigates the approach behavior of the respondents by using the cognitive-affective-behavioral framework in the context of restaurant service robots. An online survey was conducted among customers who had patronage experience visiting service robot restaurants in Taiwan. A total of 230 valid samples were employed for the final analysis using the maximum likelihood estimation method. The hypothesized relationships were tested using structural equation modeling. Furthermore, a multigroup analysis based on the visit experience (frequency of visit) and generation was conducted. Cognitive components such as competence and coolness positively influence affective components such as emotions and satisfaction. Approach behavior, the behavioral outcome, is positively influenced by emotions and satisfaction. Likewise, emotions positively influence satisfaction. This study highlights the sequential relationship in terms of cognitive, affective and behavioral perspectives in the decision-making process of customers after their encounter with service robots at restaurants.
... As the SCM refers to deeply rooted mechanisms of human perception and inter-social behavior, it has been applied widely and considered helpful in understanding a range of phenomena in different fields, including the perception of nonhuman entities, such as brands and mobile devices. Previous studies demonstrate that consumers perceive brands in a similar way to how they perceive people, and they also feel and behave towards brands in ways that are comparable to their behaviors towards other people [82,83]. Even national stereotypes about a product's country of origin can influence consumers' expectations and willingness to buy a product [84]. ...
Innovations like autonomous delivery vehicles (ADV) have the potential to transform last-mile delivery to make it more sustainable and human-centered. Yet only if these technologies are socially acceptable can they live up to their potential. Using the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), we assessed how different social groups were perceived when they used autonomous delivery vehicles. Based on the two dimensions of the SCM, warmth and competence, we found combinations of group stereotypes and use of ADV that impact social acceptability, and we identified systematic effects of gender and vehicle usage on social acceptability. Our results highlight the importance of social perception for the acceptance of autonomous vehicles and the relevance of the intersections of gender, vehicle usage, and social group for an accurate and comprehensive evaluation of the social acceptability of autonomous delivery vehicles.
... Pour mesurer l'admiration pour la marque nous nous sommes appuyé sur l'échelle de mesure mobilisée par Ivens et al (2015) visant à évaluer les effets des stéréotypes de marque, chaleur et compétence, sur les réactions émotionnelles des consommateurs à l'égard de la marque. Des travaux précédents ont mis en évidence quatre émotions résultant de ces stéréotypes de marque : ...
S’appuyer sur ses collaborateurs pour valoriser la marque est aujourd’hui chose courante. Le management interne de la marque, courant de recherche qui s’intéresse à la relation collaborateur/marque, s’est focalisé sur les pratiques à mettre en place pour que les collaborateurs s’approprient la promesse et les valeurs de la marque et adoptent des comportements favorables à la marque. Les recherches concernant la façon dont les salariés perçoivent et vivent ces pratiques sont peu nombreuses. A partir de deux études qualitatives et de deux expérimentations, cette recherche révèle que les salariés éprouvent à la fois du confort et de l’inconfort à l’égard de la marque. Pour caractériser ces sentiments partagés nous proposons l’idée de relation ambivalente à la marque. Nous mettons également en évidence le rôle prépondérant de la confiance envers la marque ainsi que l’importance de la congruence des valeurs collaborateur / marque dans la réalisation d’un comportement favorable à la marque.
... Consumers' brand attitude is considered one's overall general evaluation of a brand (Faircloth, Capella, & Alford, 2001), which is often the result of a brand's marketing communication efforts. Studies in brand warmth revealed a positive relationship between brand warmth and brand attitude (e.g., Zhang, Zheng, & Zhang, 2020), suggesting that warmth conveyed through friendly and lovable brand states could increase the closeness between the brand and the consumers, thus resulting in a more favorable brand attitude (Waytz, Heafner, & Epley, 2014;Ivens, Leischnig, Muller, & Valta, 2015). Moreover, studies in branding literature documented the influential effects of ad-evoked emotion on consumers' brand attitude (e.g., Pham et al., 2013), suggesting the "affect transfer" process (Mitchell and Olson, 2000) from the ad to the brand. ...
This study investigated the impact of the perceived authenticity of brands’ COVID-19 advertisements on consumers’ perception of brand warmth and the subsequent responses on brand attitude and engagement intention. An online survey was used to acquire consumers’ evaluations of COVID-19 video ads published between March and August in 2020. Results showed that the message authenticity significantly increased consumers’ perception of brand warmth, brand attitude, and engagement intention. Furthermore, the serial mediation results revealed the underlying mechanism that authentic ads evoked positively valenced emotional responses, which increased perceived brand warmth and further resulted in positive brand attitudes and engagement intentions. Practical implications and theoretical advancement are also discussed.
... It is based on the theory that individuals can perceive brands in the same way they perceive humans and, therefore, relate to brands in the same way [40]. Brand stereotyping results in more favorable brand evaluations, brand-related emotions, increased purchase intentions, and brand ownership [41,42]. Some past studies focused on stereotypes related to country-brand associations [43]. ...
Due to environmental concerns, an increasing number of Chinese consumers have begun to resist fast fashion, promoting cheap and lower quality materials with a short lifetime. A shift from a linear economic model to a circular fashion has become an urgent issue for the industry. To examine how brand stereotype affects consumers’ purchasing intention toward upcycled fabric clothing, this study adopted a grounded theory approach to develop the dimensions of brand stereotypes, including product, manufacturing process, service, and communication. Furthermore, a theoretical model was constructed incorporating brand stereotypes, brand green trust, fashion consciousness, and green consciousness. Results from structural equation model analysis indicated that (1) each dimension of brand stereotypes had a significantly positive impact on behavior intention, and especially product and service image have the most influence; (2) brand green trust mediated the relationship between brand stereotypes and buying intention, and (3) green consciousness positively moderated the relationship between brand stereotype and trust, whereas brand warmth in communication and trust was moderated negatively by fashion consciousness. The findings offer implications for the implementation of the green branding strategy, brand positioning, and cultivating consumers’ green awareness to improve market acceptance of upcycled fabric clothing.
... Existe evidencia de que las emociones afectan de forma significativa a los comportamientos de los consumidores (Kervyn, Fiske, y Malone, 2012). Éstas constituyen factores críticos que estimulan la manera de percibir, sentir y comportarse de los consumidores frente a las marcas u organizaciones (Ivens, Leischnig, Muller, y Valta, 2015). En este sentido, las emociones se definen como "una forma de afecto que implica respuestas viscerales asociadas con un referente específico, y que dan lugar a una acción" (Chaudhuri y Holbrook, 2001). ...
La investigación sobre el papel de la Responsabilidad Social Corporativa (RSC) en la lealtad de los consumidores ha cobrado importancia en la literatura académica reciente. En este contexto, se ha sugerido que las emociones pueden convertirse en el mecanismo que explique adecuadamente las reacciones de los consumidores a la RSC. Sin embargo, hasta el momento, los trabajos que analizan el rol de la parte afectiva y emocional en todo este proceso son prácticamente inexistentes. Este trabajo pretende contribuir a la literatura analizando la influencia de las iniciativas de RSC en la lealtad del consumidor considerando una variable de naturaleza emocional, esto es, la admiración hacia la empresa. La información proporcionada por 252 consumidores confirma que las prácticas de RSC influyen positivamente sobre la lealtad del consumidor hacia la empresa, tanto de forma directa como indirecta, a través del impacto sobre la reputación percibida y la admiración.
... The stereotype content model (SCM) proposes two basic dimensions of social perceptions: warmth and competence, which, when combined, produce distinct emotions of admiration, contempt, envy, and pity toward the target object. This model has been adapted as BIAF to map brand perceptions across two dimensions-intention (warmth) and ability (competence) and predict the consumer's emotional and behavioral responses toward brands (Kervyn et al., 2012;Ivens, Leischnig, Muller, & Valta, 2015). ...
Brand Anthropomorphism (BA) is gaining prominence in both marketing research and practice. Researchers have often used different perspectives for studying humanized brands, but this has led to theoretical and conceptual confusion creating challenges in the theoretical development of this field. This paper aims to critically review the existing literature on brand anthropomorphism and propose an integrated framework for identifying future research opportunities. A systematic review of 101 articles spanning more than two decades (1997–2021) was conducted to investigate the concept of brand anthropomorphism and human-like brands. This review identifies and synthesizes two diverse research traditions- designed brand anthropomorphism and perceived brand anthropomorphism- on the basis of complementary yet unique features of both traditions. We outline the fundamental issues and the key limitations in the existing literature and provide recommendations for future research.
... Perceptions of CSR arouse emotions in customers' minds, which are transferred to companies thanks to the mental connections these customers establish between them (Pérez & del Bosque, 2015). Professional stereotypes affect customers' emotional reactions toward firms (Ivens et al., 2015), their behavioral intentions (Aaker et al., 2010), and relationship quality (Japutra et al., 2018). ...
Management scholars are increasingly stressing the importance of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and its growing role in today's business world. Building on stakeholder theory and relationship marketing theoretical framework, this study focuses on the link between customers and CSR and the role of frontline employees in building customer relationship quality, critical for CSR initiatives. This article investigates the effects of expected relational benefits and professional stereotypes on customers' perceptions of companies' CSR activities. This research unveils the cognitive processes influencing customers' perceptions of CSR initiatives the moment they open the companies' doors. A survey was conducted among customers in the banking sector that is experiencing an increasing deployment of CSR programs. We found that frontline employees, as drivers of relational benefits, actively participate in how customers perceive their banks' CSR initiatives. However, how customers perceive their banks through bankers' professional stereotypes partially influences their perceptions of CSR initiatives.
Purpose
This research aims to examine how green advertising benefit appeals (self-benefit and other-benefit) and information types (competence and warmth) work together to promote purchase intentions.
Design/methodology/approach
We conducted three experiments through questionnaires and obtained 711 valid replies. SPSS and bootstrap analysis were used to test the hypothesis.
Findings
The results show that the competence information will lead to higher purchase intention when the green advertisement conveys self-benefit appeals, while the warmth information will lead to higher purchase intention when the green advertisement conveys other-benefit appeals. Consumer perceived value and positive emotion play a mediating role in this mechanism. In addition, time distance moderates the interaction of benefit appeals and information types on purchase intention.
Originality/value
Our research reveals that different information types (competence and warmth) can enhance the effectiveness of green consumption benefit appeals (self-benefit and other-benefit). Second, this paper explores the critical role of perceived value and positive emotion in driving green consumption. Third, this study expands the scope of research on temporal distance in green consumption.
Purpose
The study examines the impact of various aspects of channel integration quality, personalisation and perceived warmth on behavioural outcomes through customer engagement in omnichannel retailing.
Design/methodology/approach
This study is based on the responses of 458 participants, gathered using purposive and snowball sampling methods. PLS-SEM and FIMIX-PLS have been used to examine the heterogeneity in respondents’ views.
Findings
The findings emphasise the favourable influence of various facets of omnichannel strategy on customer engagement, which enhances brand affection, leading to stickiness and willingness to pay price premium. Furthermore, identifying three separate customer categories provides detailed insights into how omnichannel aspects appeal to consumer preferences.
Practical implications
The findings underscore the need to use customised approaches to cultivate lasting relationships with consumers, emphasising the potential of omnichannel retailing in harmonising business success and consumer sentiments. Retailers can identify areas of dissatisfaction within specific segments and eventually focus on improving these areas to provide a seamless experience and increase engagement.
Originality/value
This paper offers a distinctive contribution to the domain of omnichannel retailing by employing structural equation modelling (SEM) along with FIMIX-PLS to explore respondent heterogeneity. In addition to the transactional aspects, this study investigates the crucial elements, including warmth and personalisation strategies and how these influence the holistic customer journey, including their emotional connection with the brand in the omnichannel retailing environment, thereby advancing knowledge in the field and providing relevant implications for industry practice.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to fill the research gap by investigating the impact of brand social initiatives on both the warmth and competence dimensions of the brand, as well as examining the brand's potential to induce pro-environmental behavioral change among consumers.
Design/methodology/approach
The study employed a scenario-based survey design and surveyed 415 consumers in India. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) with SmartPLS 4.0.
Findings
The results show that social initiatives enhance both dimensions of social perception and increase cooperative intentions. Brand competence is more crucial than warmth in predicting behavioral intentions. Brand-cause fit, CSR commitment and initiatives' impact all influence the brand image. A brand's commitment to the cause is more significant than brand-cause fit in determining how consumers evaluate a brand.
Practical implications
This research provides insights into how social initiatives can enhance brand image and encourage helping intentions through effective communication traits. It can aid brands in building consumer trust, benefiting society and boosting finances. The study offers a framework for effective cause communication strategies, highlighting the importance of commitment to the cause over fitting with the brand's image to elicit desired responses.
Originality/value
This study is a novel attempt that uses the stereotype content model and costly signaling theory to explore how social initiatives influence a brand's warmth and competence and impact consumer behavior. It provides critical insights into the psychological mechanisms behind social initiatives' impact on consumer behavioral intentions.
A marca tem-se tornado cada vez mais um ativo vital para o sucesso das empresas. Neste sentido, identificar as dimensões que incrementam o seu valor – Brand Equity - tornou-se um dos maiores desafios e interesses de todos aqueles que se envolvem no estudo do comportamento do consumidor. Esta investigação analisou o caso da marca Starbucks em Portugal, considerada a principal empresa do setor da cafetaria, encontrando-se dividida em dois estudos. O Estudo 1 objetivou compreender o posicionamento da Starbucks, na perceção dos/ as consumidores/as portugueses/as, relativamente a outras marcas de cafetaria. O Estudo 2 intentou perceber os significados atribuídos pelos/as portugueses/as à marca Starbucks e testar um novo modelo de Brand Equity para a marca. O Estudo 1 permitiu verificar que a Starbucks se distingue das demais marcas do setor por deter elevadas pontuações de “Estatuto” e “Preço/ Qualidade/ Sustentabilidade”. O Estudo 2 indicou que os significados atribuídos à marca se distribuem por três categorias: Caraterísticas intangíveis da marca, Imagem/ Logótipo e Produtos. As palavras que os consumidores mais mencionaram, quando pensam na marca Starbucks, foram: café, caro, EUA, copo e saboroso. Os preditores do Brand Equity da Starbucks foram as variáveis Brand Love, Lealdade e a Sustentabilidade. Concluiu-se que o valor da Starbucks, na perspetiva do consumidor português, se encontra em ativos intangíveis, capazes de a diferenciar de ofertas semelhantes e de lhe conceber uma vantagem extra. Deve-se, portanto, investir em políticas de Responsabilidade Social Corporativa, relacionadas com a sustentabilidade, devido ao seu peso na tomada de decisão do cliente, que se sente ética e emocionalmente responsável por ajudar e se associar a causas que beneficiem a sua própria imagem.
While consumer stereotyping literature has provided useful insights into how various brand characteristics drive consumers’ stereotypical perceptions of brands, the role of consumer characteristics has been neglected. Drawing on the stereotype content model (SCM), this study investigates the simultaneous role of consumer xenocentrism and consumer ethnocentrism in driving the brand stereotypes of domestic and foreign brands, and the subsequent impact of these opposing dispositions on behavioral outcomes. A structural equation model estimated on a sample of 287 consumers from Bosnia and Herzegovina reveals that domestic (foreign) brand warmth and competence are driven by consumer ethnocentrism (xenocentrism). Furthermore, domestic (foreign) brand competence mediates the impact of ethnocentrism (xenocentrism) on the purchase intent of domestic (foreign) brands, while the mediating role of brand warmth is limited to foreign brands. The findings shed light on (a) the simultaneous role of two key consumer dispositions as antecedents of brand stereotypes, and (b) the differential effects of these dispositions in driving consumer preferences for domestic vs. foreign brands via brand warmth and competence.
Purpose
There is growing interest in the use of human-like social robots, able to undertake complex tasks whilst building consumer engagement. However, further exploration is needed on the optimal level of humanoid appearance for service robots. In particular, the literature is limited with respect to mitigating disconfirmed expectations for robots high in human-likeness. This paper aims to address this gap by testing the effect of robot appearance, disconfirmed expectations and warmth (vs competence) on customers’ responses.
Design/methodology/approach
The study adopts a mixed-method design by presenting a focus group (Study 1) that guides two laboratory experiments (Studies 2 and 3). Studies 2 and 3 test for the moderating effect of warmth (vs competence) and the mediating roles of perceived eeriness and disconfirmed expectations.
Findings
The findings show that a robot high (vs low) in human-likeness leads to higher negative customers’ responses, which is explained by disconfirmed expectations rather than perceived eeriness. However, when customers interact with a warm (vs competent) robot high in human-likeness, this negative effect vanishes.
Research limitations/implications
The paper investigates boundary conditions and underlying mechanisms that affect customers’ experiences. Although the study adopts high realistic experiments, a limitation lies in not measuring customers’ actual behaviours in the field.
Practical implications
This study provides new insights on how the appearance and characteristics of social robots influence the consumers’ experience. By doing so, this study offers managers actionable insights (i.e. enhancing warmth) to lessen the risk of disconfirmed expectations.
Originality/value
The paper offers new explanations as to why human-like robots can generate negative responses from customers. Moving beyond the “uncanny valley” hypothesis, this study shows the key role of disconfirmed expectations in explaining consumers’ negative responses towards humanoid robots. Moreover, it sheds light on the moderating role of warmth (vs competence), which can mitigate such negative effects.
This research introduces a novel classification for social media influencers, namely informers and entertainers, and examines the impact of influencer type on engagement and online sales. Our findings suggest that endorsements by influencers who take on an entertainer role attract more engagement (number of views, likes, and comments) than endorsements by influencers who are informers. Furthermore, drawing on an influencer–brand congruency theory, the moderating effect of brand stereotypes is examined. We show that informers (vs entertainers) generate more online sales when endorsing competent brands. Contrarily, when endorsing warm and warm-competent brands, there is no significant difference between the two types of influencers. This study reaffirms the importance of identifying and selecting “fitting” influencers for brands and informs advertisers about the way brand stereotypes moderate the effectiveness of influencer marketing.
Purpose
The aim of this research is to examine the application of the stereotype content model (SCM) in the field of marketing from macro (the country of origin), meso- (corporate image) and micro (service providers, brands, advertising and promotions) levels.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper collects, reviews and summarizes the relevant literature, and prospects future research directions from three levels on this research topic.
Findings
First, the authors contend that competence primacy popularizes in the early work but warmth becomes more influential recently. Second, they identify and discuss two doubts of the SCM in marketing, namely the moral dimension and the link between brands as intentional agents framework (BIAF) and the brand personality theory. Finally, they suggest several research avenues for the use of SCM in marketing research, including research on nation branding, emerging global brands and Confucianist cultures at macro level, artificial intelligence and warmth-as-competence strategy at meso-level, and brand personality and the brand animal logo at micro level.
Originality/value
As an established framework in social psychology, the SCM has been increasingly applied in marketing research and a literature review in this light appears timely. This paper conducts for the first time a comprehensive review of the SCM in the marketing field on three levels, projects promising research directions, and thus contributes to the academia of marketing.
The emergence of short-video platforms offers individuals an opportunity to build personal branding. This study selected two personal brandings on Bilibili.com, Li Ziqi and HuaNong Brothers, to explore the differences in the effect of personal branding stereotypes on user engagement on short-video platforms. We first identified the perception of users based on the Stereotype Content Model, then adopted regression models to construct the relationship between personal branding stereotypes and user engagement. The results show that perceived warmth exerts a more significant influence on user emotional engagement, while perceived competence impacts more on user cognitive and behavioral engagement. Moreover, we find the live comments’ sentiment moderates these effects. This research provided references for individuals and managers to benefit from personal brandings.
This paper revisits conceptual and operational consumer brand engagement (CBE) definitions from the consumer behavior and marketing literature, with the objective of developing a CBE scale drawing upon Expectancy Theory for clear delimitations of its dimensions, and increased power to discriminate them theoretically and empirically. Two qualitative and three quantitative studies were conducted using both structural equation modeling and multiple item response theory. Results point to a more parsimonious operationalization of the CBE measure, with well-delimited dimensions and improved discrimination capacity, which is better able to capture consumers’ levels of engagement in its different manifestations compared to preexisting scales.
If service quality relates to retention of customers at the aggregate level, as other research has indicated, then evidence of its impact on customers’ behavioral responses should be detectable. The authors offer a conceptual model of the impact of service quality on particular behaviors that signal whether customers remain with or defect from a company. Results from a multicompany empirical study examining relationships from the model concerning customers’ behavioral intentions show strong evidence of their being influenced by service quality. The findings also reveal differences in the nature of the quality-intentions link across different dimensions of behavioral intentions. The authors’ discussion centers on ways the results and research approach of their study can be helpful to researchers and managers.
Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.
The authors conduct meta-analyses of relationships involving positive and negative ad-evoked feelings to determine (1) whether the effects of positive and negative feelings on advertising responses are symmetrical or asymmetrical and bipolar or bidimensional; (2) whether study design characteristics influence the strength of effects of positive and negative feelings on ad and brand attitudes; (3) whether moderator effects are differential for positive and negative feelings; and (4) whether relationships are generalizable across different study designs, product types, and media. Using the aggregated data, the authors assess competing predictions of three alternative theoretical perspectives: bipolarity, generalized asymmetry, and contingent asymmetry. Analyses indicate that positive and negative feelings have contingently asymmetrical effects on advertising responses. Study conditions related to subjects' cognitive processing sets moderated the effects of negative feelings on ad and brand attitudes but generally did not moderate the effects of positive feelings. The authors also demonstrate the utility of bootstrapping as an advantageous new way of conducting moderator analyses in meta-analysis.
Current discussions of brand personality refer to a personified brand image, that is, a brand image that can possess any attributes of consumers, rather than brand personality. From a conceptual and methodological critique of the literature, this paper applies the definition of personality to brand personality, and tests the idea using a peer-rating methodology that focuses on each individual's perception of a brand (the brand × subject structure). The results reveal that consumers reflect their personalities by the brands they use, but the relationship between brand choice and symbolic dimensions (i.e., extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience) is much stronger than the relationship with functional dimensions (i.e., conscientiousness). Moreover, the pattern of this relationship remains consistent across symbolic and utilitarian products, which implies that consumers choose brands with similar personalities to theirs across various products. The study concludes that an abridged personality scale, based on the Big Five, can be applied to both brands and consumers. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
This article presents a meta-analysis on brand personality (BP) by investigating the antecedents and consequences of the BP dimensions of sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness, as suggested by Aaker (Journal of Marketing Research 34:347–356, 1997). The authors synthesize the results from 76 independent samples in 56 studies. The meta-analysis finds several new empirical generalizations about BP. First, the key drivers of BP are communication with hedonic benefit claims, branding activities, a brand’s country-of-origin, and consumer personalities. Second, the study finds that the effects of BP are stronger for mature brands than for brands in the early life cycle stages. Third, sincerity and competence have the strongest influence on brand success variables (e.g., brand attitude, image, commitment, purchase intention), while excitement and ruggedness have the weakest influence on brand attitude and brand commitment.
Building on the Stereotype Content Model, this paper introduces and tests the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework. A growing body of research suggests that consumers have relationships with brands that resemble relations between people. We propose that consumers perceive brands in the same way they perceive people. This approach allows us to explore how social perception theories and processes can predict brand purchase interest and loyalty. Brands as Intentional Agents Framework is based on a well-established social perception approach: the Stereotype Content Model. Two studies support the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework prediction that consumers assess a brand's perceived intentions and ability and that these perceptions elicit distinct emotions and drive differential brand behaviors. The research shows that human social interaction relationships translate to consumer–brand interactions in ways that are useful to inform brand positioning and brand communications.
If service quality relates to retention of customers at the aggregate level, as other research has indicated, then evidence of its impact on customers' behavioral responses should be detectable. The authors offer a conceptual model of the impact of service quality on particular behaviors that signal whether customers remain with or defect from a company. Results from a multicompany empirical study examining relationships from the model concerning customers' behavioral intentions show strong evidence of their being influenced by service quality. The findings also reveal differences in the nature of the quality-intentions link across different dimensions of behavioral intentions. The authors' discussion centers on ways the results and research approach of their study can be helpful to researchers and managers.
Most methodological fields undertake regular critical reflections to ensure rigorous research and publication practices, and, consequently, acceptance in their domain. Interestingly, relatively little attention has been paid to assessing the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in marketing researchdespite its increasing popularity in recent years. To fill this gap, we conducted an extensive search in the 30 top ranked marketing journals that allowed us to identify 204 PLS-SEM applications published in a 30-year period (1981 to 2010). A critical analysis of these articles addresses, amongst others, the following key methodological issues: reasons for using PLS-SEM, data and model characteristics, outer and inner model evaluations, and reporting. We also provide an overview of the interdependencies between researchers’ choices, identify potential problem areas, and discuss their implications. On the basis of our findings, we provide comprehensive guidelines to aid researchers in avoiding common pitfalls in PLS-SEM use. This study is important for researchers and practitioners, as PLS-SEM requires several critical choices that, if not made correctly, can lead to improper findings, interpretations, and conclusions.
Using a grounded theory approach, the authors investigate the nature and consequences of brand love. Arguing that research on brand love needs to be built on an understanding of how consumers actually experience this phenomenon, they conduct two qualitative studies to uncover the different elements ("features") of the consumer prototype of brand love. Then, they use structural equations modeling on survey data to explore how these elements can be modeled as both first-order and higher-order structural models. A higher-order model yields seven core elements: self-brand integration, passion-driven behaviors, positive emotional connection, long-term relationship, positive overall attitude valence, attitude certainty and confidence (strength), and anticipated separation distress. In addition to these seven core elements of brand love itself, the prototype includes quality beliefs as an antecedent of brand love and brand loyalty, word of mouth, and resistance to negative information as outcomes. Both the firstorder and higher-order brand love models predict loyalty, word of mouth, and resistance better, and provide a greater understanding, than an overall summary measure of brand love. The authors conclude by presenting theoretical and managerial implications.
Baron and Kenny's procedure for determining if an independent variable affects a dependent variable through some mediator is so well known that it is used by authors and requested by reviewers almost reflexively. Many research projects have been terminated early in a research program or later in the review process because the data did not conform to Baron and Kenny's criteria, impeding theoretical development. While the technical literature has disputed some of Baron and Kenny's tests, this literature has not diffused to practicing researchers. We present a nontechnical summary of the flaws in the Baron and Kenny logic, some of which have not been previously noted. We provide a decision tree and a step-by-step procedure for testing mediation, classifying its type, and interpreting the implications of findings for theory building and future research. M any a research project has stalled in the starting gate or staggered at the finish line because the data did not conform to Baron and Kenny's (1986) criteria for es-tablishing mediation. Advisors tell their graduate students to start by establishing a basic effect. "Once you have the effect, then you can look for mediation." But after the first couple of tries, if the effect is not found, the project is abandoned. Other researchers find the effects they hy-pothesized, and they propound a mediational account, but they struggle in the review process when it becomes clear Xinshu Zhao is professor and director, Center for Research in Jour-nalism and Mass Communication, University of North Carolina and chair professor and dean, School of Communication, Hong Kong Baptist Uni-versity (zhao@unc.edu). Wood, and seminar participants at Duke University for their assistance and comments. The authors also wish to thank Jon James for research assistance on simulations. Any errors or omissions are the authors'.
Baron and Kenny's procedure for determining if an independent variable affects a dependent variable through some mediator is so well known that it is used by authors and requested by reviewers almost reflexively. Many research projects have been terminated early in a research program or later in the review process because the data did not conform to Baron and Kenny's criteria, impeding theoretical development. While the technical literature has disputed some of Baron and Kenny's tests, this literature has not diffused to practicing researchers. We present a nontechnical summary of the flaws in the Baron and Kenny logic, some of which have not been previously noted. We provide a decision tree and a step-by-step procedure for testing mediation, classifying its type, and interpreting the implications of findings for theory building and future research. (c) 2010 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Finding ways and means to incorporate emotional experience into consumer and market research has been an ongoing challenge. We frame this challenge in the context of the information that is and is not normally collected in multiattribute attitude models. Our data show that retrospective reports about emotional experiences can be useful predictors of attitude when compared to traditional measures of cognitive structure, and that prior experience with a behavior can play a major role in moderating these relationships. The appeal of multiattribute attitude models has always been their value for predicting and diagnosing motives and preferences. Integrating emotive information into these models appears to be a way to build on this appeal.
Religion is one of the most universal and most studied human phenomena, yet there exists no widely shared definition of religion. This ambitious study attempts to provide and defend such a definition. Stewart Guthrie argues that religion is best understood as systematic anthropomorphism: the attribution of human characteristics to non-human things or events. Many writers have seen anthropomorphism as a superficial characteristic of religion. For Guthrie, however, it is central; religion consists in seeing the world as human-like. Guthrie begins by demonstrating that we find plausible, in varying degrees, a continuum of human-like beings including gods, spirits, demons, gremlins, abominable snowmen, Hal the Computer, and Chiquita Banana. We find messages from such beings in phenomena such as weather, earthquakes, plagues, traffic accidents, and the flight of birds. Guthrie argues that this represents an adaptive strategy; we “bet” on the most important possible interpretation of our perceptions of our world – it is better to mistake a boulder for a bear than the other way around. Because of the extreme importance for us of other human beings and their actions, we project human characteristics onto what we see. Guthrie then shows how this explanation can be applied to virtually every belief and experience classified as religious. The result is a provocative and disturbing book that should be both influential and controversial.
The authors conduct meta-analyses of relationships involving positive and negative ad-evoked feelings to determine (1) whether the effects of positive and negative feelings on advertising responses are symmetrical or asymmetrical and bipolar or bidimensional; (2) whether study design characteristics influence the strength of effects of positive and negative feelings on ad and brand attitudes; (3) whether moderator effects are differential for positive and negative feelings; and (4) whether relationships are generalizable across different study designs, product types, and media. Using the aggregated data, the authors assess competing predictions of three alternative theoretical perspectives: bipolarity, generalized asymmetry, and contingent asymmetry. Analyses indicate that positive and negative feelings have contingently asymmetrical effects on advertising responses. Study conditions related to subjects’ cognitive processing sets moderated the effects of negative feelings on ad and brand attitudes but generally did not moderate the effects of positive feelings. The authors also demonstrate the utility of bootstrapping as an advantageous new way of conducting moderator analyses in meta-analysis.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the “Big Five” dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality. Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). To measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
Fishbein's attitude theory posits that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change. The validity of this proposition for consumers’ beliefs about product attributes and brand attitudes was exmained in the context of an advertising effects study. To manipulate product attribute beliefs and to create settings in which other mediation processes might occur, the authors exposed subjects to simple advertisements that contained either a verbal claim or visual information. Level of repetition also was varied. As expected, product attribute beliefs mediated attitude formation. However, another variable, termed attitude toward the advertisement, also mediated brand attitudes and purchase intentions. The authors discuss alternative explanations for the results and offer suggestions for future research.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i.e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the ''Big Five'' dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality, Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). Tc, measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i. e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
By referring to research on the measurement of the Big Five personality factors, this article investigates measurement characteristics of brand personality (BP) dimensions. The authors apply a meta-analysis and investigate the intercorrelations and reliabilities of the BP dimensions of Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness, as suggested by Aaker (1997). Similar to the Big Five personality factors, the measurement of BP reveals interdependence of the dimensions and one General Personality Factor. Furthermore, the reliabilities reveal instability across method characteristics, for instance, the use of facets as opposed to traits in measuring BP drives up the reliabilities of those dimensions with a larger number of items (e.g., Sincerity). Finally, as with the Big Five, the BP dimensions show differential effects on performance measures (as assessed by brand attitude) and thus support the predictive power of the single dimensions. The findings provide insights into the dimensional structure of BP and its stability, and support the transferability of the Big Five personality factors to nonhuman domains. Importantly, the article outlines relevant avenues for future research on BP measurement.
In recent years, marketing research has paid considerable attention to the symbolic meaning consumers attribute to brands. One important symbolic brand association is brand personality. While the brand personality scale that Aaker has proposed in her well-known article has been applied to different products and product groups in different countries, an application to retailing is rare. Based on the data of an empirical study in Germany (n = 1337), we demonstrate that the scale is applicable for retail brands in Germany, that it serves well to clearly differentiate between retailers and that the dimensions of the brand personality directly influence the store loyalty of consumers.
• As the title suggests, this book examines the psychology of interpersonal relations. In the context of this book, the term "interpersonal relations" denotes relations between a few, usually between two, people. How one person thinks and feels about another person, how he perceives him and what he does to him, what he expects him to do or think, how he reacts to the actions of the other--these are some of the phenomena that will be treated. Our concern will be with "surface" matters, the events that occur in everyday life on a conscious level, rather than with the unconscious processes studied by psychoanalysis in "depth" psychology. These intuitively understood and "obvious" human relations can, as we shall see, be just as challenging and psychologically significant as the deeper and stranger phenomena. The discussion will center on the person as the basic unit to be investigated. That is to say, the two-person group and its properties as a superindividual unit will not be the focus of attention. Of course, in dealing with the person as a member of a dyad, he cannot be described as a lone subject in an impersonal environment, but must be represented as standing in relation to and interacting with another person. The chapter topics included in this book include: Perceiving the Other Person; The Other Person as Perceiver; The Naive Analysis of Action; Desire and Pleasure; Environmental Effects; Sentiment; Ought and Value; Request and Command; Benefit and Harm; and Reaction to the Lot of the Other Person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• As the title suggests, this book examines the psychology of interpersonal relations. In the context of this book, the term "interpersonal relations" denotes relations between a few, usually between two, people. How one person thinks and feels about another person, how he perceives him and what he does to him, what he expects him to do or think, how he reacts to the actions of the other--these are some of the phenomena that will be treated. Our concern will be with "surface" matters, the events that occur in everyday life on a conscious level, rather than with the unconscious processes studied by psychoanalysis in "depth" psychology. These intuitively understood and "obvious" human relations can, as we shall see, be just as challenging and psychologically significant as the deeper and stranger phenomena. The discussion will center on the person as the basic unit to be investigated. That is to say, the two-person group and its properties as a superindividual unit will not be the focus of attention. Of course, in dealing with the person as a member of a dyad, he cannot be described as a lone subject in an impersonal environment, but must be represented as standing in relation to and interacting with another person. The chapter topics included in this book include: Perceiving the Other Person; The Other Person as Perceiver; The Naive Analysis of Action; Desire and Pleasure; Environmental Effects; Sentiment; Ought and Value; Request and Command; Benefit and Harm; and Reaction to the Lot of the Other Person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Emotions are mental states of readiness that arise from appraisals of events or one’s own thoughts. In this article, the authors
discuss the differentiation of emotions from affect, moods, and attitudes, and outline an appraisal theory of emotions. Next,
various measurement issues are considered. This is followed by an analysis of the role of arousal in emotions. Emotions as
markers, mediators, and moderators of consumer responses are then analyzed. The authors turn next to the influence of emotions
on cognitive processes, which is followed by a study of the implications of emotions for volitions, goal-directed behavior,
and decisions to help. Emotions and customer satisfaction are briefly explored, too. The article closes with a number of questions
for future research.
Two aspects of translation were investigated: (1) factors that affect translation quality, and (2) how equivalence between source and target versions can be evaluated. The variables of language, content, and difficulty were studied through an analysis of variance design. Ninety-four bilinguals from the University of Guam, representing ten languages, translated or back-translated six essays incorporating three content areas and two levels of difficulty. The five criteria for equivalence were based on comparisons of meaning or predictions of similar responses to original or translated versions. The factors of content, difficulty, language and content-language interaction were significant, and the five equivalence criteria proved workable. Conclusions are that translation quality can be predicted, and that a functionally equivalent translation can be demonstrated when responses to the original and target versions are studied.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the Big Five dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality. Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). To measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
With the proliferation of products and brands in the marketplace, brand personality has emerged as an important means of brand differentiation and thus of increasing consumer preference. However, little research has investigated this important construct, with the significant exceptions of Aaker's (1997) work, which is based on a factoranalytical approach. In response to the limitations of the factor approach to brand personality, this study explores the potential for advancing understanding of brand personality through a circumplex model derived from the fields of social and personality psychology and interpersonal psychiatry. The model is based on relationships between interpersonal personality traits or emotions and can assist academics and practitioners in understanding the brand personality concept. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The dialogue between social perception and consumer-brand relationship theories opens new opportunities for studying brands as intentional agents. To advance branding research in the spirit of interdisciplinary inquiry, we propose to investigate the process of anthropomorphism through which brands are imbued with intentional agency; integrate the role of consumers not only as perceivers but also as relationship agents; consider important defining dimensions of consumer-brand relationships beyond warmth and competence, including power and excitement; and articulate the dynamics governing warmth (intentions) and competency (ability) judgments to yield prescriptive guidance for developing popular and admired brands.
Although a substantial amount of research has examined the constructs of warmth and competence, far less has examined how these constructs develop and what benefits may accrue when warmth and competence are cultivated. Yet there are positive consequences, both emotional and behavioral, that are likely to occur when brands hold perceptions of both. In this paper, we shed light on when and how warmth and competence are jointly promoted in brands, and why these reputations matter.
Working moms risk being reduced to one of two subtypes: homemakers—viewed as warm but incompetent, or female professionals—characterized as competent but cold. The current study ( N= 122 college students) presents four important findings. First, when working women become mothers, they trade perceived competence for perceived warmth. Second, working men don't make this trade; when they become fathers, they gain perceived warmth and maintain perceived competence. Third, people report less interest in hiring, promoting, and educating working moms relative to working dads and childless employees. Finally, competence ratings predict interest in hiring, promoting, and educating workers. Thus, working moms' gain in perceived warmth does not help them, but their loss in perceived competence does hurt them.
Consumers use warmth and competence, two fundamental dimensions that govern social judgments of people, to form perceptions of firms. Three experiments showed that consumers perceive nonprofits as being warmer than for-profits but as less competent. Further, consumers are less willing to buy a product made by a nonprofit than a for-profit because of their perception that the firm lacks competence. Consequently, when perceived competence of a nonprofit is boosted through subtle cues that connote credibility, discrepancies in willingness to buy disappear. In fact, when consumers perceive high levels of competence and warmth, they feel admiration for the firm-which translates to consumers' increased desire to buy. This work highlights the importance of consumer stereotypes about nonprofit and for-profit companies that, at baseline, come with opposing advantages and disadvantages but that can be altered. (c) 2010 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
We provide a comprehensive and user-friendly compendium of standards for the use and interpretation of structural equation
models (SEMs). To both read about and do research that employs SEMs, it is necessary to master the art and science of the
statistical procedures underpinning SEMs in an integrative way with the substantive concepts, theories, and hypotheses that
researchers desire to examine. Our aim is to remove some of the mystery and uncertainty of the use of SEMs, while conveying
the spirit of their possibilities.
KeywordsStructural equation models–Confirmatory factor analysis–Construct validity–Reliability–Goodness-of-fit
Criteria for evaluating structural equation models with latent variables are defined, critiqued, and illustrated. An overall
program for model evaluation is proposed based upon an interpretation of converging and diverging evidence. Model assessment
is considered to be a complex process mixing statistical criteria with philosophical, historical, and theoretical elements.
Inevitably the process entails some attempt at a reconcilation between so-called objective and subjective norms.
Social psychologists have extensively researched behavioral intention and its relation to future behavior, usually within the framework of M. Fishbein and I. Ajzen's (1975, Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley) theory of reasoned action. However, the field has confounded two separate constructs while investigating intention: behavioral intention (BI) and what P. R. Warshaw, B. H. Sheppard, and J. Hartwick (in press, in R. Bagozzi (Ed.), Advances in marketing communication, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press) have coined behavioral expectation (BE), which is the individual's self-prediction of his or her future behavior. In this paper we define both constructs and explain how they differ in terms of the processes by which they are formed, their roles in determining behavior, and their utilities as behavioral predictors. We propose that behavioral expectation is the more accurate overall predictor since many common behaviors are unreasoned (i.e., mindless or habitual) behaviors, goal-type actions, or behaviors where the individual expects his or her intention to change in a foresseable manner. These are all cases where present intention (BI) is not the direct determinant of behavior but where the individual may be capable of appraising whatever additional determinants exist and of including them within his or her behavioral expectation. A study (N = 197) is reported in which student subjects received either a BE (n = 113) or a BI (n = 84) version of a questionnaire pertaining to their performance of 18 common behaviors. Overall, behavioral expectation was the better predictor of self-reported performance.
The stereotype content model (SCM) defines two fundamental dimensions of social perception, warmth and competence, predicted respectively by perceived competition and status. Combinations of warmth and competence generate distinct emotions of admiration, contempt, envy, and pity. From these intergroup emotions and stereotypes, the behavior from intergroup affect and stereotypes (BIAS) map predicts distinct behaviors: active and passive, facilitative and harmful. After defining warmth/communion and competence/agency, the chapter integrates converging work documenting the centrality of these dimensions in interpersonal as well as intergroup perception. Structural origins of warmth and competence perceptions result from competitors judged as not warm, and allies judged as warm; high status confers competence and low status incompetence. Warmth and competence judgments support systematic patterns of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions, including ambivalent prejudices. Past views of prejudice as a univalent antipathy have obscured the unique responses toward groups stereotyped as competent but not warm or warm but not competent. Finally, the chapter addresses unresolved issues and future research directions.