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Keeping Up with the Joneses: Friends' Perfectionism and Students' Orientation Toward Extrinsic Aspirations
Abstract
Kasser and Ryan (1993; 1996) have contrasted two types of life values: intrinsic aspirations, which include community contribution, building meaningful relationships, and self-growth, and extrinsic aspirations, which include fame, wealth, and physical beauty. Prioritization of extrinsic relative to intrinsic aspirations has been related cross-sectionally to decreased well-being (Kasser, 2002 for review). However, the influence of close others in the etiology of an orientation towards extrinsic relative to intrinsic aspirations, and the prospective effects of aspirations on well-being, are not well understood.
In a multiple informant prospective study of 341 university students (Mean Age = 19.4; 64% Caucasian; 74% female), we examined the influence of friends' and family members' perfectionism on participants' aspirations, and the outcomes of prioritization of extrinsic aspirations.
Having friends high in other-oriented perfectionism was significantly positively related to prioritization of extrinsic over intrinsic aspirations. Furthermore, living with friends amplified the effect. Lastly, prioritization of extrinsic aspirations at T1 was related to decreased subjective well-being and self-concordance for goals three months later.
The study provides preliminary evidence for a relationship between friends' other-oriented perfectionism and students' orientation towards extrinsic aspirations, as well as negative prospective consequences of students' orientation to extrinsic aspirations. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Three of these seven supported the results of the semipartial correlation analysis by finding significant results for similar study variables: positive effects for extraversion [95], positive affect [118], and negative effects for mental health problems [85]. Five studies included six variables with significant effects which did not appear in the semipartial correlation analysis (one study had variables in both categories): there were positive effects for physical activity [85], balance of positive recent life events [118] , self-compassion [101], and valuing time over money [120]; and negative effects for negative affect [118], being a student of colour (in a US context) [89], and prioritising extrinsic over intrinsic aspirations [108]. ...
... There were four studies for which semipartial correlations could not be calculated in the manner described above [85,95,108,124], but which nevertheless presented results controlled for T1 wellbeing. One supported the results of the semipartial correlation analysis by finding a negative effect for irregular social rhythm [85], where regular social rhythm had shown positive effects on wellbeing in other studies. ...
Background and objectives: Wellbeing among university students is associated with better academic outcomes and diminished harm from mental illness. This study systematically reviews and meta-analyses longitudinal studies of the antecedents and consequences of wellbeing within this population, providing an overview which establishes a ‘natural history’ of wellbeing to form a background for intervention and policy. Method: This study was a systematic review and meta-analysis of the peer-reviewed literature, based on a broad range of search terms across four journal databases in psychology, medicine and education. Studies were organised by the domain of their study variables (i.e., Self, Relationships, or Institutional Context) and variables relating to wellbeing were extracted. The incremental effect of study variables measured at baseline upon prospective wellbeing was calculated with semipartial correlation coefficients which controlled for baseline wellbeing. Meta-regressions were used to examine the effect of follow-up interval on effect sizes. Results: Sixty-two longitudinal studies of university student cohorts were identified. In 57 studies, wellbeing was an outcome variable. Meta-analyses showed that effects were moderated by measurement interval between baseline and follow-up, becoming weaker with longer intervals, and that this was not an artifact of the measurement instrument. The study factors with the strongest positive effect sizes after controlling for baseline wellbeing were authenticity, self-esteem, self-support for autonomy, emotional repair, and ability to regulate distress and despondency; relationship commitment and group memberships; self-identification with the university and time pressure. Study factors with the strongest negative effect sizes were uncertainty regarding university, materialism, a belief in social complexity, depression, and stress. In five studies, wellbeing was an antecedent, showing positive associations with educational outcomes. Conclusion: This review identified several antecedents of student wellbeing which could be targeted for interventions. These included self-relationship, emotion regulation, and interventions to decrease mental illness. Universities might also make it easier to establish and maintain groups (e.g., study cohorts, interest groups). Many variables which affect wellbeing are not amenable to study with experimental methods, but their study and use in wellbeing interventions should not be neglected. Because the antecedents of wellbeing are numerous and diverse, further research in the area should take advantage of research methods which maximise the variety of data collected and minimise respondent burden, such as passively collected and linked data.
... Intrinsic aspirations to purchase luxury goods would rely on the hedonic value that the purchase would represent to the consumer, namely that the pleasure of buying luxury alcohol brands is for the personal self and encompasses personal emotional benefits to the consumer. As articulated by Hope, Koestner, Holding and Harvey (2016) extrinsic aspirations are do not satisfy basic psychological needs and instead rely on external approval. Extrinsic aspirations are often linked to conspicuous consumption, which, as defined in Veblen's (1994) treatise, is the consumption of goods and services above what is necessary for human sustenance. ...
In emerging markets, where a substantial number of individuals live below the poverty datum line, status consumption and the desire to purchase luxury products has been increasing. This paper will examine the interrelationships between intrinsic aspirations, extrinsic aspirations, materialism and repurchase intentions of luxury alcohol brands in South Africa. The study followed a quantitative research design and data was collected from 222 participants in South Africa. Data analysis involved structural equation modelling (SEM) performed through AMOS 27 software. The findings of the study showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between extrinsic aspirations and materialism. On the other hand, it was noted that the relationship between materialism and repurchase intentions of luxury alcohol brands was not statistically significant. Similarly, it was noted that the relationship between intrinsic aspirations and materialism was not statistically significant. This study contributes to the understanding of status consumption and shows that extrinsic aspirations have an impact on materialism. Furthermore, marketers and practitioners in emerging markets can draw from the findings of study and note that materialism displayed by consumers does not directly influence the repurchase behaviour of luxury goods.
... When these universal needs are satisfied, intrinsic motivation occurs, and if not, extrinsic motivation ensues (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic values refer to altruistic outward serving belief orientations (Deci & Ryan, 2000), and are associated with elements of adaptive functioning such as greater well-being, life-satisfaction, self-esteem, and reduced ill-being whereas the converse is documented with extrinsic value orientation (Hope et al., 2014(Hope et al., , 2016Lekes et al., 2012;Sheldon et al., 2010). Thus, intrinsic values orientation is closely associated with positive outcomes. ...
Discrimination, as a psychosocial stressor functions as one pathway in reduced mental health among Hispanic/Latinx undergraduates. Intrinsic value orientation is associated with adaptive functioning and may protect from mental health symptoms. From a strengths-based perspective, this study examined intrinsic value orientation as a buffer against adverse effects of discrimination on mental health among Hispanic/Latinx undergraduates enrolled in a Hispanic Serving Institution. Intrinsic value orientation buffered only against depressive symptoms. Hispanic/Latinx mental health implications are discussed.
... To test whether trait self-control predicts increases in autonomous and decreases in controlled motivation over time, we recruited participants for a longitudinal study on personality and personal goals. Previous research has been published with this data on the relationship between perfectionism and an orientation towards extrinsic aspirations and perfectionism in goal pursuit (Hope, Koestner, Holding, & Harvey, 2016;Moore et al., 2018), but self-control has not been used in previously published research on this data and no previous study has explored the current set of hypotheses. ...
The positive role of autonomous motivation in personal goal pursuit has been robustly established in Self-Determination Theory research. Recent work has linked individual differences in trait selfcontrol to motivation quality, showing that higher self-control is associated with greater autonomous motivation (Converse, Juarez & Hennecke, 2018). The present investigation built on this research to test the association longitudinally in the context of long-term personal goal pursuit. In a prospective longitudinal study with college students, we tested whether trait self-control predicts increased autonomous goal motivation and decreased controlled motivation over time. Participants set three personal goals they planned to pursue for the duration of the academic year and reported on their goal motivation, self-control and Big Five personality traits. Results showed that trait self-control predicted increased autonomous motivation and decreased controlled motivation over the academic year, even after controlling for the Big Five. These findings contribute to the emerging understanding of the role of personality factors in determining motivation.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886918305841?dgcid=author
... Additional research is needed to answer such questions. Previous research has supported an impact of social environment on prioritization of extrinsic relative to intrinsic aspirations (e.g., Sheldon and Krieger 2004;Hope et al. 2016a). ...
The present study aimed to test the goal contents theory (Ryan and Deci, Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness, Guildford, New York, 2017a) proposal that prioritizing intrinsic aspirations over extrinsic aspirations leads to enhanced well-being through greater satisfaction of basic psychological needs and more autonomous self-regulation. By pooling four prospective studies with an identical five-wave design, we evaluated the impact of aspirations on changes in need satisfaction, goal motivation, and well-being over a school year in a sample of over 1400 university students. Cross-lagged, structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses revealed that relative intrinsic aspirations at baseline predicted experiencing greater need satisfaction, increased autonomous goal motivation, and improved well-being over time. The discussion highlights the value of exploring dynamic relations among the central constructs in self-determination theory.
... Accordingly, the effect of relational closeness as a moderator of the degree of offense may depend on the offended consumer's focus: her expectations for the relationship or the other person's intentions. Whether the offended consumer focuses on expectations or intentions/ prior actions might in turn depend on such antecedent factors as the offended consumer's other-oriented perfectionism (other-oriented perfectionists adhere to particularly high expectations for close others; Hope et al. 2016) and dispositional tendency to forgive (McCullough and Witvliet 2002). For instance, in the context of a values consumption-based offense involving a best friend bragging about having bought a new high-end car, an offended consumer (perhaps one who is an other-oriented perfectionist) might focus on her high expectations for her best friend and experience greater offense than if the bragging were by a stranger. ...
When do consumers experience offense due to another individual’s choice, use, display, gifting, sharing, or disposal of a product? Why do they experience offense, and does it matter if they do? In this article, we first draw from past work in multiple disciplines to offer a unique conceptualization of consumption-based offense. We then develop a framework of types of violations that may generate consumption-based offense and propose a set of affective, consumption, and cognitive outcomes we anticipate may follow. We close by offering an agenda for future research that may establish the antecedents and consequences of different types of consumption-based offense, glean new insights from past findings through integration of this novel construct, and offer practical insights into the effects and management of consumption-based offense both in consumers’ lives and in the marketplace.
The study aimed to identify the levels of friendship skills and its relationship to hope among bachelor's students of Ajloun national university. To achieve the aims of the study a sample from bachelor students in Ajloun national university was chosen by simple random sample which consisted of 100 students. The two scales were developed: The Hope scale and friendship skills scale, and then their psychometric properties were verified. The results of the study concluded that there was a high level of hope and friendship Skills among students, and there was a positive relationship between the hope and friendship skills. Also, there were no statistical differences in the levels of hope and friendship skills due to gender. Based on the results of the study, some recommendations were made, including; Benefiting from the interrelated relationship between friendship skills and the hope, as increasing one of them contributes to increasing the other and conducting more educational and counselling studies for other categories of university students, such as graduate students, tofind out the level of friendship and hope skills they have.
هدف البحث إلى بناء نموذج للعلاقات السببية بين أبعاد كل من رأس المال النفسي ومستوى الطموح والتدفق النفسي وراحة البال، والتحقق من ملائمة هذا النموذج لبيانات عينة البحث، وذلك على عينة من طلبة كلية التربية الفنية جامعة حلوان بلغت (231)، وقد تم تطبيق الأدوات الآتية: مقياس رأس المال النفسي لطلبة الجامعة إعداد الباحث، مقياس مستوى الطموح لطلبة الجامعة إعداد الباحث، مقياس التدفق النفسي لطلبة الجامعة إعداد الباحث، ومقياس راحة البال لطلبة الجامعة إعداد الباحث، وقد أسفرت نتائج البحث عن ملائمة النموذج المقترح لطبيعة بيانات عينة البحث، كذلك يوجد تأثير مباشر موجب دال إحصائيًا لرأس المال النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية في راحة البال، ويوجد تأثير مباشر موجب دال إحصائيًا لرأس المال النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية في مستوى الطموح بأبعادها الفرعية، ويوجد تأثير مباشر دال إحصائيًا لرأس المال النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية في التدفق النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية، ويوجد تأثير مباشر موجب دال إحصائيًا لمستوى الطموح بأبعاده الفرعية في التدفق النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية، كذلك يوجد تأثير مباشر سالب دال إحصائيًا للميل إلى الكفاح والتحمل والمثابرة كأحد أبعاد مستوى الطموح في راحة البال، ولا يوجد تأثير مباشر دال إحصائيًا للتدفق النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية في راحة البال، ويوجد تأثير غير مباشر دال إحصائيًا لرأس المال النفسي بأبعادها الفرعية في راحة البال عبر مستوى الطموح بأبعاده الفرعية والتدفق النفسي بأبعاده الفرعية.
الكلمات المفتاحية: العلاقات السببية، رأس المال النفسي، مستوى الطموح، التدفق النفسي، راحة البال؛ طلبة الجامعة.
هدف البحث الحالي إلى دراسة العلاقات السببية بين الطموح الأكاديمي والميل الأكاديمي وجودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة والتحصيل الدراسي، بالإضافة إلى معرفة ما إذا كانت جودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة تختلف تبعًا لمتغير النوع (ذكور، إناث) ومتغير التخصص (أدبي، علمي) والتفاعل بينهما، وتكونت عينة البحث من (391) من طلاب الفرقة الرابعة المقيدين بالعام الدراسي (2020 - 2021) بكلية التربية جامعة عين شمس، وطُبقت عليهم أدوات البحث وهي: مقياس الطموح الأكاديمي، ومقياس الميل الأكاديمي، ومقياس جودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة، وقد تم الحصول على نتائج الطلاب كمؤشر للتحصيل الدراسي، وتوصلت نتائج البحث إلى وجود مطابقة للنموذج البنائي المقترح مع بيانات عينة البحث للعلاقة بين الطموح الأكاديمي والميل الأكاديمي (كمتغيرات مستقلة)، وجودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة (كمتغير وسيط)، والتحصيل الدراسي (كمتغير تابع) لدى طلاب كلية التربية، كما توصلت نتائج البحث لوجود تأثير مباشر دال إحصائيًا عند مستوى (0,01) لجودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة على التحصيل الدراسي، وعدم وجود تأثيرات مباشرة دالة إحصائيًا لكل من الطموح الأكاديمي والميل الأكاديمي على التحصيل الدراسي، بينما كانت هناك تأثيرات غير مباشرة دالة إحصائيًا عند مستوى (0,01) لكل من الطموح الأكاديمي والميل الأكاديمي على التحصيل الدراسي من خلال جودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة كمتغير وسيط، بالإضافة لذلك توصلت نتائج البحث لوجود تأثير مباشر دال إحصائيًا عند مستوى (0,01) للميل الأكاديمي على جودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة، بينما لم يكن هناك تأثير مباشر دال إحصائيًا للطموح الأكاديمي على جودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة، وأخيرًا كشفت النتائج عن عدم وجود تأثير دال إحصائيًا لكل من النوع والتخصص والتفاعل بينهما على جودة الحياة الأكاديمية المدركة لدى طلاب كلية التربية.
This study provided the first test of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism with respect to dancers' goals for dancing in competitive dance. Four hundred twenty-five young female North American competitive dancers (M = 11.33 years; SD = 2.14) completed questionnaires assessing multidimensional perfectionism and goals for participation in dance. The latent moderated structural equations approach along with procedures outlined by Gaudreau indicated partial support for the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. Pure Evaluative Concerns Perfectionism was associated with fewer intrinsic goals for dance and greater extrinsic goals for dance relative to nonperfectionism. Pure Personal Standards Perfectionism was related to less endorsement of extrinsic goals relative to nonperfectionism. Findings were complex with respect to mixed perfectionism, with this form of perfectionism being related to greater endorsement of both intrinsic and extrinsic goals for dance. Results provide partial support for the 2 × 2 model in youth dance.
From the 1980’s onwards, neoliberal governance in the US, Canada, and the UK has emphasized competitive individualism and people have seemingly responded, in kind, by agitating to perfect themselves and their lifestyles. In this study, we examine whether cultural changes have coincided with an increase in multidimensional perfectionism in college students over the last 27 years. Our analyses are based on 164 samples and 41,641 American, Canadian, and British college students, who completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) between 1989 and 2016 (70.92% female, Mage = 20.66). Cross-temporal meta-analysis revealed that levels of self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism have linearly increased. These trends remained when controlling for gender and between-country differences in perfectionism scores. Overall, in order of magnitude of the observed increase, our findings indicate that recent generations of young people perceive that others are more demanding of them, are more demanding of others, and are more demanding of themselves.
Two studies examined the relations among Neuroticism, autonomy support, and reported goal progress. A large-scale screening demonstrated that individuals discriminated between autonomy support and more directive support and expressed a preference for autonomy support that was associated with Neuroticism. A second study examined the relationship of Neuroticism and autonomy support to self-reported goal progress over an academic year. The results showed that autonomy support was positively associated with goal progress, Neuroticism was negatively associated with goal progress, and that the effect of Neuroticism on goal progress was mediated by lower perceived autonomy support. The study also showed that Neuroticism was associated with increased depression over the course of a year, and this effect was mediated by diminished goal progress. The results suggest that the under-experiencing of autonomy support among those higher on Neuroticism may impede goal progress and well-being more generally.
This paper presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational goals. The theory also postulates a structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory and suitable for cross-cultural research, is described. Evidence relevant for assessing the theory, from 97 samples in 44 countries, is summarized. Relations of this approach to Rokeach's work on values and to other theories and research on value dimensions are discussed. Application of the approach to social issues is exemplified in the domains of politics and intergroup relations.
An integrative model of the conative process, which has important ramifications for psychological need satisfaction and hence for individuals’ well-being, is presented. The self-concordance of goals (i.e., their consistency with the person’s developing interests and core values) plays a dual role in the model. First, those pursuing self-concordant goals put more sustained effort into achieving those goals and thus are more likely to attain them. Second, those who attain self-concordant goals reap greater well-being benefits from their attainment. Attainment-to-well-being effects are mediated by need satisfaction, i.e., daily activity-based experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness that accumulate during the period of striving. The model is shown to provide a satisfactory fit to 3 longitudinal data sets and to be independent of the effects of self-efficacy, implementation intentions, avoidance framing, and life skills.
Investigated depression as a normal affect state that could have continuity with types of clinical depression. A 66-item Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) was constructed to assess a wide range of experiences that, though not direct symptoms of depression, are frequently associated with it. The DEQ, the Wessman-Ricks Mood Scale, a version of the semantic differential, and the Death-Concern Questionnaire were administered to 500 female and 160 male college students. In another sample, 128 college students were given the DEQ and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale. Three highly stable factors emerged from the DEQ: Dependency, Self-Criticism, and Efficacy. These factors had significant differential correlations with other measures, which support the interpretation of the factors derived from the items. These data indicate the need to consider dependency and self-criticism as 2 primary dimensions of depression and the value of investigating the continuity between normal mood states and the clinical phenomena of depressions. (38 ref)
This research investigates the developmental processes by which consumers become more or less materialistic. It begins with a review of Inglehart's work in this area, and then applies his theories to explain conceptions of materialism developed by Richins and Belk. Inglehart predicts that the subjective experience of economic deprivation and insecurity during one's formative years leads to adult materialism. Early subjective experiences of deprivation and insecurity strongly predict materialism as conceptualized by Belk, but are not related to materialism as conceptualized by Richins. Inglehart also allows for the social influence of family and peers to shape materialistic orientations. Findings indicate that the formative social influence of family and peers predicts both Belk's and Richins's materialism. This difference between Belk's and Richins's materialism is explained on the grounds that Belk's materialism reflects personality whereas Richins's reflects personal values.
Autonomy supportive (rather than controlling) coaching has been shown to be important for motivating athletes and for boosting their performance. However, is this especially true for elite-level athletes, who presumably face greater stress and performance pressure? To address this question we surveyed 264 student athletes (141 recreational, 83 club sport, and 40 varsity) playing on sports teams at a U.S. public university. As expected, varsity athletes were higher than the other groups in external reward motivation and lower in intrinsic motivation. Consistent with past self-determination theory findings, coach's autonomy supportive behavior predicted intrinsic and identified motivation in all athletes, and also positive appraisals of the team experience. Most importantly, coach's autonomy support was a significantly stronger predictor of these outcomes in the varsity compared to the recreational and club groups. These findings suggest that elite-level coaches should make special efforts to be autonomy supportive (rather than controlling) with their athletes.
This study tested the degree to which a need-supportive family environment influences adolescents' endorsement of the value priorities that their mothers wish for them. Mothers and their adolescents (𝑁=280) rated the importance of three intrinsic values (personal growth, close relationships, and community contribution) and three extrinsic values (wealth, fame, and attractiveness). Results revealed that mothers placed greater emphasis on intrinsic over extrinsic values than did adolescents. Furthermore, the congruence of mothers' and adolescents' emphasis on intrinsic values was moderated by the extent to which adolescents experienced satisfaction of their basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence at home. Finally, the well-being of both adolescents and mothers was associated with the degree to which they prioritized intrinsic over extrinsic values. Implications for research on the transmission of values and goals are discussed.
Could a shift in values over time drive resolution of identity and intimacy in young adulthood? In the present study, we found support for our hypothesis that increased prioritization of intrinsic values over an academic year predicts university students’ resolution of the Eriksonian stages of identity and intimacy, and that stage resolution would mediate the relationship between value change and enhanced well-being. Among the 196 students followed from September to April, we found that increased prioritization of intrinsic relative to extrinsic values over the year related to greater resolution of both identity and intimacy, controlling for stage resolution at T1, and that increased resolution positively predicted enhanced subjective well-being and psychological well-being over time.
Over the past 20 years we have gained a comprehensive understanding of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, but our understanding of other-oriented perfectionism (OOP)—and how it differs from the other two forms of perfectionism—is still underdeveloped. Two studies with university students are presented examining OOP’s relationships with social goals, the dark triad, the HEXACO personality dimensions, and altruism. OOP showed unique positive relationships with narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy and unique negative relationships with nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. Furthermore it showed unique relationships with social dominance goals (positive) and emotionality, agreeableness, and altruism (negative) dependent on the OOP measure used. The findings suggest that OOP is a “dark” form of perfectionism associated with antisocial and narcissistic personality characteristics.
Many theories in management, psychology, and other disciplines rely on moderating variables: those which affect the strength or nature of the relationship between two other variables. Despite the near-ubiquitous nature of such effects, the methods for testing and interpreting them are not always well understood. This article introduces the concept of moderation and describes how moderator effects are tested and interpreted for a series of model types, beginning with straightforward two-way interactions with Normal outcomes, moving to three-way and curvilinear interactions, and then to models with non-Normal outcomes including binary logistic regression and Poisson regression. In particular, methods of interpreting and probing these latter model types, such as simple slope analysis and slope difference tests, are described. It then gives answers to twelve frequently asked questions about testing and interpreting moderator effects.
Recent research in the United States suggests that individuals who strongly value extrinsic goals (e.g., fame, wealth, image) relative to intrinsic goals (e.g., personal growth, relatedness, community) experience less well-being. This study examines such goals in university samples from two cultures—the United States and Russia. Participants (N = 299) rated the importance, expectancies, and current attainment of 15 life goals, including 4 target intrinsic and 4 target extrinsic goals. Results confirmed the relevance of the intrinsic-extrinsic distinction for both samples and that stronger importance and expectancies regarding extrinsic goals were negatively related to well-being, although these effects were weaker for Russian women. Furthermore, for both men and women, perceived attainment of intrinsic goals was associated with greater well-being, whereas this was not the case for perceived attainment of extrinsic goals.
Perfectionism affects all areas of life, including romantic relationships. However, little is known about how dyadic perfectionism (perfectionism in dyadic relationships) affects students’ romantic relationships. Focusing on two central aspects of dyadic perfectionism—partner-oriented perfectionism (perfectionistic expectations towards one’s partner) and partner-prescribed perfectionism (perceived perfectionistic expectations from one’s partner)—this study examined partner and actor effects of dyadic perfectionism in 58 university students and their partners (N = 116 participants) using multilevel analyses. Results showed significant partner and actor effects. Participants’ partner-oriented perfectionism had a positive effect on their partner’s partner-prescribed perfectionism and a negative effect on their own relationship satisfaction and longterm commitment. Participants’ partner-prescribed perfectionism also had a negative effect on their own relationship satisfaction. The findings show that dyadic perfectionism in students’ romantic relationships puts pressure on the partner and negatively affects the perception of the quality of the relationship regarding satisfaction and longterm commitment.
This research investigates the developmental processes by which consumers become more or less materialistic. It begins with a review of Inglehart's work in this area, and then applies his theories to explain conceptions of materialism developed by Richins and Belk. Inglehart predicts that the subjective experience of economic deprivation and insecurity during one's formative years leads to adult materialism. Early subjective experiences of deprivation and insecurity strongly predict materialism as conceptualized by Belk, but are not related to materialism as conceptualized by Richins. Inglehart also allows for the social influence of family and peers to shape materialistic orientations. Findings indicate that the formative social influence of family and peers predicts both Belk's and Richins's materialism. This difference between Belk's and Richins's materialism is explained on the grounds that Belk's materialism reflects personality whereas Richins's reflects personal values.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A model of HIV behavior risk is tested, using a fully cross-lagged, longitudinal design, to illustrate the analysis of larger (i.e., 3 or more variables across 3 or more time points) structural equation models. The constructs in this integrated model were (a) Perceived Risk for AIDS, (b) Decisional Balance (relative weighing of benefits and barriers of condom use), (c) Self-Efficacy for Condom Use, (d) Lifetime Number of Sex Partners, and (d) Behavior Risk. Data were analyzed from 527 women living in a New England community who completed lifestyle surveys at 3 time points. Results of the cross-lagged analysis indicated a reciprocal, positive relation between Self-Efficacy for Condom Use and Decisional Balance. Behavior Risk for HIV was associated with higher Perceived Risk, lower Self-Efficacy for Condom Use, and lower Decisional Balance. The model showed excellent fit to the data and explained substantial variance in Time 3 measures of model constructs. Interpretations, as well as strengths and limitations of the analysis, are presented.
Investigated developmental changes in conformity to parents and peers and relations between parent and peer conformity. In Study 1, 251 children in the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 11th, or 12th grade responded to hypothetical situations in which peers urged the child to perform either antisocial, prosocial, or neutral behaviors. For all types of behavior, the age trends for conformity were curvilinear, and peer conformity peaked in the 6th or 9th grade. In Study 2, 273 children in the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 11th, or 12th grades responded to situations testing conformity to peers on antisocial and prosocial behavior and conformity to parents on prosocial and neutral behavior. For antisocial behavior, a peak in peer conformity was found at the 9th grade. Significant age changes were not found for prosocial behavior. Conformity to parents on both types of behavior decreased steadily with age. With some but not all measures, conformity to parents and conformity to peers were negatively correlated. In addition, the relations between parents and peer conformity changed with age. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors assessed whether social facets of perfectionism were associated with indexes of dyadic and family adjustment. A sample of 83 pain patients and their spouses completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Family Assessment Device, Beck Depression Inventory, and Multiaxial Pain Inventory. After controlling for depression, the authors found that pain patients' relationship adjustments were associated with their spouses' other-oriented perfectionism. Also, pain patients rated their other-oriented perfectionistic spouses as less supportive. Spouses' reports of poor dyadic and family adjustment were associated with their own socially prescribed perfectionism. The findings suggest that social aspects of perfectionism contribute to poor family adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Organismic theories and recent research suggest that environments that do not support growth and self-expression are associated with valuing financial success relatively more than affiliation, community feeling, and self-acceptance. This prediction was investigated in a heterogenous sample of 18-yr-olds using a variety of methods and informants. Teenagers who rated the importance of financial success aspirations relatively high compared to other values were found to have mothers who were less nurturant. Further, materially oriented teenagers grew up in less advantageous socioeconomic circumstances and were raised by mothers who especially valued the teens' financial success. Discussion focuses on explicating the different ways values are acquired. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Monte Carlo simulations were conducted to examine the degree to which the statistical power of moderated multiple regression (MMR) to detect the effects of a dichotomous moderator variable was affected by the main and interactive effects of (a) predictor variable range restriction, (b) total sample size, (c) sample sizes for 2 moderator variable-based subgroups, (d) predictor variable intercorrelation, and (e) magnitude of the moderating effect. Results showed that the main and interactive influences of these variables may have profound effects on power. Thus, future attempts to detect moderating effects with MMR should consider the power implications of both the main and interactive effects of the variables assessed in the present study. Otherwise, even moderating effects of substantial magnitude may go undetected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the universals in the content and structure of values, concentrating on the theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, and its four basic issues: substantive contents of human values; identification of comprehensive set of values; extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people; and how the relations among different values was structured. Substantial progress has been made toward resolving each of these issues. Ten motivationally distinct value types that were likely to be recognized within and across cultures and used to form value priorities were identified. Set of value types that was relatively comprehensive, encompassing virtually all the types of values to which individuals attribute at least moderate importance as criteria of evaluation was demonstrated. The evidence from 20 countries was assembled, showing that the meaning of the value types and most of the single values that constitute them was reasonably equivalent across most groups. Two basic dimensions that organize value systems into an integrated motivational structure with consistent value conflicts and compatibilities were discovered. By identifying universal aspects of value content and structure, the chapter has laid the foundations for investigating culture-specific aspects in the future.
According to an environmental-match perspective regarding the content of values (Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000), extrinsic or materialistic values should positively predict well-being in populations in which extrinsic values match the environmentally promoted values (e.g., among business students). However, other value researchers (Kasser & Ahuvia, 2002) disagree with these claims. Although the present study shows that business students ascribe higher importance to extrinsic values than do education students, the negative relation of extrinsic values with well-being and the positive relation with internal distress and substance use was not moderated by the department to which students belonged. Finally, mediational analyses revealed that value orientations could account for the fact that business students report lower well-being and higher substance use in comparison to education students.
This article presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational goals. The theory also postulates a structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory and suitable for cross-cultural research, is described. Evidence relevant for assessing the theory, from 97 samples in 44 countries, is summarized. Relations of this approach to Rokeach's work on values and to other theories and research on value dimensions are discussed. Application of the approach to social issues is exemplified in the domains of politics and intergroup relations.
Guided by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), two studies examined adolescents' risk behaviors as a function of their extrinsic aspirations for wealth, fame, and image relative to their intrinsic aspirations for growth, relationships, and community; and as a function of their perceptions of their parents' autonomy support. In the first study, adolescents who reported using cigarettes had significantly stronger relative extrinsic aspirations than did adolescents who reported not smoking. In the second study, a composite risk behavior index for adolescents' use of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana, and their having had sexual intercourse was significantly predicted by their relative extrinsic life goals, and both students' health-compromising behaviors and their relative extrinsic goals were significantly negatively predicted by their perceptions of their parents' autonomy support.
This study sought to provide information on the relations between trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation and sexual satisfaction in married couples. A sample of 74 married or cohabiting couples were recruited from the community to participate in the study. They completed measures of perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and depression. The results showed that the interpersonal dimensions of trait perfectionism were negatively related to general sexual satisfaction and sexual satisfaction with the partner for both husbands and wives. After partialing out marital satisfaction and depression, the husband's sexual satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with his own socially prescribed perfectionism and with his wife's ratings of other-oriented perfectionism. The wife's satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated both with her husband's socially prescribed perfectionism and with her own socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Regression analyses suggest that the wife's other-oriented perfectionism is a unique predictor of her general lower sexual satisfaction and her husband's lower satisfaction with her contribution to the sexual relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that perfectionistic expectations have an important role to play in sexual satisfaction in married couples.
Aspirations for intrinsic (e.g.,self-acceptance, affiliation, community feeling)versus extrinsic (e.g., financial success, appearance,social recognition) goals were examined in German andU.S. college students. The structure of studentsgoal-systems in terms of goal content was remarkablysimilar in the two cultures, as evidenced byexamination of the ordering of goals. Also, as inpast work in the U.S., German college students whowere especially focused on intrinsic goals had highwell-being, whereas the reverse was true for a focuson extrinsic goals. Some differences between thecultures in terms of specific goals are alsodiscussed.
The authors assessed whether social facets of perfectionism were associated with indexes of dyadic and family adjustment. A sample of 83 pain patients and their spouses completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Family Assessment Device, Beck Depression Inventory, and Multiaxial Pain Inventory. After controlling for depression, the authors found that pain patients' relationship adjustments were associated with their spouses' other-oriented perfectionism. Also, pain patients rated their other-oriented perfectionistic spouses as less supportive. Spouses' reports of poor dyadic and family adjustment were associated with their own socially prescribed perfectionism. The findings suggest that social aspects of perfectionism contribute to poor family adjustment.
Monte Carlo simulations were conducted to examine the degree to which the statistical power of moderated multiple regression (MMR) to detect the effects of a dichotomous moderator variable was affected by the main and interactive effects of (a) predictor variable range restriction, (b) total sample size, (c) sample sizes for 2 moderator variable-based subgroups, (d) predictor variable intercorrelation, and (e) magnitude of the moderating effect. Results showed that the main and interactive influences of these variables may have profound effects on power. Thus, future attempts to detect moderating effects with MMR should consider the power implications of both the main and interactive effects of the variables assessed in the present study. Otherwise, even moderating effects of substantial magnitude may go undetected.
Self-determination theory maintains and has provided empirical support for the proposition that all human beings have fundamental psychological needs to be competent, autonomous, and related to others. Satisfaction of these basic needs facilitates people's autonomous motivation (i.e., acting with a sense of full endorsement and volition), whereas thwarting the needs promotes controlled motivation (i.e., feeling pressured to behave in particular ways) or being amotivated (i.e., lacking intentionality). Satisfying these basic needs and acting autonomously have been consistently shown to be associated with psychological health and effective performance. Social contexts within which people operate, however proximal (e.g., a family or workgroup) or distal (e.g., a cultural value or economic system), affect their need satisfaction and type of motivation, thus affecting their wellness and effectiveness. Social contexts also affect whether people's life goals or aspirations tend to be more intrinsic or more extrinsic, and that in turn affects important life outcomes.
The current study used a prospective design and the assessment of personal goals to examine the relation of self-critical and personal standards perfectionism to affective variation across days of the week. University students completed baseline measures of perfectionism and subsequently reported their nightly affect for seven consecutive days. Participants also listed four important personal goals for the academic year and rated their autonomous and controlled motivation for these goals. The expected pattern of affect variation across the week was obtained—highest positive affect on Saturday followed by a drop on Monday which continued through Thursday. The two forms of perfectionism were significantly related to daily affect on Monday, but in opposite ways, and these opposing patterns were mediated by differences in motivation for academic goals. Self-critical perfectionists felt highly controlled about their academic goals and responded negatively to the resumption of school on Monday. Personal standard perfectionists felt highly autonomous about their academic goals and responded positively to the return to school on Monday. The two forms of perfectionism were unrelated to affect experienced on Saturdays. The study suggests that personality and motivational factors can be used to understand affect variation from the weekend to the start of the week.
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
Prior research on intrinsic versus extrinsic values has focused on the comparative importance subjects assign to the two types of values, showing that relative intrinsic versus extrinsic value orientation (RIEVO) predicts higher or increased well-being. In two studies, we show that rated action taken regarding the two types of values is just as essential to study. Support was found for four hypotheses: (1) there was a significant behavior/importance gap, such that participants “walked” (acted on values) less than they “talked” (endorsed those values); (2) this was especially true for intrinsic values, an interaction suggesting that the intrinsic ideals of personal growth, community, and connection often receive only lip service; (3) the “walk” (behavior ratings) measure of RIEVO subsumed the “talk” (importance ratings) RIEVO measure’s effects on well-being outcomes, suggesting that researchers interested in predicting well-being from values should perhaps focus on rated value enactment, not value importance; and (4) participants with higher meaning in life, lower search for meaning, more self-concordance at work, and greater chronological age evidenced more consistency between their talking and their walking.
Pursuing personal goals is an important way that people organize their behavior and mature as individuals. However, because people are typically unaware of their own implicit motivations and potentials, they may pick goals that do not serve them well. This article suggests that "self-concordant" goal selection is a difficult self-perceptual skill, with important ramifications for thriving. Various means of conceptualizing and measuring goal self-concordance are considered. Then, relevant literature is reviewed to show that goal self-concordance, as assessed by a self-determination theory methodology, is predicted by goal/motive fit; that goal self-concordance in turn predicts more persistent goal effort and, thus, better goal attainment over time; and that self-concordant goal selection is enhanced by personality variables and interpersonal contexts that promote accurate self-insight and personal autonomy. Implications for the nature of the self, the causes of personality thriving and growth, and the free will question are considered.
The current study used a prospective design to examine the relation of self-critical and personal standards perfectionism with university students' affect over a full calendar year. Specifically, we investigated the relation between the two forms of perfectionism and students' positive and negative affect within both the semester achievement demand and the holiday respite contexts. Two hundred and forty university students completed baseline measures of perfectionism and reported their affect at six follow-ups over two semesters and the winter and summer holidays. Stress experienced during the winter holiday was also assessed. Students' affect generally followed a cyclical pattern, declining over the fall and winter semesters but rebounding during the holidays. Results showed that while selfcritical perfectionism was consistently related to worsened affect, this was not the case for personal standards perfectionism, which was specifically related to increased positive affect during the holidays. Perceived stress differentially mediated the rejuvenation effect for the two types of perfectionism. The present study highlights the value of examining how the two types of perfectionism differentially relate to negative and positive affect experienced in achievement versus respite contexts.
Few studies have examined how changes in materialism relate to changes in well-being; fewer have experimentally manipulated materialism to change well-being. Studies 1, 2, and 3 examined how changes in materialistic aspirations related to changes in well-being, using varying time frames (12 years, 2 years, and 6 months), samples (US young adults and Icelandic adults), and measures of materialism and well-being. Across all three studies, results supported the hypothesis that people’s well-being improves as they place relatively less importance on materialistic goals and values, whereas orienting toward materialistic goals relatively more is associated with decreases in well-being over time. Study 2 additionally demonstrated that this association was mediated by changes in psychological need satisfaction. A fourth, experimental study showed that highly materialistic US adolescents who received an intervention that decreased materialism also experienced increases in self-esteem over the next several months, relative to a control group. Thus, well-being changes as people change their relative focus on materialistic goals.
Four measures of self-determination (SD) were correlated with two measures of trait creativity. In Study 1, subjects high on the Creative Personality Scale (Gough, 1979) and the Problem-Solving/Creativity scale (Marsh & O'Neill, 1984) were found to strive for self-determined reasons, to strive toward greater SD, and to evidence higher SD in measures of both motivational orientation and self-concept. Study 2 replicated most of these findings and also showed that creative subjects perceived their parents to be more autonomy supportive. Results are interpreted in terms of a general disposition to be self-determining that may help attune creative people to deeper cognitive resources and capacities within themselves.
Although goal theorists have speculated about the causes and consequences of making progress at personal goals, little longitudinal research has examined these issues. In the current prospective study, participants with stronger social and self-regulatory skills made more progress in their goals over the course of a semester. In turn, goal progress predicted increases in psychological well-being, both in short-term (5-day) increments and across the whole semester; At both short- and long-term levels of analysis, however, the amount that well-being increased depended on the "organismic congruence" of participants' goals. That is, participants benefited most from goal attainment when the goals that they pursued were consistent with inherent psychological needs. We conclude that a fuller understanding of the relations between goals, performance, and psychological well-being requires recourse to both cybernetic and organismic theories of motivation.
This literature summary, using meta-analysis, compares the influence of parents versus peers on substance use. The data indicated that the average relationship for peer effects on substance use was larger than the effect for parental influence. Several moderating influences (such as youth age and type of substance) are considered. The findings indicate that the relative size of parental and peer influence varies with the age of the adolescent and the type of substance. The results indicate that both parents and peers influence decisions about substance use. Future educational interventions concerning substance use should consider how best to combine these two sources of influence.
Empirical research and organismic theories suggest that lower well-being is associated with having extrinsic goals focused on rewards or praise relatively central to one's personality in comparison to intrinsic goals congruent with inherent growth tendencies. In a sample of adult subjects (Study 1), the relative importance and efficacy of extrinsic aspirations for financial success, an appealing appearance, and social recognition were associated with lower vitality and self-actualization and more physical symptoms. Conversely, the relative importance and efficacy of intrinsic aspirations for self-acceptance, affiliation, community feeling, and physical health were associated with higher well-being and less distress. Study 2 replicated these findings in a college sample and extended them to measures of narcissism and daily affect. Three reasons are discussed as to why extrinsic aspirations relate negatively to well-being, and future research directions are suggested.
The purpose of this study was to investigate "what kinds of personal characteristics, in any student community, determine those social relationships which in turn lead to varying reactions to proposed social changes." Students of Bennington College (1935-1939) served as subjects. The 3 major types of data used were paper-and-pencil questionnaire responses, written reports on individual students, and individual interviews. A scale of "Political and Economic Progressivism" (PEP), scored by the Likert method, was the main measurement employed. Findings were as follows: a significant change in social attitudes (from more to less conservatism) between freshman and senior years; persistence of senior attitudes at least several years after leaving college; slight relationship between attitude changes and course of study; and a relationship between community identification (measured by "guess who" technique) and PEP score, greater identification being associated with greater liberalism, and "community-negativism" with conservatism. Interpretation of results in the light of the Bennington milieu leads to the following conclusion: "It is the community role which mediates between social attitudes and other personality characteristics." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The major purpose of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) is to provide information to psychologists, counselors, psychiatrists, and social workers who must make assessments and treatment decisions about persons with emotional and interpersonal difficulties. Each of its 22 scales is designed to be an operational measure of a syndrome derived from a theory of personality and psychopathology (T. Millon, 1969, 1981, 1990). Both uses and limitations of the instrument are recorded. Steps to be followed in making configural interpretations are recommended, and results of evaluative research are reported. The MCMI-II is viewed as an evolving assessment instrument, upgraded and refined to reflect substantive advances in knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The author argues that it is what children experience outside the home, in the company of their peers, that matters most. Parents don't socialize children: children socialize children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this chapter, the authors refer to the culture of consumption's constellation of aims, beliefs, goals, and behaviors as a materialistic value orientation (MVO). From their perspective, an MVO involves the belief that it is important to pursue the culturally sanctioned goals of attaining, financial success, having nice possessions, having the right image, and having a high status. They focus here on two questions: First, what leads people to care about and "by into" materialistic values and consumption? And second, what are the personal, social, and ecological consequences of having a strong MVO? The authors propose that an MVO develops through two main pathways: (1) from experiences that induce feelings of insecurity, and (2) from exposure to social models that encourage materialistic values. They show that when materialistic values become relatively central to a person's system of values, personal well-being declines because the likelihood of having experiences that satisfy important psychological needs decreases. They demonstrate that an MVO encourages behaviors that damage interpersonal and community relations, as well as the ecological health of the planet. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Subjective well-being (SWB) comprises people's longer-term levels of pleasant affect, lack of unpleasant affect, and life satisfaction. It displays moderately high levels of cross-situational consistency and temporal stability. Self-report measures of SWB show adequate validity, reliability, factor invariance, and sensitivity to change. Despite the success of the measures to date, more sophisticated approaches to defining and measuring SWB are now possible. Affect includes facial, physiological, motivational, behavioral, and cognitive components. Self-reports assess primarily the cognitive component of affect, and thus are unlikely to yield a complete picture of respondents' emotional lives. For example, denial may influence self-reports of SWB more than other components. Additionally, emotions are responses which vary on a number of dimensions such as intensity, suggesting that mean levels of affect as captured by existing measures do not give a complete account of SWB. Advances in cognitive psychology indicate that differences in memory retrieval, mood as information, and scaling processes can influence self-reports of SWB. Finally, theories of communication alert us to the types of information that are likely to be given in self-reports of SWB. These advances from psychology suggest that a multimethod approach to assessing SWB will create a more comprehensive depiction of the phenomenon. Not only will a multifaceted test battery yield more credible data, but inconsistencies between various measurement methods and between the various components of well-being will both help us better understand SWB indictors and group differences in well-being. Knowledge of cognition, personality, and emotion will also aid in the development of sophisticated theoretical definitions of subjective well-being. For example, life satisfaction is theorized to be a judgment that respondents construct based on currently salient information. Finally, it is concluded that measuring negative reactions such as depression or anxiety give an incomplete picture of people's well-being, and that it is imperative to measure life satisfaction and positive emotions as well.
Perfectionism is a major diagnostic criterion for one DSM-III diagnosis, and it has been hypothesized to play a major role in a wide variety of psychopathologies. Yet there is no precise definition of, and there is a paucity of research on, this construct. Based on what has been theorized about perfectionism, a multidimensional measure was developed and several hypotheses regarding the nature of perfectionism were tested in four separate studies. The major dimension of this measure was excessive concern over making mistakes. Five other dimensions were identified, including high personal standards, the perception of high parental expectations, the perception of high parental criticism, the doubting of the quality of one's actions, and a preference for order and organization. Perfectionism and certain of its subscales were correlated with a wide variety of psychopathological symptoms. There was also an association between perfectionism and procrastination. Several subscales of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), personal standards and organization, were associated with positive achievement striving and work habits. The MPS was highly correlated with one of the existing measures of perfectionism. Two other existing measures were only moderately correlated with the MPS and with each other. Future studies of perfectionism should take into account the multidimensional nature of the construct.