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Abstract
Two thirds of the world’s populations are suffering from protein malnutrition and about 36 million peo ple die every year due to hunger. Expansion of present agriculture practices into marginal land is not expected to solve the problem of increasing the food supply. New methods of feeding the ever increasing world population must be developed. The aim of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of the dandeli on leaves as a source of supplemental protein. Protein was extracted from the dandelion leaves by blendin g them after pH and moisture adjustment, squeezing th e resultant pulp through filter press and coagulati ng the filtrate with acid and heat. The effects of pH, moisture content, pressure and temperature on the extractability and quality of protein were investigat ed. A mass balance was performed on dry matter and protein contents during the extraction steps. Proxi mate analysis was performed on the extracted leaf protein and the amino acid profile of the protein c urd was determined. The best results of the protein dissolution during the blending step were obtained at pH of 8.25 and moisture content of 96%. Firm pro tein curd with light green chalky color was obtained at 3.5 pH and 80°C. The protein content of dandelion leaves was 4.70% while the protein content of the c urd was 15.93% on wet basis and 55.43% on a dry basis. The best leaf protein could be obtained from the young leaves in good conditions. The results showed that dandelion leaves offer a good source of supplementary protein compared to vegetable and fruits. The amino acid composition of dandelion pro tein seems to be better than most seed proteins and compares favorably with animal proteins. The protei n cake at a pH of 4 had the keeping quality of chee se. Drying the protein cake did not impair the nutritio nal value but made it hard, dry and gritty. The non extractable protein remained in the fibre and liquo r; both have economic values as feed for ruminants and growth medium for microorganisms, respectively.
... Use of LPCs as a protein supplement in animal feed has also been demonstrated [12,13]. In recognition of the viable role of LPCs in combating protein deficiency, several studies aimed at production of protein concentrates from green leaf material, their characterization in terms of nutritional and physico-chemical attributes, and utilization as quality food and feed have been carried out [14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... It was observed that the LPC yield and protein content increased from 2.77 to 7.96 g and 43.18 to 58.95 %, respectively with increasing the ratio of fresh leaves to water from 1:1 to 1:9, and thereafter remained constant. The increase in the LPC yield and protein content up to 7.96 g and 58.95 %, respectively could be attributed to good flowability of the leaf slurry and softening of the cell wall resulted from the increased moisture content [17]. The influence of the fresh leaves to water ratio on LPC yield and protein content was found to be statistically significant (p \ 0.05). ...
Substantial amount of the leaves as biomass residue is produced from Populus deltoides (poplar) plantations which has no commercial value and remain underutilized. Feasibility of utilization of this biomass residue for development of protein concentrate as a food/feed supplement was examined. A process for isolation of leaf protein concentrate (LPC) was optimized through investigating the influence of various process parameters on the yield and protein content of the LPC. The parameters optimized were ratio of fresh leaves to water (1:9), coagulation temperature (90 °C) and duration (11 min), and pH (4.0). The optimized process was applied for isolation of LPCs from lower, middle and upper canopy of the tree, and the LPCs containing protein 59.24 ± 0.50, 59.56 ± 0.40 and 59.66 ± 0.10 % were recovered in 7.79 ± 0.01, 7.66 ± 0.12 and 7.83 ± 0.14 % yield, respectively. The proximate nutritional composition (moisture, 6.91, 7.08, 7.08 %; fat, 17.96, 16.95, 18.27 %; crude fibre, 1.54, 1.53, 1.54 %; ash, 4.35, 4.38, 4.36 %; carbohydrates, 18.43, 19.08, 18.01 %; organic matter, 95.64, 95.72, 95.95 %; total free amino acids, 0.034, 0.035, 0.036 % E of Leucine; pigments (chlorophyll, 4.64, 4.68, 4.65 mg/g; total carotene 19.94, 19.91, 19.99 mg/100 g; xanthophylls, 0.21, 0.21, 0.22 %); minerals (Na, 5.11, 5.06, 5.17 mg/100 g; Ca, 1.98, 1.97, 1.99 %; P, 0.58, 0.57, 0.58 %; Fe, 70.47, 70.44, 70.48 mg/100 g), in vitro digestibility (86.20, 86.39, 86.54 %) and anti-nutritional factors (total polyphenols, 0.084, 0.084, 0.085 % gallic acid equivalent) of these LPCs were determined. Analysis of variance of these data revealed no significant difference with respect to canopy. It was inferred that the poplar leaves hold potential for development of LPC as a food/feed supplement to combat nutrition deficiency.
... In the present era, more attention is being paid to exploit the possibilities of traditional/underutilized plant resources with possible health claims, and promote their utilization as alternate nutritive food crops as well as alternative medicines [13,14]. The results of the current study revealed that there exists a great deal of variation in the nutrient levels among the fresh and shade-dried T. officinale leaf samples, with the dried form to be nutritionally much more superior (Table 1) and the results are consistent with previous reports [15][16][17][18][19][20]. Research studies have also shown that mineral deficiencies are emerging rapidly across the world, especially in developing countries [21]. ...
Taraxacum officinale (T. officinale), a wild vegetable with a number of health claims, has been mostly ignored and unexplored. The study aims to compare the nutritional, phytochemical as well as antidiabetic potential of fresh as well as shade-dried leaves of T. officinale, in order to recommend its best form as a dietary antidiabetic product. The results revealed that as compared to fresh leaves, the shade-dried leaves, in addition to possessing higher levels of carbohydrates, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, etc., also contain appreciable amounts of total phenols (5833.12 ± 4.222 mg/100), total flavonoids (188.84 ± 0.019 mg/100 g), ascorbic acid (34.70 ± 0.026 mg/100 g), β-carotene (3.88 ± 1.473 mg/100 g) and total chlorophyll (239.51 ± 0.015 mg/100 g) antioxidants. The study revealed the presence of medicinally important antidiabetic flavonoid quercetin present in T. officinale leaves. Among the three solvent systems used, the aqueous extract of shade-dried T. officinale leaves comparatively demonstrated potent antidiabetic activity under in vitro conditions in a dose-dependent manner via targeting α-amylase and α-glucosidase, the two potent enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism. Therefore, in addition to being a nutritious herb, the shade-dried leaves of T. officinale have great potential to suppress post-prandial glucose rise and can be better exploited through clinical trials to be used as a dietary intervention for better management of diabetes.
... This was expected since most fresh leaves have very high moisture content. The moisture content of fresh dandelion leaves have been found to range from 86% -87% [12,13]. This was reduced to 4 -10% after subjecting the fresh leaves to the various forms of drying. ...
Taraxacum officinale is globally used both as a vegetable and as a herb for medical and therapeutic purposes; hence the need to investigate its phytonutrients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different drying methods (hot-air drying, solar drying and freeze-drying) on the phytochemicals as well as total phenolics content and antioxidant capacity of dandelion leaves. The fresh dandelion leaves had high contents of total phenolics (7.78 mg GAE/ g) on dry weight basis. They exhibited high antioxidant activity (397.94%, %inhibition of DPPH) measured by DPPH assay. Drying methods caused a significant decrease in total phenolics and antioxidant capacity of dandelion leaves. Drying by freeze drying and solar drying had the lowest adverse effects on antioxidant capacities of dandelion leaves while drying by hot-air at 60ºC cannot be a competitive process for preserving antioxidants and antioxidant capacity of dandelion leaves. The changes in the antioxidant capacity due to the drying methods were positively correlated with the content of phenolics. Therefore, it can be suggested that special care should be taken when processing method is selected for the exploration of dandelion leaves.
Purpose: The study aimed to document wild food plants usefulness in boosting immunity, fighting COVID-19 and other related viruses. The study also examined the diversity, distribution, parts used and season of availability of wild food plants that can be useful in boosting immunity to fight COVID-19. Subjects and Methods: The study was conducted in Himachal Pradesh (300 22' 40" to 330 12' 40" N Latitudes and 750 45' 55" to 790 04' 20" E Longitudes) northwest Himalaya from March 2020 to April 2021 by survey, sampling and interviewing knowledgeable persons through a questionnaire for the plants which are traditionally used as tonic and medicine to cure cough, cold and fever. Plants rich in antioxidant, Vitamin A,C and Zn were documented for their potential to boost immunity. Results: Ninety-five wild edible plants have been documented in this study belonging to forty families and seventy-seven genera. Family Asteraceae is found dominant, represented by 8 species followed by Lamiaceae (7 sp), Rutaceae and Brassicaceae (represented by 6 species each). Among genus, Ficus is found dominant represented by 4 species followed by Amaranthus, Oxalis, Rumex and Citrus (represented by 3 species each). These plants have been documented based on their medicinal and nutritive value like the richness in antioxidants, their ability to act as a body cleanser, cure common cold, cough and fever (Symptom similar to COVID-19) as revealed by a discussion with locals and literature reviews. These plants can be incorporated in our day-to-day life as a food, flavoring agent, or food supplement to boost immunity, fight COVID-19 or future challenges like COVID-19. Traditional knowledge of using these plants is on a sharp decline and their acceptability as a medicinal herb, food plants, or food supplement is the need of the hour to combat present and future challenges of pandemic COVID-19. Conclusion: Revitalization of our traditional health care and herbal healing with the use of nutritionally important medicinal wild food plants will be helpful to boost immunity and face ongoing and future challenges of pollution, stress, depression and pandemic like COVID-19. This can be done by the addition of documented plants as food and food supplements with some modern twist to our food plate.
Heavy metals are necessary for the normal functioning of cells and the survival of organisms. These are required
for physiological and biochemical functioning of the body, but at higher concentration they causes the oxidative
damage. In fact non-essential metals like (lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd)) are more noxious even at very
low concentration. It’s important to note that heavy metals are present in soil, air and water can easily enter into the
organisms. Literature highlighted the role of metals like chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cadmium
(Cd), lead (Pb) and arsenic (As) in oxidative damage. Fenton chemistry/Haber-Weiss reaction are most extensively
studied mechanisms by which heavy metals produces reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) and
ultimately causes oxidative stress. Both redox-active and inactive metals can diminish cellular antioxidant system
specifically thiol- containing enzymes and antioxidants and may lead to cellular death. This review will contribute in
providing valuable information on metallic contents of selected plants. For the purpose, data has been collected from
the literature regarding ten mineral contents (sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn),
iron (Fe), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and manganese (Mn)) of 100 medicinal plants grown in Pakistan.
The metallic contents shows that majority of the plants contain optimum values as compared with daily mineral
intake standards. However, several factors may account for variations in mineral concentration, which include soil
composition, different geographic areas and environmental changes.
Heavy metals are necessary for the normal functioning of cells and the survival of organisms. These are required for physiological and biochemical functioning of the body, but at higher concentration they causes the oxidative damage. In fact non-essential metals like (lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd)) are more noxious even at very low concentration. It’s important to note that heavy metals are present in soil, air and water can easily enter into the organisms. Literature highlighted the role of metals like chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and arsenic (As) in oxidative damage. Fenton chemistry/Haber-Weiss reaction are most extensively studied mechanisms by which heavy metals produces reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) and ultimately causes oxidative stress. Both redox-active and inactive metals can diminish cellular antioxidant system specifically thiol- containing enzymes and antioxidants and may lead to cellular death. This review will contribute in providing valuable information on metallic contents of selected plants. For the purpose, data has been collected from the literature regarding ten mineral contents (sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and manganese (Mn)) of 100 medicinal plants grown in Pakistan. The metallic contents shows that majority of the plants contain optimum values as compared with daily mineral intake standards. However, several factors may account for variations in mineral concentration, which include soil composition, different geographic areas and environmental changes.
Taraxacum officinale G. H. Weber ex Wiggers (dandelion, pissenlit officinal) is a perennial weed occurring in parks, gardens, pastures, orchards, roadsides, vegetable gardens, agricultural crops and horticultural crops. A common weed worldwide, it was originally introduced from Eurasia and now occurs in every province of Canada. It is an aesthetic problem during flowering and seed production, interrupting turfgrass uniformity and density; it reduces yields of agricultural crops; it causes slower drying of hay; its pollen is allergenic; and it acts as an alternative host for several pests and diseases. A number of herbicides are available for its control. Mechanical removal of T. officinale plants has limited success, due to the regenerative capacity of the long taproot. Insects, fungi, sheep and geese have been considered as biological control agents for dandelion.
The recent interest of the food industry in the high‐pressure processing of food materials as an alternative or in addition to temperature treatment requires fundamental studies on the pressure‐temperature behavior of macromolecular food constituents such as proteins. In this paper we review some basic knowledge on the effects of high pressure on proteins. These effects are reversible or nonre‐versible and include changes in intra‐ or intermolecular interactions (noncovalent bonds), in conformation and in solvation. In general, reversible effects are observed below 1–2 kbar (e.g., dissociation of polymeric structures into subunits). Above 2 kbar, nonreversible effects may include complete inactivation of enzymes and denaturation of proteins (unfolding of monomeric proteins, aggregation, and gelation phenomena). Particular attention is directed to pressure denaturation, a complex phenomenon depending on protein structure, on pressure range, and on other external parameters, for example, temperature, pH, and solvent composition (presence of sugars, salts, and other additives).
Generation of immense quantity of underutilized marine processing byproducts has long been recognized as wastes and greater efforts were given to use these materials in various applications. With a great number of researches on these byproducts, some biologically active compounds were identified and applicated to the useful compounds for human utilization. Potential applications of proteins, lipids, chitin and minerals in marine bioprocessing leftovers as bioactive materials have increased the value of processing byproducts in recent years. In this review, we have focused on the utilization of marine processing byproducts to screen bioactive compounds and their potential applications.
An integrated study was conducted on the effects of temperature and pH on the solubility of whey proteins. The solubility was determined experimentally in the range of 40–60°C for temperature and 3.5–7.8 for pH. The results showed that, both temperature and pH influenced in the protein solubility, and these properties had great interaction. Besides, for whey proteins, the solubility values were minimum at the pH value of 4.5, which is the isoelectric point of whey proteins, for all temperature values. It was also observed that at pH 4.5, the solubility decreased as the temperature increased, which indicated that the protein denaturation occurred. This behavior was also noticed in the neutrality (pH=6.8).
Problem statement: Protein deficiency is one of the major nutritional problems in the developing world. The most disastrous consequences occur in children where protein malnutrition manifests itself in forms of two notorious diseases: Marasmus and kwashiorkor. Expansion of present agricultural practices into marginal lands is expected to solve this chronic protein shortage. The process of photosynthesis is the only non depletable protein source and can supply some essential amino acids as well as provide adequate nitrogen in the diet for synthesis of non essential amino acids in addition to vitamins and minerals. Approach: The aim of this study was to assess the nutritional values of common plant leaves and determine the feasibility of using them as a protein supplement. Six plants were cultivated and tested for their nutritional quality: amaranth, cowpea, sugar been, pumpkin, sweet potato and cabbage. Results: Pumpkin leaves recorded the highest protein yield (11.75%) followed by amaranth (10.5%) The protein contents in the leaves of sweet potato, cowpea, cabbage and sugar been were much lower (7.85, 6.95, 5.60 and 3.45%, respectively). Conclusion: Except for sugar bean, all plants had higher extractable protein content than cabbage. Proper use of the growing season can achieve high protein yield. Clean cutting will ensure that the leaves do not deteriorate within a few hours when kept in cool place and freezing leaves can improve protein extractability. The test plants should be given a trial as protein sources for human. Plant leaves have vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids and when consumed in adequate amounts they can supplement protein especially in areas where the environment is very hostile to livestock keeping or where fish protein is lacking. The optimum harvest age, fertilizer requirements and the possibility of combining two or more plants together to improve protein content should be studied. The amino acid, minerals and vitamins profiles should also be determined.
Problem statement: The maize stalk borer and American bollworm were grown in an artificial media to evaluate their potential as human food sources. Approach: Both cultures were started from moths and the life cycle and culture structures were evaluated. Results: The larvae of both insects reached maximum weight and maximum length at the same time. The growth rate of the youngest larvae was found to be the highest and the increase in the body weight during the growth period appeared to be linear. The larvae of these insects started to decrease in weight after they reached the maximum size. For efficient systems for the commercial production of the maize stalk borer and the American bollworm, the larvae should be harvested when they are 39 and 21 days old, respectively. The protein contents were 38.0 and 33.0% and the fat contents were 14.5 and 14.4% for the dried larvae of the American bollworm and maize stalk borer, respectively. The larvae of both insects contained the essential amino acids and minerals. Only 10% mortality was observed with older larvae of both species. A system where eggs are separated from adults and hatched in separate chambers would alleviate the possible danger of losing the population due to microbial infection. The high moisture content of the larvae (60.4-61.0%) could cause handling and storage problems. Drying and grinding the larvae would reduce them to easily manageable forms and would improve their marketability as novel food. Conclusion: The results obtained from this study show the potential of using insects as a protein source for human consumption to alleviate protein deficiency in many parts of the world, especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Further research is required to evaluate their growth characteristics on low substrates. Future research should also evaluate environmental parameters such as temperature, relative humidity and heat and CO2 production on food consumption and protein yield per gram substrate. This information will aid in the design of optimal production systems.
Binding of proteins in ion exchange chromatography is dominated by electrostatic interactions and can be tuned by adjusting pH and ionic strength of the solvent. Therefore, the isoelectric region (IER), the pH region of almost zero charge near the pI, has been used to predict the binding properties of proteins.
Usually the IER is small and binding and elution is carried out at pH values near to the pI. However, some proteins with an extended IER have been shown to bind and elute far away from its pI. To analyze factors that mediate the size of the IER and to identify proteins with an extended IER, two protein families consisting of more than 7000 proteins were systematically investigated. Most proteins were found to have a small IER and thus are expected to bind or elute near to their pI, while only a small fraction of less than 2% had a large IER.
Only four factors, the number of histidines, the pI, the number of titratable amino acids and the ratio of acidic to basic residues, are sufficient to reliably classify proteins by their IER based on their sequence only, and thus to predict their binding and elution behaviour in ion exchange chromatography.
The regulation of the cytoplasmic and vacuolar pH values (pHc and pHv) in sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) cells was analyzed using 31P and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Suspension-cultured cells were compressed in the NMR tube and perfused with the help of an original arrangement enabling a tight control of the pH (external pH, pHe) of the carefully oxygenated circulating nutrient medium. Intracellular pH values were measured from the chemical shifts of: CH2-linked carboxyl groups of citric acid below pH 5.7; orthophosphate between pH 5.7 and 8.0; 13C-enriched bicarbonate over pH 8.0. pHc and pHv were independent of pHe over the range 4.5-7.5. In contrast intracellular pH values decreased rapidly below pHe 4.5 and increased progressively at pHe over 7.5. There was an acceleration in the rate of O2 consumption accompanied with a decrease in cytoplasmic ATP concentration as pHe decreased. When the rate of O2 consumption was approaching the uncoupled O2 uptake rate, a loss of pHc control was observed. It is concluded that as pHe decreased, the plasma membrane ATPase consumed more and more ATP to reject the invading H+ ions in order to maintain pHc at a constant value. Below pHe 4.5 the efficiency of the H+ pump to react to back leakage of H+ ions became insufficient, leading to an acidification of pHc and to an alkalinization of pHe. On the other hand, over pHe 7.5 a passive influx of OH- ions was observed, and pHc increased proportionally to the increase of pHe. Simultaneously appreciable amounts of organic acids (malate and citrate) were synthesized by cells during the course of the alkalinization of the cytoplasmic compartment. The synthesis of organic acids which partially counteract the alkalinization of the cytoplasmic compartment may result from a marked activation of the cytoplasmic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase induced by an increase in cytoplasmic bicarbonate concentration. The fluctuations of pHv followed a similar course to that of pHc. It is concluded that the vacuole, which represents a potentially large H+ ions reservoir, can counteract H+ (or OH-) ion invasion observed at acidic (or alkaline) pHe contributing to the homeostasis of pHc.
Differentiation into a tracheary element (TE) is a typical example of programmed cell death (PCD) in the developmental processes of vascular plants. In the PCD process the TE degrades its cellular contents and becomes a hollow corpse that serves as a water conduct. Using a zinnia (Zinnia elegans) cell culture we obtained serial observations of single living cells undergoing TE PCD by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Vital staining was performed and the relative fluorescence intensity was measured, revealing that the tonoplast of the swollen vacuole in TEs loses selective permeability of fluorescein just before its physical rupture. After the vacuole ruptured the nucleus was degraded rapidly within 10 to 20 min. No prominent chromatin condensation or nuclear fragmentation occurred in this process. Nucleoids in chloroplasts were also degraded in a similar time course to that of the nucleus. Degradations did not occur in non-TEs forced to rupture the vacuole by probenecid treatment. These results demonstrate that TE differentiation involves a unique type of PCD in which active and rapid nuclear degradation is triggered by vacuole rupture.
Soy protein-based formulas have been available for almost 100 years. Since the first use of soy formula as a milk substitute for an infant unable to tolerate a cow milk protein-based formula, the formulation has changed to the current soy protein isolate. Despite very limited indications for its use, soy protein-based formulas in the United States may account for nearly 25% of the formula market. This report reviews the limited indications and contraindications of soy formulas. It will also review the potential harmful effects of soy protein-based formulas and the phytoestrogens contained in these formulas.
Here, we compared the traditional nutritional definition of the dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans with categorizations based on amino acid metabolism and function. The three views lead to somewhat different interpretations. From a nutritional perspective, it is quite clear that some amino acids are absolute dietary necessities if normal growth is to be maintained. Even so, growth responses to deficiencies of dispensable amino acids can be found in the literature. From a strictly metabolic perspective, there are only three indispensable amino acids (lysine, threonine and tryptophan) and two dispensable amino acids (glutamate and serine). In addition, a consideration of in vivo amino acid metabolism leads to the definition of a third class of amino acids, termed conditionally essential, whose synthesis can be carried out by mammals but can be limited by a variety of factors. These factors include the dietary supply of the appropriate precursors and the maturity and health of the individual. From a functional perspective, all amino acids are essential, and an argument in favor of the idea of the critical importance of nonessential and conditionally essential amino acids to physiological function is developed.
Problem statement: Protein deficiency is one of the major nutritional problems in the developing world. The most disastrous consequences occur in children where protein malnutrition manifests itself in forms of two notorious diseases: Marasmus and kwashiorkor. Expansion of present agricultural practices into marginal lands is expected to solve this chronic protein shortage. The process of photosynthesis is the only non depletable protein source and can supply some essential amino acids as well as provide adequate nitrogen in the diet for synthesis of non essential amino acids in addition to vitamins and minerals. Approach: The aim of this study was to assess the nutritional values of common plant leaves and determine the feasibility of using them as a protein supplement. Six plants were cultivated and tested for their nutritional quality: amaranth, cowpea, sugar been, pumpkin, sweet potato and cabbage. Results: Pumpkin leaves recorded the highest protein yield (11.75%) followed by amaranth (10.5%) The protein contents in the leaves of sweet potato, cowpea, cabbage and sugar been were much lower (7.85, 6.95, 5.60 and 3.45%, respectively). Conclusion: Except for sugar bean, all plants had higher extractable protein content than cabbage. Proper use of the growing season can achieve high protein yield. Clean cutting will ensure that the leaves do not deteriorate within a few hours when kept in cool place and freezing leaves can improve protein extractability. The test plants should be given a trial as protein sources for human. Plant leaves have vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids and when consumed in adequate amounts they can supplement protein especially in areas where the environment is very hostile to livestock keeping or where fish protein is lacking. The optimum harvest age, fertilizer requirements and the possibility of combining two or more plants together to improve protein content should be studied. The amino acid, minerals and vitamins profiles should also be determined.
This book continues as volume 2 of a multi-compendium on Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants. It covers edible fruits and seeds used fresh, cooked or processed into other by-products, or used as vegetables, spices, stimulants, edible oils and beverages. It encompasses species from the following families: Clusiaceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Dilleniaceae, Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Ericaceae and Fabaceae. However, not all the edible species in these families are included for want of coloured illustrations. The edible species dealt with in this work include to a larger extent lesser-known, wild and underutilized crops and also common and widely grown crops.
The term malnutrition is used to describe a deficiency, excess or imbalance of a wide range of nutrients, resulting in measurable adverse effects on body composition, function and clinical outcome.1 As such it can refer to individuals who are either over- or under-nourished although it is frequently used synonymously with undernutrition, as is the case in this article. Although it is well known that malnutrition is common in the developing world, the fact that significant malnourishment occurs in UK society and health settings is not widely appreciated. Malnutrition occurs for psychosocial reasons and as a consequence of disease. It has direct effects on clinical outcomes and is associated with massive healthcare expenditure. Recognition and treatment can have a significant impact on patient care and can reduce costs. Failure to diagnose and manage carries medico-legal risks. It is the responsibility of all doctors to recognize the fundamental importance of proper nutritional care to good clinical practice.2 The focus of this article is predominantly concerned with malnutrition and its consequences in the UK.
Broiled meat patties (70% ground beef, 10% legume and 20% water), containing high protein concentrates from dehulled, pinmilled fababeans and peas, were judged more acceptable by a panel of 90 untrained subjects when the concentrates were added in the form of texturized flakes produced by drum–drying than when they were added in the form of flour. Meat patties containing either fababean or pea flakes were comparable in acceptance to those containing a texturized soy product although all were liked less than the 100% beef control. Cooked patties containing fababean and pea protein concentrates were softer than beef–soy and control patties as shown by Allo–Kramer shear values. Drip loss from each legume–beef mixture was approximately half that from the control. All cooked patties, however, were similar in proximate composition. Examination of patties prepared with 3 levels of legume replacement of beef and 3 legume:water ratios at each level showed that fababean and pea protein concentrates had similar effects on the firmness of raw and cooked patties, cooking losses, fat and moisture retention. Texturizing fababean and pea concentrates reduced fat retention making cooked patties containing them more like the beef control.
The nutritional and some antinutritional components of leaf protein obtained from water fern (A. africana) and duckweed (S. polyrrhiza) were determined. Samples were harvested, minced and the leaf protein concentrates coagulated at 80°C in a water bath and then centrifuged. The leaf protein concentrates (LPC) and the residual pulp fibres were milled and analysed for proximate and antinutritional constituents. Crude protein content of LPC from water fern was 71.3% and 64.4% for duckweed. The residual pulp fibres contained 12.6% and 19.9% crude protein for water fern and duckweed, respectively. The LPC from the two weeds were low in lipid and fibre contents. Cyanide contents for LPC from water fern and duckweed ranged from 0.12 mg/100 g to 0.15 mg/100 g. Generally, contents of phytin and tannin and other extractives of the two aquatic plants were lower (P < 0.05) than in the original weeds.
This book addresses the technical and economic factors which must be considered when evaluating plans for the production of animal feed proteins from agricultural and forestry wastes. The work is divided into three parts, the first focusing on pretreatment and hydrolysis of lignocellulostic materials, the second on upgrading of whey and the third on nutrition and toxicology. The presentation concludes with a Round Table discussion including evaluations and recommendations for submission to the Commission of the European Communities. CONTENTS: Special Section: Pretreatment and Degradation of Lignocellulosic Materials. Subject Area 1: Production of SCP Enriched Substrate from Cellulosic Materials. Lignin and Lignocellulose. Process Development. Carbohydrates. Subject Area 2: Single Cell Protein from Whey. Subject Area 3: Nutrition and Toxicology. Round Table Discussion: Evaluation and Recommendations. List of Participants. Index of Authors.
Over 70 percent of the world's poor live in rural areas, and most of these people are illiterate and undernourished. This paper calls for the international donor community and developing nations to combine for an all-out assault on rural poverty, and presents a proposal for education for sustainable rural development. Education for rural development must be placed at the core of the global and national development agenda with a focus on basic learning needs of rural livelihoods and on Education for All. Strategies must focus on expanding access to education, improving school attendance in rural areas, and improving the quality and relevance of education. Other essential actions and strategies include (1) strengthening institutional capacity to plan and manage education for rural development by supporting new partnerships at the national and international levels; (2) addressing education for rural development systemically across all levels of education; (3) helping traditional agricultural education adjust to changing labor market needs; and (4) inviting and involving new stakeholders. The role of international agencies and donors in this initiative is outlined, followed by reasons why the initiative is needed now and next steps in its development. (SV)
Not only natural scientific curiosity but more so looming world food shortages have prompted food scientists to explore new and unconventional sources of edible and nutritious substances. Leaves are one such example. In this review the authors present some facts dealing with the production of leaf protein concentrate (LPC). Although equipment for the extraction of leaf protein has been built, much of the chemistry involved in this process has remained somewhat underemphasized. Three methods of extraction are dealt with and a discussion of the nutritional value of LPC is presented. Alfalfa is shown as merely one illustration of what extent man can expand his agricultural and food processing expertise to create alternate food resources for his nutritional benefit.
Protein deficiency is one of the most widespread nutritional disorders in underdeveloped tropical countries. The potential usefulness of tropical and subtropical leaves as a source of supplemental protein is discussed. Protein contents of 60 leaves and potential protein values of grasses and aquatic plants are compared. Preparation, composition, nutritional value, and flavor acceptability of several leaf protein fractions are discussed.
The total fatty acid composition of leaf protein concentrates from seven plant species was studied by gas-liquid chromatography of their methyl esters. In general, the concentrates contained from about 3 to 8% fatty acids, more than 75 to 80% of which were linolenic, palmitic, and linoleic acids. Lesser amounts of oleic, palmitoleic, and stearic acids contributed 12 to 17% of the total fatty acids. Small amounts of other saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were detected. There appeared to be no gross qualitative differences in the composition of fatty acids from the leaf protein concentrates from different species.
The gross composition and amino acid content of the proteins of barley, corn, rye and wheat grains were determined. Leaf protein concentrates (LPC) were produced from the green matter of clover, lucerne, barley and ryegrass using standard methods and analysed as for the cereal grains. Each cereal was mixed with each concentrate at a protein ratio of 2:1, respectively. The chemical score (CS) and essential amino acid index (EAAI) of the cereals, the protein concentrates and their mixtures were calculated. The biological value (BV) and true digestibility (TD) of all proteins were determined on rats using the Thomas-Mitchell balance method.
LPC proteins contained more lysine (4.6–6.0%) but less cystine than cereal proteins (2.8–3.8 and 2.3–2.7 g per 16 g N, respectively). The CS and BV of LPC proteins were low (30–40 and 44–58, respectively) because of the low cystine content. Mixing cereals with LPC improved the CS, EAAI and BV of their proteins. The BV of the protein mixtures was in almost every case higher than that of either protein alone, but the digestibility of the cereal proteins was reduced as a result of admixture with LPC, especially with clover LPC.
Extraction of protein from the leaves of green plants is very important because of the high cost of conventional forms of protein such as meat, milk and fish. In order to design machinery for this extraction, and also to embark on leaf protein concentrate extraction, it is necessary to measure and analyse the energy requirements to carry out each process involved in the extraction, using different plant species.Experiments were carried out to determine the amount of crude protein, and the thermal energy required to extract leaf protein concentrate, from juices obtained from the leaves of some plant species. Leaves from the following plants were selected: cassava (Manihot esculanta), Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata), bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina), gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata) and thorny tree (Hura crepetans). The leaves from the plant species were macerated in a laboratory pulper. Juice was obtained from the samples using perforated cylinders and a hydraulic press. The specific heat capacity of the juices was determined using the cooling curve method. The values of the heat capacities were used to calculate the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of each juice from its normal temperature of about 25°C to a total protein coagulation temperature of about 80°C. The crude protein content of the extract was determined using the Kjeldal method.Results indicate that the green coagulum extracted from all the juices all have a protein content of at least 37%. The thermal energy required to coagulate protein from the juices ranges from 1·59 kJ kg−1 for Hura crepetans to 2·7 kJ kg−1 for Vernonia amygdalina. The energy requirement to obtain crude protein (CP) ranges from 8 kJ kg−1 [CP] with Hura crepetans to 182 kJ kg−1 [CP] with Vernonia amygdalina. Both results are statistically significant at the 0·01 confidence interval. It is concluded that the choice of plant species can significantly lower the thermal energy requirement for the extraction of leaf protein concentrate.
Cod offal from Atlantic species (Gadus morhua) during the intense summer inshore fisheries, June–August, was analyzed for its chemical composition and energy value. The crude protein content of the samples was 14·3% and this included 2·55% collagen. The total lipid content of the offal was 4·3% and its ash content averaged 3·95%. Thus, the energy value of the offal was calculated as 413 kJ/100 g. The offal had an increased content of glycine, alanine, serine, proline and hydroxyproline as compared to the cod muscle proteins. Based on the content of selected amino acids, the calculated PER value for the offal was 1·88–2·36 as compared to 2·86–3·24 for the cod muscle. The fatty acid composition of the offal was similar to that of the cod-liver oil.
A variety of invertebrates are commonly fed to insectivorous animals by both zoos and hobbyists, but information as to the nutrient composition of most commercially raised species is limited. Adult house crickets, house cricket nymphs (Acheta domesticus), superworms (Zophobas morio larvae), giant mealworm larvae, mealworm larvae and adult mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), waxworm larvae (Galleria mellonella), and silkworm larvae (Bombyx mori) were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins. Earthworms (Lumbricus terresstris) were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, ADF, NDF, minerals, amino acids, and vitamins A and D3. Proximate analyses were variable, with wide ranges found for moisture (57.9–83.6%), crude protein (9.3–23.7%), crude fat (1.6–24.9%), ADF (0.1–7.4%), NDF (0.0–11.5%), and ash (0.6–1.2%). Energy content ranged from a low of 674 kcal/kg for silkworms to 2,741 kcal/kg for waxworms.Using an amino acid scoring pattern for rats, the first limiting amino acid for all invertebrates tested was the total sulfur amino acid methionine+cystine. Deficiencies by nutrient (% of samples deficient vs. NRC requirements for rats on a dry matter (DM) basis) were as follows: calcium (100%), vitamin D3 (100%), vitamin A (89%), vitamin B12 (75%), thiamin (63%), vitamin E (50%), iodine (44%), manganese (22%), methionine-cystine (22%), and sodium (11%). Deficiencies by invertebrate species (number of nutrients deficient vs. the NRC requirements for rats on a DM basis) were as follows: waxworms (9), superworms (8), giant mealworm larvae (7), adult mealworms (6), mealworm larvae (5), adult house crickets (4), house cricket nymphs (4), silkworms (4), and earthworms (4). These data provide a basis for determining nutrient intake of captive insectivores, and will aid in the development of gut-loading diets to provide captive insectivorous animals with appropriate levels of necessary nutrients.
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Fish protein concentrate (FPC) prepared from three different species of fishes [catfish, family Arridae (Tachysurus arius, T. dussumieri, T. thalassinus), picked ribbonfish, family Trichuiridae (Trichiurus savala, Trichiurus lepturus), milkfish, family (Chanos chanos)], available in plenty on the western coast of India, have been analyzed for their nutritive value, i.e., PER (protein efficiency ratio), NPR (net protein retention), amino acids, proximate composition, and organoleptic evaluation. The protein quality index based on PER and NPR at the 10% protein level was found to be highest in FPC made from picked ribbonfish (T. savala), followed by FPC from catfish (T. arius) and milkfish (Chanos chanos). PER value of T. savala was significantly higher than casein. Chemical score based on the essential amino acid content of FAO/WHO pattern (1973) and egg indicated the level of the first limiting amino acid methionine + cystine. The essential amino acid index and biological value were also calculated.
Life on earth is ubiquitous within the limits from -5 to 110 degrees C for temperature, 0.1 to 120 MPa for hydrostatic pressure, 1.0 to 0.6 for water activity and pH 1 to 12. In general, mutative adaptation of proteins to changing environmental conditions tends to maintain 'corresponding states' regarding overall topology, flexibility and hydration. Due to the minute changes in the free energy of stabilization responsible for enhanced stability, nature provides a wide variety of different adaptative strategies. In the case of thermophilic proteins, improved packing densities are crucial. In halophilic proteins, decreased hydrophobicity and clustered surface charges serve to increase water and salt binding required for solubilization at high salt concentration. In the case of barophiles, high-pressure adaptation is expected to be less important than adaptation to low temperatures governing the deep sea. Nothing is known with respect to the mechanisms underlying psychrophilic and acidophilic/alkalophilic adaptation.
Nutritional responses in albino rats on diets containing different leaf proteins at 1.6% nitrogen (N) were studied. From the data on 4-week growth and protein efficiency ratio (PER), leaf proteins from 19 different plant species were placed in 4 different categories: (1) 5 of no food value, causing loss or negligible gain in weight of rats; (2) 6 of poor quality, inducing a weight gain of less than 15 g with a PER below 1.0; (3) 3 of medium quality, inducing a weight gain of 20–35 g with PER of 1.3–1.75; and (4) 5 of good quality, inducing a weight gain of more than 40 g with a PER greater than 1.75. The last 5, all of them cruciferous leaf proteins, were nutritionally 66% as efficient as skim milk powder (SMP). The apparent digestibility (D) and true digestibility (TD) values, from experiments with either young and growing or adult rats, were close to each other for the medium and good quality categories of leaf proteins. The values differed considerably for the poor quality leaf proteins and were lower than those for good quality leaf proteins. The TD values for carrot, beetroot, lucerne and cauliflower leaf proteins in adult rats were around 40, 74, 87 and 89%, respectively, with that for SMP about 90%. The biological values (BV) were in a narrower range than the TD, falling between 70 and 77 in growing rats and between 55 and 59 in adults.
This is a brief review about the current state of knowledge concerning the minimum physiological requirements for indispensable amino acids in healthy adult humans. It is hypothesized that current international estimations of these requirements are far too low, except for the sulfur-containing amino acids. Stable isotope tracer studies of amino acid kinetics are described, and that it is concluded that they support this hypothesis. Tentative revised estimates of requirements are presented.
This paper discusses the nutrient composition and the nutritional importance of green leaves and wild gathered foods in an area with surplus food production in Mali. In this West African country, there is little information about the nutrient composition and the nutritional quality of foods in general, and of wild gathered foods in particular. Food frequency was collected in two cross-sectional surveys. Focus group discussions with women in the area were used to collect information about seasonality, availability and preparation of various foods. Selected food samples were collected for chemical analysis of nutrient composition. The food samples of green leaves (Adansonia digitata, Amaranthus viridis, Tamarindus indica, Allium cepa), seeds and flour (Parkia biglobosa) and fruits (Tamarindus indica) were analysed for water, energy, fat, protein, minerals, amino acids and carotenoids. Availability and use of the foods varied with seasons. In the rainy season, wild gathered foods (e.g. A. digitata) were used as much as fresh cultivated foods (e.g., A. viridis and A. cepa). The wild food resources were more frequently used in rural than in urban areas, with A. digitata as the dominating green leaves. Green leaves were rich in energy, protein and minerals (calcium, iron). Leaves of A. viridis were, in particular, rich in beta-carotene (3290 micrograms/100 g). Chemical score in dried green leaves varied from 47 (A. cepa) to 81 (A. digitata), with lysine as the first limiting amino acid. P. biglobosa fermented seeds, with 35% fat and 37% protein were a complementary source of lysine in the diet. Based on the seasonality, the frequency of use and the nutrient contents of selected green leaves and wild gathered foods in Koutiala district, it is concluded that these traditional and locally produced foods are valuable and important nutrient contributors in the diet both in rural and urban areas, but most important in rural areas.
As with energy requirements, protein requirements are relatively much greater in infants and decline progressively with age. Amino acid metabolism in pediatric patients is characterized by the following differences. The requirement for essential amino acids in neonates is larger than that in adults. Because of low activity of phenylalanine hydroxylase and cystathionase, hyperphenylalaninemia and hypermethioninemia tend to occur, whereas tyrosine and cysteine tend to be deficient. In addition to cysteine and tyrosine, histidine, lysine, arginine and taurine are considered as semiessential amino acids. Nowadays there are different kinds of amino acid formulas to satisfy these specific requirements, and most of these formulas are intended to normalize the plasma aminogram. However, the nutritional benefit of these formulas for growth and development is still not completely proven, and the pharmacological use for specific diseases is expected with some modification of these formulas.
Here, we compared the traditional nutritional definition of the dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans with categorizations based on amino acid metabolism and function. The three views lead to somewhat different interpretations. From a nutritional perspective, it is quite clear that some amino acids are absolute dietary necessities if normal growth is to be maintained. Even so, growth responses to deficiencies of dispensable amino acids can be found in the literature. From a strictly metabolic perspective, there are only three indispensable amino acids (lysine, threonine and tryptophan) and two dispensable amino acids (glutamate and serine). In addition, a consideration of in vivo amino acid metabolism leads to the definition of a third class of amino acids, termed conditionally essential, whose synthesis can be carried out by mammals but can be limited by a variety of factors. These factors include the dietary supply of the appropriate precursors and the maturity and health of the individual. From a functional perspective, all amino acids are essential, and an argument in favor of the idea of the critical importance of nonessential and conditionally essential amino acids to physiological function is developed.
Soy-based infant formulae, initially developed for infants who were lactose intolerant or allergic to cow's milk-based formulae, now account for >25% of the infant formulae sold in the United States. Formulations have changed over the years to improve digestibility, the stability and availability of minerals, and protein quality. Recent concerns have been raised regarding the phytoestrogenic isoflavone content of soy-based formulae. A systematic review of the literature was conducted to evaluate various measures of infant health and development in clinical studies comparing modern soy-based formulae with other diets and to document areas in which further research seems warranted. Results suggest that modern soy-based formulae support normal growth and nutritional status in healthy term infants in y 1 of life. However, there are very limited data on sexual and reproductive development or outcomes such as immune function, visual acuity/cognitive development and thyroid function. Available data do not provide evidence of meaningful differences in timing of maturation, sexual development or fertility in adolescents or adults. Nonetheless, given evidence suggesting that early exposure to soy and/or isoflavones might have long-term effects, further research following infants fed soy-based formulae into adulthood is warranted.
The aims of this introductory article are to survey and critically evaluate the concepts and approaches that have been used to assess amino acid adequacy and to hypothesize about possible future directions of research. The issue in question is extensive, consequently this article will be limited to: 1) definitions of amino acid requirements; 2) available techniques to assess amino acid requirements; 3) actual recommendations for healthy adults; 4) factors influencing requirements; and 5) requirements in acute and chronic wasting diseases. Recommendations for amino acid intakes for healthy adults were proposed by the FAO/WHO expert committee in 2001. They have not yet been published. The major factors affecting amino acid requirements are the stage of development, reproductive state, environmental factors, digestibility of dietary proteins, genotype of the individual, and pathological conditions. Remarkably, there are no conclusive data relative to changes in requirements induced by infection, injury, trauma, and renal or liver failure. Future research using modern methods to evaluate requirements must thus receive a high priority. Wasting diseases are associated with deficiencies and imbalances of particular amino acids causing specific changes in requirements. Consequently, a new approach has been used to categorize amino acids as conditionally indispensable according to their functional and physiological properties. Kinetic measurements of plasma amino acids might help to estimate qualitative requirements. Measurement of tissue intracellular free amino acid deficiencies or excesses is another method to estimate qualitative requirements. Based on these measurements tentative values for conditionally indispensable amino acids during disease are given in the article.
To describe the supersecondary structure (SSS) of beta sandwich-like proteins (SPs), we introduce a structural unit called the "strandon." A strandon is defined as a set of sequentially consecutive strands connected by hydrogen bonds in 3D structures. Representing beta-proteins as the assembly of strandons exposes the underlying similarities in their SSS and enables us to construct a novel classification scheme of SPs. Classification of all known SPs is based on shared supersecondary structural features and is presented in the SSS database (http://binfs.umdnj.edu/sssdb/). Analysis of the SSS reveals two common specific patterns. The first pattern defines the arrangement of strandons and was found in 95% of all examined SPs. The second pattern establishes the ordering of strands in the protein domain and was observed in 82% of the analyzed SPs. Knowledge of these two patterns that uncover the spatial arrangement of strands will likely prove useful in protein structure prediction.
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