Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Seed and Its Fats

Abstract

This chapter evaluates mango seed kernel not only for its qualities as a natural food but also for the biological activity of some of its constituents, which have shown positive impacts, directly or indirectly, on health and nutrition. By its biological nature, mango seed kernel has a composition that responds to varietal and phenotypic variations. Although phenolic compounds act as anti-nutritive factors, they have recently become the subject of intense research because of their high antioxidant activity. Tannins, gallic acid, coumarins, caffeic acid, vanillin, mangiferin, ferulic acid, and cinnamic acid have been identified in the mango seed and analyzed for their antioxidant activity. Simple lipids in the mango seed kernel make up 94.8‑97.5% of the total lipids; the major constituents of these are triacylglycerols (55.6‑91.5%), followed by partial glycerides (2.3‑4%) and free fatty acids (0.8‑1.42%). Lipids are important components of food and also basic structural and functional constituents of cells; therefore, they are decisive in states of health and illness of individuals. The consumption of trans fatty acids in dietary hydrogenated fats is a worldwide public health problem because of their implications in the development of some major diseases. The physical and chemical characteristics of natural mango kernel fat make it a viable consumer alternative to high trans-fatty acid dietary fats.

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Author's personal copy
From Solís-Fuentes, J. A, del Carmen Durán-de-Bazúa, M. (2011). Mango (Mangifera indica L.)
seed and its fats. In V. R. Preedy, R. R. Watson, V. B. Patel (Editors), Nuts & Seeds in Health
and Disease Prevention (1st ed.) (pp 741-748). London, Burlington, San Diego: Academic Press
is an imprint of Elsevier.
ISBN: 9780123756886
Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
Academic Press

CHAPTER 88
Mango (Mangifera
indica L.) Seed and Its Fats
Julio A. Solı
´s-Fuentes
1
,Marı
´a del Carmen Dura
´n-de-Bazu
´a
2
1
Food Science Area, Instituto de Ciencias Ba
´sicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa,
Ver., Me
´xico
2
Chemical Engineering Department, Facultad de Quı
´mica, Universidad Nacional Auto
´noma
de Me
´xico, Me
´xico
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction 741
Botanical Description 742
Historical Cultivation and
Usage 742
Present-Day Cultivation and
Usage 742
Applications to Health Promotion
and Disease Prevention 742
Chemical composition and lipids of
the mango seed kernel 743
Mango kernel fat
composition 744
Mango kernel fat thermal behavior
and polymorphism 745
Adverse Effects and Reactions
(Allergies and Toxicity) 746
Summary Points 747
References 747
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
FA, fatty acid
FFA, free fatty acid
MKF, mango kernel fat
MSK, mango seed kernel
POP, 2-oleodipalmitin
POS, 2-oleopalmitostearine
SFC, solid fat content
SMKO, sapote mamey kernel oil
SOS, 2-oleodistearine
TG, triacylglycerols
INTRODUCTION
Lipids, and particularly fats and oils, are a large group of important compounds in the
structure and functioning of cells, essential in the diet for their nutritional value, and highly
desirable for their effect on the functional properties of food. Unlike oil, natural vegetable fats
741
Nuts & Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-375688-6.10088-X
Copyright Ó2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Author's personal copy

are scarce, and have multiple applications. Mango kernel fat (MKF) has a composition and
physical characteristics that make it a consumer alternative to processed semi-solid fats high in
trans FA content, with serious adverse effects on human health maintenance.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Economically speaking, the mango is the most important fruit crop of the family Anacardiaceae
(Cashew or poison ivy family) in the order of Sapindales. The family contains 73 genera and
between 600 and 700 species, well-known for the presence of caustic resins in the leaves, bark,
and fruits. Several of these, including mango, may cause some type of dermatitis in humans.
The genus Mangifera contains about 60 species, of which about 15 produce edible fruits,
among them M. sylvatica, a possible ancestor of M. indica. Currently there are over 1000 known
varieties of mango, whose nomenclature is sometimes complicated because of certain
regionalisms. In the world, only a few varieties are grown on a commercial scale and traded.
The fruit has a large, central stone, flattened, with a woody cover containing a nucleus or kernel
with a single embryo, or two to five embryos (Hindu and Indo-Chinese varieties, respectively)
(Morton, 1987; Vasanthaiah et al., 2007).
HISTORICAL CULTIVATION AND USAGE
The mango has been cultivated since prehistoric times. Apparently, it is endemic to North-
Eastern India and Myanmar (Burma); possibly also to Sri Lanka (Ceylon). It was distributed
throughout South-east Asia and the Malay Archipelago, from where it spread to Africa and to
the New World through the first Portuguese and Spanish maritime routes and colonization.
The first permanent planting in Florida, however, dates from the 1860s (Vasanthaiah et al.,
2007).
Historically, its flesh has been used almost exclusively as fresh and processed fruit. Various
plant parts have been used in traditional medicine as a cure for a number of diseases. The
kernel seed has been consumed by humans and animals in some Asian groups, and, in
different preparations, has been used as a vermifuge and as an astringent in diarrhea,
hemorrhages, and bleeding hemorrhoids. The kernel fat has been administered in cases of
gastritis (Morton, 1987).
PRESENT-DAY CULTIVATION AND USAGE
At present, the mango is cultivated on a commercial scale throughout tropical and subtropical
regions, in over 3.7 million ha in the world. Mango fruit is one of the most important crops. It
is grown in over 90 countries, representing about 50% of the tropical fruits produced
worldwide. World production in 2005 was 28.5 million tonnes (Evans, 2008). India produces
nearly half of the world output, followed by China, Thailand, and Mexico; all in all, the 10
countries with the highest production of this fruit contain about 80% of the world production.
Currently, the mango is still mainly used as food. The lipids’ therapeutic properties, and
particularly the fat of the seed kernel, have been subjects of extensive research for the past
decade (Puravankara et al., 2000; Yella Reddy & Jeyarani, 2001; Abdalla et al., 2007), with
a promising outlook.
APPLICATIONS TO HEALTH PROMOTION AND
DISEASE PREVENTION
Mango seed kernel is being re-evaluated not only for its qualities as a natural food (edible,
non-toxic, with a high quality protein and amino acid score) and for the biological activity of
some of its constituents (lipid fractions and phenolic compounds identified as active anti-
oxidants and modulators of lipid metabolism) which have shown positive impacts, directly or
indirectly, on health and nutrition, but also because its fat in the natural state has shown
742
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significant functional and physicochemical characteristics that could lead to it replacing fats
like cocoa butter or others that are widely used in industry and in food processing, but are now
facing serious objections because of their adverse effects on nutrition and human health.
Chemical composition and lipids of the mango seed kernel
By its biological nature, MSK has a composition that responds to varietal and phenotypic
variations. The available data are for a substantial but still minority number of commercially
important varieties from major producing regions. Table 88.1 gives the range of values most
often reported for the relevant chemical constituents of the kernel. The seed, depending on the
variety, can constitute 3e25% of the total mass of the fruit, and the kernel occupies 54e85% of
the seed; it has a moisture content of 33e86%, and the solid dried matter has proteins
(4.0e8.1%), crude fiber (1.7e7.6%), ash (1.0e3.7%), total carbohydrates (70e76%), around
0.1e6.4% of phenolic compounds, and 3.7e12.6% of crude fat. MSK proteins have high
scores of essential amino acids (78) and protein quality (177e189 adults), and an in vitro
digestibility of 26.7e29.8% (Dhingra & Kapoor, 1985, Abdalla et al., 2007).
TABLE 88.1 Mango Seed Kernel and Mango Kernel Fat Composition Ranges of Mango
(Mangifera indica) Seed
Kernel and Fat Composition Values References
Seed in fruit 3e25
a
Lakshminarayan et al., 1983
Kernel in seed 54e85
Moisture 33e86
b
Protein 4.0e8.1
c
Crude fiber 1.7e7.6 Dhingra & Kapoor, 1985; Solı
´s-Fuentes
and Duran de Bazu
´a, 2004
Ash 1.0e3.7 Lakshminarayan et al., 1983
Total carbohydrates 70e76 Solı
´s-Fuentes & Duran de Bazu
´a, 2004
Phenolic compounds 0.1e6.4 Abdalla et al. 2007; Parmar & Sharma, 1990
Crude fat 3.7e12.6 Lakshminarayan et al., 1983
Simple lipids 94.8e97.5
d
Van Pee et al., 1981
Triacylglycerols 55.6e91.5 Ali et al., 1985
Partial glycerides 2.3e4.0
myristic (C14:0) 0.7e8
e
Baliga & Shitole, 1981
palmitic (C16:0) 3e18 Lakshminarayan et al., 1983
stearic (C18: 0) 24e57
oleic (C18:1) 34e56
linoleic (C18:2) 0e13
linolenic (C18:3) 0.2e5.3 Van Pee et al., 1981; Dhingra & Kapoor,
1985
arachidic (C20:0) <4.0 Lakshminarayan et al., 1983
oleic sn-2 position 85.2e89.9 Van Pee et al., 1981
linoleic sn-2 position 8.3e13.0
Free fatty acids 0.8e1.4 Ali et al., 1985; Abdalla et al., 2007
Unsaponifiables 0.9e5.3
d
Lakshminarayan et al., 1983; Gaydou &
Bouchet, 1984
Squalene 1.0e1.1 Abdalla et al., 2007
Sterol fractions 0.5e1.2 Ali et al. 1985; Abdalla et al. 2007
Tocopherol fractions 0.3e0.4 Abdalla et al., 2007
Complex lipids 2.5e5.2 Van Pee et al., 1981
Phospholipids 0.1e2.8 Van Pee et al., 1981; Ali et al., 1985
Glycolipids 0.6e2.6
a
%, as-is basis;
b
% of kernel, as-is basis;
c
% of kernel, dry basis;
d
% of total lipids;
e
% of total FA.
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Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Seed and its Fats
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Although phenolic compounds act as anti-nutritive factors, they have recently become the
subject of intense research because of their high antioxidant activity. Tannins, gallic acid,
coumarins, caffeic acid, vanillin, mangiferin, ferulic acid, and cinnamic acid have been
identified in the MSK and analyzed for their antioxidant activity (Puravankara et al., 2000;
Abdalla et al., 2007; Maisuthisakul & Gordon, 2009).
Lipids are important components of food, and also basic structural and functional constitu-
ents of cells; therefore, they are decisive in states of health and illness of individuals. MKF has
been studied regarding their yield during extraction, its toxicological safety, fatty acid and
glyceride composition, and chemical, physical, thermal and phase properties; these are
important aspects for its applicability as a substitute or a supplement to fats from other
sources. Some studies have been guided by its similarity to cocoa butter and its potential use,
mainly in the food industry or in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
Fat yields from the MSK fluctuate widely among varieties. Van Pee and colleagues (1981)
reported values between 6.8 and 12.6% (db) for African varieties; others, such as
Lakshminarayanan et al. (1983), found lower yields, with levels ranging from 3.7% for some
varieties from India, and Gaydou and Bouchet (1984) reported atypical ranges of 27e38% of
fat on a dry basis for Malagasy varieties. The extracted fat was solid at room temperature, and
cream-colored.
Simple lipids in the MSK make up 94.8e97.5% of the total lipids; the major constituents of
these are triacylglycerols (55.6e91.5%), followed by partial glycerides (2.3e4%) and FFAs
(0.8e1.42%). Ali and colleagues (1985) found varieties with a FFA content of up to 37% in
India. Unsaponifiable compounds, one minor component group in vegetable fats and oils
known to have significant effects on fat metabolism (Lau et al., 2005), range from 0.9 to 5.3%;
whereas the complex lipids, phospholipids and glycolipids, whose important effect has been
studied extensively in humans, are found in the order of 2.5e5.2% of the total in the MSK.
Table 88.1 also shows the amounts of unsaponifiable fractions, phospholipids, and glycolipids
in MSK, and Table 88.2 contains ranges of the reported values for the main physical and
chemical characteristics of MKF, with a saponification number between 185.6 and 198, and an
iodine value between 34.0 and 57.7.
Mango kernel fat composition
Oleic acid (18:1) is the most abundant in MKF, fluctuating between 34 and 56%; it is followed
by stearic (18:0) (24e57%) and palmitic (16:0) (3e18%) acids. Other fatty acids in smaller
quantities are linoleic (18:2) (up to 13%), and linolenic (20:0) and arachidonic acids with
smaller amounts. A few reports indicate the presence of myristic (0.7e8%) and lauric (12:0)
acids, and tridecanoic (13:0), pentadecane (15:0), palmitoleic (16:1), margaric (17:0),
TABLE 88.2 Main Physical and Chemical Properties of Mango Kernel Fat
Physical Range References
Specific gravity 0.87e0.93
a
Abdalla et al., 2007
Refractive index at 40C 1.359e1.559
a
Ali et al., 1985; Abdalla et al., 2007
Melting point, 25.0e47.0
b
Ali et al., 1985
Chemical
Peroxide value, 0.1e1.21
c
Ali et al., 1985; Abdalla et al., 2007
Iodine number 34.0e57.7 Dhingra & Kapoor, 1985; Van Pee et al., 1981
Saponification number 185.6e198.6 Abdalla et al., 2007
Acid value 3.8e4.9
d
Van Pee et al., 1981
a
At 40C;
b
C;
c
meq. O
2
/kg fat;
d
mg KOH/g fat.
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nonadecane (19:0), and gondoic acids (20:1) in small and trace amounts in some varieties
(Gaydou & Bouchet, 1984).
The high predominance of oleic, stearic, and palmitic acids (over 85% of the total) has shown
that MKF is similar to other major natural fats, like cocoa butter (Theobroma cacao), Sal (Shorea
robusta), illipe butter (Shores etenoptera), Shea butter (Butyrospermum parkii), and Mowrah
(Bassia latifolia), all widely used in food processing. In the case of cocoa butter, these three fatty
acids constitute about 95% of the total, and provide a relatively simple glyceride composition;
in cocoa butters from different regions of the world, three triacylglycerols (POP, POS, and
SOS) make up more than 80% of the total, giving them unique properties.
To diversify their use, natural fats and oils are processed industrially through inter-, trans- and
direct esterification, selective or homogeneous hydrogenation, wet or dry fractionation (with
solvents or surfactants in an aqueous medium), and mixed treatments (Baliga & Shitole,
1981). These methods yield fats with the desired physical characteristics in terms of their
composition, melting points, and consistency, as well as stability against oxidation. Some, like
cocoa butter equivalents, and others used as margarine, shortenings, frying fats, etc., have,
however, presented significant drawbacks, because if they are made with severe heat treatment
the positional isomerization of the cis double bond of unsaturated FA may take place, leading
to the occurrence of trans-isomers as by-products.
Van Pee et al. (1981) found that the triglyceride composition of the MKS shows a FA distri-
bution in the glycerol molecule characterized by the location of the saturated FA in the sn-1
and sn-3 positions, the remaining sites being proportionately occupied by unsaturated oleic,
linoleic, and linolenic acids. In 10 varieties grown in Zaire, MKF oleic and linoleic acids
occupied between 85.2 and 89.9%, and 8.3 to 13.0%, respectively, of the sn-2 position in TG
molecules.
Mango kernel fat thermal behavior and polymorphism
It is known that natural fats have, in general, a complex thermal and structural behavior
derived from their TG composition. TGs and fats are characterized by multiple melting
behaviors due to their polymorphism; basically, these exhibit three different polymorphic
forms (a,b0, and b). The amounts and structure of the TGs determine their nutritional (TG
postprandial response), physical (spreadability, resistance to water/oil loss, etc.), and sensory
(melting, graininess, etc.) properties.
The thermal behavior and polymorphism of MKF, alone and in mixtures with other natural
fats, have been studied by Baliga and Shitole (1981), Yella Reddy and Jeyarani (2001), Solis-
Fuentes and Dura
´n-de-Bazu
´a (2003, 2004), and Solis-Fuentes et al. (2005), among others. In
general, such behavior has been compared with that of cocoa butter, showing that, among the
variety of obtained fats and behaviors studied, some of them closely resemble cocoa butter or
other fats widely used in the food manufacturing processes that involve the partial hydroge-
nation of vegetable oils.
Solis-Fuentes and Dura
´n-de-Bazu
´a (2004) showed that the melting curves of the MKF var.
Manila, grown widely in Mexico and other countries, are relatively simple, and show a great
resemblance to those of cocoa butter; however, the MKF fusion curve is usually wider than the
cocoa butter curve. Two stable polymorphic forms of MKF with the possibility of assuming two
other unstable forms have been identified through DSC and X-ray diffraction: the aform, with
a low melting point, and the bform, with a high melting point. Figure 88.1 shows the SFC
profiles of the MKF and cocoa butter polymorphs. The compatibility and product character-
istics of MKF blends with other fats and oils and their fractions have been analyzed.
In MKF and cocoa butter blends, it has been shown that MKF is slightly softer than cocoa butter
and has a more evident softening effect in mixtures when it comprises between 60% and 80%
of the weight. If its participation in the mixtures is small, the softening effect is negligible; if it is
CHAPTER 88
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Seed and its Fats
745
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higher, the effect is compensated when the solids content is small. Additionally, MKF requires
higher temperatures than cocoa butter in order to melt.
When MKF and cocoa butter blends are taken to achieve bforms, mixture compatibility is
improved, non-softening effects appear in compositions with less than 20% of mango fat, and
a harder mixture is obtained for compositions with more than 80% of MKF. However, the
wider MKF fusion profile requires lower temperatures than cocoa butter to remain 80% solid,
and higher temperatures to melt the last 5% of solids of the fat in its pure state. Isosolid
diagrams have shown a lower compatibility between MKF and cocoa butter than between
cocoa butter and other fats such as Coberine, with isolines more parallel and horizontal during
its mixing with cocoa butter (Talbot, 1995). MKF is, however, much more compatible with
cocoa butter than milk fat, lauric fats, and hydrogenated cottonseed oil are (Solı
´s-Fuentes &
Dura
´n-de-Bazu
´a, 2004).
The analysis of the phase behavior of ternary blends of MKF, cocoa butter, and sapote mamey
(Pouteria sapota) kernel oil (SMKO) has shown that these fats can support the preparation of
mixtures with different compositions that can become like cocoa butter equivalents or other
useful mixtures for food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic uses (Solı
´s-Fuentes & Dura
´n-de-Bazu
´a,
2003). In other studies, Yella-Reddy and Jeyarani (2001) showed that it is possible to prepare
bakery shortenings with no trans fatty acids by using MKF and mahua (Madhuca latifolia) fats
and their fractions.
ADVERSE EFFECTS AND REACTIONS (ALLERGIES AND TOXICITY)
MSK and MKF are edible, and thus far there have been no studies showing that they contain
any toxic or allergenic compounds. In times of food shortages and famine, poor people from
some producing regions have consumed boiled kernels. Rukmini and Vijayaraghavan (1984)
studied the nutritional value and toxicological safety of kernel fat by feeding rats with MKF and
groundnut oil in balanced diets with fat contents of 10%, and making multi-generation
breeding evaluations. The food efficiency ratio and growth rate of the rats fed with the MKF
diet were comparable with those of the control group. The retention of nutrients (calcium,
phosphorus, and nitrogen) was not affected adversely by MKF intake. The serum and liver total
cholesterol, total lipids levels, and liver TG type were alike in MKF and control-fed animals.
The histo-pathological evaluations of the rats’ organs showed no abnormalities.
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
20 30
Tem
p
erature, °C
SFC, %
40 50 60
CB(β-form)
MKF(β-form)
CB (α-form)
MKF(α-form)
FIGURE 88.1
SFC profiles for mango kernel fat (var. Manila) and cocoa butter in their non-stabilized and stabilized polymorphs. The
figure shows the similarity of the most stable polymorphs of mango kernel fat in their solid/liquid relationships with those
appreciated in cocoa butter for its wide use in confectionary products.
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An important advantage of MKF, along with other natural fats, is that it contains no trans fatty
acids, which have been proven to contribute to development of various serious diseases, and to
have adverse effects on human maintenance.
SUMMARY POINTS
lMango fruit is one of the most important crops worldwide, with more than 28.5 million
tonnes produced and traded in the world annually. Its seed is an easily available waste
product of the mango-processing industry.
lMango seed kernel is being re-evaluated as a potential food source of functional ingredients
due to its composition of proteins, antioxidant compounds, and lipids.
lThe consumption of trans-fatty acids in dietary hydrogenated fats is a worldwide public
health problem because of their implications in the development of some major diseases.
lThe physical and chemical characteristics of natural mango kernel fat make it a viable
consumer alternative to high trans-fatty acid dietary fats.
lDietary fat composition is an issue of great importance in the health and disease
development of individuals.
References
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Compositional quality of mango seed kernel. Food Chemistry, 103, 1134e1140.
Ali, M. A., Gafur, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Ahmed, G. M. (1985). Variations in fat content and lipid class
composition in ten different mango varieties. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 62, 520e523.
Baliga, B. P., & Shitole, A. D. (1981). Cocoa butter substitutes from mango fat. Journal of the American Oil Chemists
Society, 58,110e114.
Dhingra, S., & Kapoor, A. (1985). Nutritive value of mango seed kernel. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,
36, 752e756.
Evans, E. A. (2008). Recent trends in world and US mango production, trade, and consumption. Gainesville, FL: EDIS
document FE718, Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida.
Gaydou, E. M., & Bouchet, P. (1984). Sterols, methyl sterols, triterpene alcohols and fatty acids of the kernel fat of
different Malagasy mango (Mangifera indica) varieties. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 61,
1589e1592.
Lakshminarayana, G., Chandrasekhara-Rao, T., & Ramalingaswamy, P. A. (1983). Varietal variations in content
characteristics and composition of mango seed and fat. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 60,88e89.
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HDL cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic type 2 diabetic and nondiabetic persons. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 81, 1351e1358.
Maisuthisakul, P., & Gordon, M. H. (2009). Antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of mango seed kernel by
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Morton, J. (1987). Mango. In J. F. Morton (Ed.), Fruits of Warm Climates (pp. 221e239). Miami, FL: Purdue
University.
Parmar, S. S., & Sharma, R. S. (1990). Effect of mango (Mangifera indica L.) seed kernels pre-extract on the oxidative
stability of Ghee. Food Chemistry, 35,99e107.
Puravankara, D., Bohgra, V., & Sharma, R. S. (2000). Effect of antioxidant principles isolated from mango
(Mangifera indica L.) seed kernels on oxidative stability of buffalo ghee (butter-fat). Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture, 80, 522e526.
Rukmini, C., & Vijayaraghavan, M. (1984). Nutritional and toxicological evaluation of mango kernel oil. Journal of
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Solı
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´s-Fuentes, J. A., Herna
´ndez-Medel, M. R., & Dura
´n-de-Bazu
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Talbot, G. (1995). Fat eutectics and crystallisation. In S. T. Beckett (Ed.), Physico-chemical aspects of food processing
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Van Pee, W. M., Boni, L. A., Foma, M. N., & Hendrikx, A. (1981). Fatty acid composition and tropical fruit of the
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Vasanthaiah, H. K. N., Ravishankar, K. V., & Mukunda, G. K. (2007). Mango. In C. Kole (Ed.), Genome mapping and
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fractionation and blending. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 78, 635e640.
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