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The role of pets in the lives of older people: A review
Abstract
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to summarise some of the major scientific research projects that identify the value of pet ownership and pet interaction to older people with a view to disseminating such findings to health professionals and care workers engaged in the welfare of older people.
Design/methodology/approach
– A review of findings from major international studies across a number of health related disciplines.
Findings
– Pets may serve significant functions that enhance the physical, emotional and social well-being of older people. With recognition from health professionals, pet ownership may rank highly amongst those elements which should be preserved wherever possible.
Originality/value
– The dissemination of the importance of pet ownership to the health and well-being of older people, with special implications for policy development amongst care providers.
... To date, the aging-in-place literature has viewed this endeavour through an anthropocentric lens, positioning aging-in-place as an exclusively human activity. Yet, in most Western countries, between a quarter and a third of older adults, defined as those at or above 65 years old, live in the company of a pet (Himsworth & Rock, 2013;McNicholas, 2014;Peak, Ascione, & Doney, 2012), and pet-ownership is also on the rise in Japan and China (Hansen, 2013;Headey, Na, & Zheng, 2007). Even so, few aging-in-place strategies acknowledge the likelihood that a pet will be present in many older adults' lives. ...
... The potential of pets to contribute to older adults' agingin-place experiences is far-reaching and holistic. Older adults, especially those who live alone, are likely to spend substantial amounts of time with their pets, upwards of 80% of their day (McNicholas, 2014). Such companionship positions these relationships to be key sources of well-being for many older adults (Enders-Slegers, 2000;Knight & Edwards, 2008;Lago, McConnell, & Knight, 1983;Mahalski, Jones, & Maxwell, 1988;Raina, Waltner-Toews, Bonnett, Woodward, & Abernathy, 1999;Wilson & Netting, 1987). ...
... At the same time, older adults' relationships with pets may also challenge our idealized conceptions of aging-in-place. Older adults may, for instance, ignore their own health issues in order to accommodate a pet's needs, particularly to avoid being parted from their pets (McNicholas, 2014;Wells & Rodi, 2000). Older adults may also divert scarce financial resources to meet their pet's needs alongside, or even before, their own. ...
... Almost 20% of older adults report feelings of social isolation, which is known to adversely affect their psychological wellbeing and their physical health [3][4][5][6][7]. Human-animal interactions (HAIs) may be an avenue worth exploring to support the health and well-being of this population, as research about the positive psychological, social, and physical impacts of HAIs is promising [8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Considering about one-third of community-dwelling older adults report living with at least one companion animal (CA) [15], pet ownership might play an important role in supporting aging-in-place. ...
... Furthermore, the companion animal's health conditions and needs may change (e.g., needing physical assistance to use the stairs, more regular veterinary visits), which may modify their level of needed care as they, too, age [32]. Frequently reported challenges related to owning a pet by older adults include: grief related to pet loss and fear of outliving them, pet care being perceived as a chore [9,10,13,17,23,34], risk of falls [35,36], financial costs (especially fees related to veterinary care), and the fear of needing to leave a pet in the event of a relocation [34]. If such challenges become too great for the older adult pet owner, the well-being of the owner and the companion animal may be compromised if the owner struggles to fulfill the basic needs of both parties. ...
... His companionship makes Violet feel safe and less alone-these aspects have gained even more importance for her over time. Daily companionship is indeed one of the main reasons reported by older adults for adopting pets [10,13,45,46]. CAs are often considered like family members [31,46], which is in line with the findings of the current study. ...
Human–animal interactions may positively impact the health and well-being of older adults. Considering about one third of community-dwelling older adults report owning a pet, better understanding the benefits, challenges, and the role of pet ownership may help support the relationships between older adults and their pets. This case study aims to better understand the role of pet ownership in the daily lives of older adults and explore the benefits and the challenges of owning a pet for this population. Interviews were conducted with Violet, a 77-year-old dog owner and her healthcare provider. Qualitative data were analyzed by two evaluators and validated by the participants. Both participants agree that the benefits outweigh the challenges for both the older adult and her pet. The benefits and challenges were the following: Violet, taking care of her dog (Jack), (1) could provide Violet with a sense of safety and positively influence her mood; (2) may introduce a slight fall risk; (3) includes financial costs to consider. Ensuring Jack’s well-being is important for Violet and her dog benefits from Violet’s continual presence and care. The findings suggest that improving the fit between characteristics of the owner and their pet may support the meaningful role of pet ownership within the context of aging-in-place.
... Previous reviews have compiled research investigating the effects of pet ownership and humananimal interaction for older adults McNicholas, 2014) showing several benefits. Pets motivate people to engage in an active and healthy lifestyle (Knight & Edwards, 2008) and enhance physical and cognitive functioning (Friedmann, Thomas, Son, Chapa, & McCune, 2013). ...
... More research is needed to investigate if pet ownership 1) leads to better physical and mental health or puts a person at risk of developing depression, or 2) if these results just reflect the tendency of healthier or more depressed individuals to acquire a pet as a result of their condition (Friedmann & Gee, 2018). Although these mechanisms are not clear yet, the current body of data suggests that pet ownership is associated with some significant benefits for older adults and that companion animals can help to maintain and enhance the quality of life of older adults McNicholas, 2014). ...
... The ability to interact with animals should be preserved throughout the course of life for those who enjoy interacting with animals, whether through pet ownership or other forms of humananimal interaction. Pet ownership can support the retention of independence and quality of life for older adults by aiding in the preservation of physical and mental health, offering companionship, facilitating active social engagement, providing structure, daily routines, opportunities for nurturance, and by enhancing feelings of safety McNicholas, 2014). However, whether living independently, receiving assistance in the home, or living in an assistedliving or nursing home facility, each arrangement results in specific challenges for the older adult pet owner and most likely also involves the caregivers. ...
Older adults in most developed countries can now expect to live nearly 80 years without significant disability. To maximize the quality of the years after retirement, societies, governments, and organizations are seeking strategies to help older adults maintain their mental and physical health, and retain their independence. Increasingly, the impact of pet ownership and other forms of human–animal interaction in healthy aging are discussed and investigated. In the Western world, more than 50% of households own one or more pets. The popularity of pets means they are well positioned to provide opportunities for companionship and nurturance. Since social networks tend to decrease as people age, pets may fill some gaps. While it is common to read about the benefits of pets and human–animal interactions, pet ownership in older age is also related to challenges and animal welfare concerns. This paper aims to briefly review the benefits and then explore risks and challenges related to pet ownership in older adulthood. In addition, we present strategies for maintaining beneficial pet ownership and human–animal interaction for older adults.
... Just as population aging is recognized as a global phenomenon (United Nations, 2015), such a trend has also been noted for pet ownership (McNicholas et al., 2005), including among older adults. For instance, in most Western countries, between a quarter and a third of older adults (≥ 65 years) live with a pet (Bennett, Trigg, Godber, & Brown, 2015;Himsworth & Rock, 2013;McNicholas, 2014;Peak, Ascione, & Doney, 2012;Pikhartova, Bowling, & Victor, 2014), and pet ownership is also on the rise as a cultural practice in Japan and China (Hansen, 2013;Headey, Na, & Zheng, 2007). Thus, consideration for pets within organized efforts to promote aging-in-place, that is, enabling older adults to live independently and safely in the community throughout old age (Menec, Means, Keating, Parkhurst, & Eales, 2011), may contribute to the health and well-being of the aging population. ...
... Maintaining this identity, in turn, facilitated participants' efforts to remain mobile and engaged in their neighbourhoods and local dog-walking area, which involved committed negotiation of both personal and environmental challenges (Gardner, 2014). Researchers have also suggested that cats may help to facilitate relationships between neighbours and regular outings (Mahalski, Jones, & Maxwell, 1988;McNicholas, 2014). These various findings point to the value of integrating a social ecological dimension into explorations of pets and aging, as a means of recognizing "dynamic interrelations among various personal and environmental factors" (McLaren & Hawe, 2005, p. 12) that might mediate or confound ways that pets influence human health. ...
... These two specific barriers -not wanting to go alone and experiencing health-related limitations -may signal increased vulnerability to social isolation for those participants who identified them. In understanding why pet owners who faced these two barriers to social participation also fared somewhat better than nonowners in terms of life satisfaction, pet companionship itself may be a contributing factor (Bennett et al., 2015;McNicholas, 2014), as may be the meaningful occupation and sense of control that caring for pets may generate for some older adults (Raina et al., 1999;Swift & Tate, 2013;Zimolag & Krupa, 2009) as they undergo physical, social, and psychological transitions related to aging. Ultimately, however, we found that pet owners with the highest levels of social participation also had the highest satisfaction with life, even when compared to non-owners who were similarly engaged in social activities. ...
RÉSUMÉ
Des données de référence nationales et représentatives de l’Étude longitudinale canadienne sur le vieillissement (ÉLCV) ont été utilisées pour évaluer si la possession d’un animal de compagnie était associée à la participation sociale et à la satisfaction de vivre des personnes âgées (≥65 ans, n= 7,474). Des statistiques descriptives ont permis de distinguer les modalités de la possession d’animaux dans la population canadienne plus âgée, et des modèles de régression logistique ont été utilisés pour estimer les associations entre la participation sociale et la satisfaction de vivre de personnes âgées possédant ou non des animaux. Un tiers des personnes âgées de l’échantillon ont rapporté posséder des animaux. En moyenne, les personnes possédant des animaux avaient une satisfaction de vivre inférieure (OR=0,73, p<0,001) et participaient à moins d’activités sociales, récréatives et culturelles sur une base régulière (OR=0,73, p<0,001) que les personnes sans animaux; cependant, les personnes avec animaux n’étaient pas moins satisfaites de leur niveau actuel de participation sociale que celles sans animaux. Pour les propriétaires d’animaux dont la participation sociale était compromise, les animaux semblaient constituer un facteur de protection dans certaines circonstances. Des caractéristiques individuelles et des facteurs structurels liés au cadre conceptuel des Collectivités amies des aînés de l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé ont permis de mieux comprendre ces résultats.
... Such policy efforts aim to enable older adults to lead meaningful and healthy lives while remaining in their communities for as long as possible (Menec et al., 2011). Yet few initiatives to promote age-friendly communities or support aging-in-place recognize (i) people's desire to continue to have pets later in life, as is confirmed in the literature [see for example McNicholas (2014) and Bibbo et al. (2019)], and (ii) the health-promoting potential of human-animal relationships from a wider public health perspective [see for example Toohey et al. (2013); Rauktis et al. (2017), Toohey et al. (2017, and Toohey and Rock (2019)]. Our failure to consider the individual and systemic barriers that older adults may face when it comes to caring for their pets later in life also risks disrupting the health promoting potential of pet keeping (Gee and Mueller, 2019;Obradović et al., 2020). ...
... Our qualitative interviews underscored ways that supporting relationships with pets provided older adults with a means of navigating challenging life transitions, including coping with disability and chronic illness. Participants described how pet care assistance programs were able to protect animal companionship, maintain meaningful daily routines, and sustain deeply-felt responsibilities of having a pet, as has also been highlighted by others (McNicholas, 2014;Toohey et al., 2017;Bibbo et al., 2019;Toohey and Rock, 2019;Applebaum et al., 2021b). Pet Assist was viewed as being well-positioned to mitigate seizures or relinquishments of pets related to the condition of the animal, which was often at risk due to factors like costs of veterinary care or challenges with transportation to veterinary clinics, rather than negligence on the part of the older pet owner. ...
At the convergence of population aging and pet-ownership, community stakeholders are well-positioned to support older adults’ relationships with companion animals through age-related transitions in health and living arrangements. In this study’s setting, a volunteer-based pet care assistance program launched in 2017 to provide practical assistance with pet care for socially disadvantaged, community-dwelling older adults. This case study explored the impacts and feasibility of this and similar programs via (i) an Internet-based environmental scan to compare similar programs and (ii) qualitative interviews with a sampling of diverse community stakeholders (n = 9). A small number of comparable international programs (n = 16) were found. Among these, programs were delivered using a range of funding models; fewer than half involved collaborations across human social services and animal welfare sectors; and none addressed all dimensions of support offered by our local program. Analysis of qualitative interviews highlighted five major themes confirming the value of the volunteer-based approach and the importance of cross-sectoral collaborations in addressing older adults’ under-recognized pet care-related needs. Taken together, the findings confirmed the effectiveness of our local program model. Collaborative, cross-sectoral programs that target both human and companion animal well-being hold promise to reduce barriers to pet ownership that many disadvantaged older adults face. This unique approach leverages the health-promoting potential of human-animal relationships in ways that enhance quality of life for individuals, animal welfare, and age-friendliness of communities.
... These additional years added to life provide opportunities for older adults to be autonomous and purposeful within a just and dignified environment (Irving, Davis, & Collier, 2017;Lyons et al., 2017;WHO, 2018). However, the ageing process is also associated with a growing risk of decline in mental health as older adults experience life stressors common in later life, which can lead to loneliness and greater dependency on others for social and emotional needs (Lyons et al., 2017;McNicholas, 2014;Toohey, Hewson, Adams, & Rock, 2018;WHO, 2018). Between 10% and 40% of older adults develop mental health conditions as a result of experiencing life stressors common in later life (Lyons et al., 2017;Scott, Mackenzie, Chipperfield, & Sareen, 2010;Wang, Kearney, Jia, & Shang, 2016). ...
... There is strong evidence that owning a pet may have a range of mental health benefits for the individual, especially older adults (Bakerjian, 2014;Cutt, Giles-Corti, Wood, Knuiman, & Burke, 2008;Enmarker et al., 2012;Gee, Mueller, & Curl, 2017;McNicholas, 2014;Stanley et al., 2014). Australia, United Kingdom and the United States of America have one of the highest household rate of pet ownership (Green, Kangas, & Fairholm, 2018;Insurance Information Institute, 2018;Pet Secure, 2018;Richmond, 2013). ...
Objectives: With aging, older adults are at risk of a decline in mental health as they experience significant life stressors that are specific to later life. It is thus important to explore the potential of suitable approaches that promote healthy aging, to address the mental health needs of older adults. Pet ownership has been found to be associated with positive mental health outcomes; however, there is limited research on the lived experience and meaning derived from pet ownership. The purpose of this study was to explore pet ownership in community-dwelling older adults and its influence on mental health.
Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 community-dwelling older adults who were aged 65 and above and pet owners. Participants were interviewed individually on a single occasion about the meaning derived from the role of pet ownership and howthey perceived that their pet influenced their mental health.
Results: Results were analysed using Colaizzi’s phenomenological framework and four themes emerged from the interviews: pets provide (i) comfort and safety; (ii) social inclusion and participation; (iii) purposeful routine and structure; and (iv) a meaningful role.
Conclusion: These findings suggest that the role of pet ownership may benefit community-dwelling older adults by providing companionship, giving a sense of purpose and meaning, reducing loneliness and increasing socialisation. These benefits may also increase resilience in older adults against mental health disorders, which may positively influence their mental health outcomes.
... Depression is the leading cause of ill health and disability worldwide [1]. Prior research suggests, though with mixed results [2][3][4][5][6][7], that pets may provide social and psychological support [8,9] and positively impact mental health, especially among middle-to older-aged adults [10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Inconsistencies in the association between pet ownership and depression risk have been attributed to the inability of cross-sectional studies to take into account the potential for reverse causation, i.e., individuals acquiring a pet in response to loneliness or depressive symptoms [2,17,18]. ...
Background
We examined associations between dog ownership, morning dog walking and its timing and duration, and depression risk in female nurses, exploring effect modification by chronotype. We hypothesized that dog ownership and morning walking with the dog are associated with lower odds of depression, and that the latter is particularly beneficial for evening chronotypes by helping them to synchronize their biological clock with the solar system.
Methods
26,169 depression-free US women aged 53–72 from the Nurses’ Health Study 2 (NHS2) were prospectively followed from 2017–2019. We used age- and multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs) for depression according to dog ownership, and morning dog walking, duration, and timing.
Results
Overall, there was no association between owning a dog (ORvs_no_pets = 1.12, 95%CI = 0.91–1.37), morning dog walking (ORvs_not = 0.87, 95%CI = 0.64–1.18), or the duration (OR>30min vs. ≤15mins = 0.68, 95%CI = 0.35–1.29) or timing of morning dog walks (ORafter9am vs. before7am = 1.06, 95%CI = 0.54–2.05) and depression. Chronotype of dog owners appeared to modify these associations. Compared to women of the same chronotype but without pets, dog owners with evening chronotypes had a significantly increased odds of depression (OR = 1.60, 95%CI = 1.12–2.29), whereas morning chronotypes did not (OR = 0.94, 95%CI = 0.71–1.23). Further, our data suggested that evening chronotypes benefited more from walking their dog themselves in the morning (OR = 0.75, 95%CI = 0.46–1.23, Pintx = 0.064;) than morning chronotypes.
Conclusions
Overall, dog ownership was not associated with depression risk though it was increased among evening chronotypes. Walking their dog in the morning might help evening chronotypes to lower their odds of depression, though more data are needed to confirm this finding.
... The result concerning "ownership of pets that need to be walked" is interesting. Ordinarily, the company of a pet is recommended to improve people's levels of well-being, especially for the elderly (Cherniack, Cherniack 2014, McNicholas 2014. It helps them feel less alone and forces them to go outside regularly and take exercise. ...
In response to the COVID-19 health crisis, the French government has imposed various measures, referred to as social-distancing measures, including a lockdown with the primary objective of reducing face-to-face interactions between people in order to limit the spread of the virus. This paper seeks to determine whether social-distancing measures and lockdown lead to social isolation for certain groups of people and if they have an impact on French people's well-being. First, it reveals that feelings of social isolation have substantially increased in France during the lockdown and regional differences have occurred. Second, it shows a change in the geography of well-being in France induced by lockdown-with Southerners, originally the happiest, exhibited a strong decline in well-being. Third, estimations show that acclimation to social isolation slows the decline in well-being during lockdown; and that the increase in people's feelings of social isolation during lockdown is a factor which negatively impacts their level of well-being. Fourth, it reveals certain positive influences of residence geographic location on changes in well-being levels.
... The role that pets play in creating healthier, more engaged communities should not be overlooked. There is an increasing body of evidence suggesting that pets may offer a range of health benefits supporting older adults to retain their physical and mental health, independence, social connectedness and engagement (63)(64)(65)(66). Pets also offer humans opportunities to nurture and feel needed, to provide a purpose, structure and routine for daily life (67), to enhance feelings of security (68), to give and receive affection, and to maintain older adults' ability to care for themselves independently (69). ...
Dogs act as companions who provide us with emotional and physical support. Their shorter lifespans compel us to learn about the challenges and gifts of caring for older individuals. Our companion dogs can be exemplars of healthy or unhealthy aging, and sentinels of environmental factors that might increase or decrease our own healthy lifespan. In recent years, the field of aging has emphasized not just lifespan, but healthspan—the period of healthy, active lifespan. This focus on healthy, active aging is reflected in the World Health Organization's current focus on healthy aging for the next decade and the 2016 Healthy Aging in Action initiative in the US. This paper explores the current research into aging in both people and companion dogs, and in particular, how the relationship between older adults and dogs impacts healthy, active aging for both parties. The human-dog relationship faces many challenges as dogs, and people, age. We discuss potential solutions to these challenges, including suggestions for ways to continue contact with dogs if dog ownership is no longer possible for an older person. Future research directions are outlined in order to encourage the building of a stronger evidence base for the role of dogs in the lives of older adults.
... The role of pets in the lives of LGBT older adults residing in rural communities is an area for future study particularly as these smaller social network sizes contribute to lower health outcomes (Gee et al., 2017). Moreover, there is an urgent need to understand more about challenges LGBT older adults may face in keeping pets, including functional limitations, financial considerations, housing restrictions and concerns should the individual fall ill or die (Huss, 2013;McNicholas, 2014;Ormerod, 2012). In addition, it is noted that one participant who reported keeping chickens seemed to benefit from giving eggs away to others. ...
While research has begun to examine social networks and social support among LGBT older adults living in rural contexts, no research to date has examined these issues within the unique context of rural southern Appalachia. Thus, the purpose of this qualitative study was to extend this emerging area of research by exploring the perspectives of LGBT older adults on their social networks and social support while living in rural southern Appalachia. In this study, 11 LGBT-identifying older adults were interviewed regarding their social networks and social support within the cultural context of rural Southern Appalachia. Participants generally described having rich informal social support networks that seemed to buffer and mitigate the deleterious effects of the wider culture of homophobia and transphobia. These networks, while varying from person to person, included families of choice (spouse / partner, close friends), neighbors, pets, biological family / families of origin, religious and spiritual communities, women’s or men’s social groups, and current or former coworkers. While six of the participants voiced that their support system was adequate for their needs, there were reports of mixed, tenuous, or insufficient support systems for five participants. After reviewing main findings, implications for research, practice, and policy are discussed.
... Research has consistently shown that social isolation and loneliness in older adults are associated with deleterious physical and mental health outcomes including cardiovascular disease (Thurston, 2009;Udell et al., 2012), depression (Cacioppo et al., 2006) and is a risk factor for accelerated mortality (Pennix et al., 1997). Pets have the potential to be particularly therapeutic for older adults because their pet is a primary source of social, emotional and psychological support (Krause-Parello, 2008;McNicholas, 2014;Rauktis & Lee, 2019). However, not all older adults realize the full benefits that having a pet can provide. ...
... ). Pets have the potential to be particularly therapeutic for older adults because their pet is a primary source of social, emotional and psychological support (Krause-Parello, 2008;McNicholas, 2014;Rauktis, 2019). However, not all older adults realize the full benefits that having a pet can provide. ...
Background Human-animal interaction (HAI) offers benefits across physical, emotional, psychological, and social spheres of human functioning. The aim of this paper is to delineate how animal companionship, via provision of HAI benefits, offers vital support to people experiencing the COVID-19 pandemic and associated stressors. Method Each of the empirically supported types of HAI benefits – physical, emotional, psychological, and social – will be situated within a biopsychosocial framework of human functioning and considered in terms of how they may help to ameliorate stressors specifically related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings Benefits derived from animal companionship may help alleviate physical, emotional, psychological, and social stressors specifically related to experiencing the COVID-19 pandemic. Discussion Benefits of animal companionship may be particularly salient for well-being and coping when people are experiencing a dramatic increase in stressors via a pandemic crisis. Community responses need to include plans (pet food pantries, temporary foster care, veterinary access/zoonotic safety) for keeping people and their companion animals together during such difficult times. Originality/value This article is unique in that it delineates the animal companionship benefits in terms of how such may help alleviate stressors associated with a pandemic.
... At the same time, a substantial and plausibly growing proportion of older adults' homes include a companion animal. Approximately one-third of older adults in Western countries report having a companion animal (Peak et al., 2012;Himsworth and Rock, 2013;McNicholas, 2014;Bennett et al., 2015), and pets are also becoming increasingly prevalent in non-Western countries (Headey et al., 2008;Hansen, 2013). In response to the aging of the population, many communities worldwide have begun to adopt and tailor an 'age-friendly' approach to promoting ageing-in-place. ...
Over one-third of older adults in many countries have a companion animal, and pets may harbor health-promoting potential. Few studies have considered pet-ownership in relation to economic vulnerability, and pet-ownership has not been often considered within policy efforts to promote ageing-in-place. We conducted a mixed methods case study to understand perspectives of both community agencies that support ageing-in-place and older adults themselves. A shortage of affordable, appropriate pet-friendly housing emerged as a challenge, even when framed as a legitimate choice and preference for many older adults. In this manuscript, we share the trajectories of three economically vulnerable older adults whose affordable housing needs became entangled with commitments to pets. Guided by dialogical narrative methodology, we offer each narrative as a short vignette to (i) illustrate the extent to which older adults will practice 'more-than-human solidarity' for a pet, even when their own well-being is compromised as a result; and (ii) highlight incongruence between the underlying moral values that shape solidaristic practices of individuals versus solidaristic arrangements that shape affordable housing opportunities. We suggest that housing rules and legislation that disrupt, rather than confirm, more-than-human solidarity may render older adults susceptible to, rather than protected from, deteriorating physical, mental and social well-being. We propose that collective solidaristic practices must reflect and subsume the moral complexity of solidarity practiced by individuals, to enable fair and equitable ageing-in-place.
... The purpose of this paper is to describe existing research on HAI and older adults, and identify avenues for future research in this developing area of scholarship. Other reviews of HAI and aging exist, but are more limited in scope (e.g., limited to pet ownership;McNicholas, 2014), pathology (e.g., depression;Virués-Ortega et al., 2012), or are restricted to one type of HAI (e.g.,Virués-Ortega et al., 2012;Bernabei et al., 2013) or one population (e.g., persons with dementia;Filan and Llewellyn-Jones, 2006). In this overview, we will draw on these reviews, along with edited volumes and original research, in order to frame the current state of the field with regards to HAI in healthy aging. ...
Both pet ownership and animal-assisted therapy are becoming increasingly popular in the United States, and the science of human–animal interaction (HAI) seeks to explore how these relationships with animals can impact health and well-being. In particular, one burgeoning area of research is the role of HAI in healthy aging, given the potential for HAI as an important feature of health and well-being in older adults. The purpose of this review is to summarize and evaluate existing research in this innovative area of scholarship, identifying the potential benefits and risks of both pet ownership and animals in therapeutic settings for older adults. We will also identify recommendations for future research and applications in this developing area of scholarship.
... In recent years, several investigators studied the attachment of people to pets and used "relational" constructs to evaluate the effects of pet ownership and the human-animal bond on overall social satisfaction and healthy aging paradigms. Pet ownership was found to be a positive influence on relationship satisfaction, empathy, social attitude, socialization, and companionship and had postulated direct effects on health, such as increasing serum levels of neurotransmitters and hormones and overriding nociception, attenuating sensory deficits, and decreasing the hemodynamic changes that occur from the stress response [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]. In addition, increased ambulation, physical activity (through dog walking), has been found to increase measures of cardiovascular competence, promote health aging, increase one's ability to age in place, and attenuate decrements in performing activities of daily living associated with increasing age [31][32][33][34][35][36]. ...
Pet ownership has been shown to improve quality of life for older adults. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to compare older pet owners and older non-pet owners and assess differences between groups. This study was conducted on adults over 50 years of age, who owned either one cat or one dog versus nonowners based on age, race, gender, and education. Matched older pet owners (OPO) versus non-pet owners (NPO) pairs ( n=84 ), older cat owners (OCO) versus non-cat owners (NCO) ( n=29 ), and older dog owners (ODO) versus non-dog owners (NDO) pairs ( n=55 ) were analyzed. No differences were found between OPO and NPO for dietary, activity, or lifestyle, except OPO had fewer health conditions [ p<0.03 ]. Total OCO had greater body mass indices [BMI] ( μ=29.6±8.2 ) than ODO ( μ=23.2±5.2 ) [ p<0.02 ], less activity [ p<0.02 ], and shorter duration of activity [ p<0.05 ] and took fewer supplements [ p<0.003 ]. OCO and NCO differed on health conditions ( μ=0.8±0.9 versus μ=1.9±1.3 , [ p<0.008 ]) and ODO versus NDO differed on BMI ( μ=25±4 versus μ=27±6 , [ p<0.04 ]). Although there are limitations to this study, data may be useful for targeting marketing and health messages to older persons.
The human-animal bond can lead to a highly positive experience for both the guardian and the animal, nonetheless there is a need to be cognisant of the potential negative aspects this relationship may pose. This scoping review aimed to systematically identify the potential negative guardian aspects associated with pet guardianship and their causative factors, to facilitate a greater understanding and address and minimise these aspects. Through the online databases Scopus, ProQuest and PubMed, a systematic search was conducted, with 6871 sources identified, screened to 76 final sources for inclusion. Numerous potential negative aspects of pet guardianship were identified. The most documented were perceived cost, burden of care and negative aspects of caretaking, followed by grief, negative effects on guardian life satisfaction, and increases in guardian stress, anxiety and/or depression levels. Guardian concern and relinquishment, and disenfranchised guilt about dog parenting were also identified as negative aspects of guardianship. These negative aspects were brought about by various causative factors, such as problem behaviours, caring for a sick or aging pet, the burden of everyday care, and the death of a pet. Whilst integral to the lives of their guardians and providing many positive impacts, the pet guardian relationship is not without challenges. Through further research, particularly regarding the financial constraints that pets may pose for guardians, we can continue to facilitate an overall positive experience for both the guardian and their pet.
La présence animalière dans la vie de l’humain peut aider à le soigner. Après une description de quelques aspects historiques et de définitions, nous présenterons ici, sous l’angle original du soin, les apports des animaux dans nos vies. Nous évoquerons dans un premier temps la médiation animale, contacts ponctuels avec les animaux et pourtant porteurs de nombreux bénéfices, avant de nous centrer, dans un second temps, sur l’animal du quotidien, qu’il soit chien d’assistance, avec une éducation et un rôle spécifiques, ou animal de compagnie. Pour cela, différents profils d’humains seront présentés, des plus jeunes au plus âgés, au développement typique, mais aussi présentant des difficultés ou diverses maladies ou troubles. Et comme dans toute relation, de la nuance sera apportée en guise de conclusion, notamment autour du respect et du bien-être de l’animal avec lequel nous interagissons.
During two retreats in 2017 and 2020, a group of international scientists convened to explore the Human-Animal Bond. The meetings, hosted by the Wallis Annenberg PetSpace Leadership Institute, took a broad view of the human-dog relationship and how interactions between the two may benefit us medically, psychologically or through their service as working dogs (e.g. guide dogs, explosive detection, search and rescue, cancer detection). This Frontiers’ Special Topic has collated the presentations into a broad collection of 14 theoretical and review papers summarizing the latest research and practice in the historical development of our deepening bond with dogs, the physiological and psychological changes that occur during human-dog interactions (to both humans and dogs) as well as the selection, training and welfare of companion animals and working dogs. The overarching goals of this collection are to contribute to the current standard of understanding of human-animal interaction, suggest future directions in applied research, and to consider the interdisciplinary societal implications of the findings.
Pet ownership is associated with increased levels of physical activity (PA) in older adults. Studies have mainly focused on the association between PA and dog walking; however, broader aspects of pet ownership may influence PA. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between pet ownership and incidental and purposeful PA using a mixed methods approach. Participants’ ( N = 15) PA was measured for 7 days using accelerometers and diaries. Semistructured interviews explored participants’ perspectives regarding pet-related activities. Participants’ mean ( SD ) daily step count was 14,204 (5,061) steps, and mean ( SD ) sedentary time per day was 8.76 (1.18) hr. Participants strongly concurred that their pets were an integral part of their daily lives. Incidental and purposeful PA resulted from participants undertaking pet care and socially interacting with their pets. Pets may interrupt sedentary behaviors by nudging older adults to engage in PA as part of their daily lived experience.
This article is concerned with a particular site of inter-species relationships. Using the lens of liminality, it examines forced separation of older people from their companion animals when they move to a residential or nursing home in the UK. Such residential spaces frequently either exclude companion animals or fail to make adequate provision for them to accompany their human caretakers. We see such separation as a major bereavement for an older person at a stage of life when they experience significant other losses, and suggest it is often experienced as akin to the loss of a family member. We deploy vulnerability theory to argue that exclusion of companion animals from care spaces exemplifies a failure to understand the relational vulnerabilities of older age and the significance of animal companionship in mitigating those vulnerabilities. Equally, such separation fails to recognise the implications for excluded animals who can end up in unsuitable homes, being signed over to already over-stretched animal rescues or euthanised. Vulnerability theory highlights how companion species are always already vulnerable, given their liminal position between person and property, while older people are rendered particularly vulnerable in the ‘liminal zone’ of the care home, denied the ability to shape their environment, control their private space or form/sustain relationships of their own choosing. This article explores the potential of law to respond to and mitigate these shared vulnerabilities, suggesting that human rights arguments grounded in shared vulnerability may be invoked to argue for a re-definition of the family to recognise the significance of the human–animal relationship. We draw on the reasoning in a recent Court of Protection case which hints at law’s ability to recognise the value of interspecies relations and their role in sustaining health and well-being, and the ability to live well in old age.
This phenomenological study focused on low-income older renters‘ challenges that affected their aging in place. We conducted 25 in-depth interviews with low-income older renters, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The questions focused on socio-demographic characteristics, renting profiles, most and least favored aspects about being a renter, and future plans and challenges. We transcribed qualitative data, employed keyword-in-context analysis, and then identified emerging themes. We found that life changes, insufficient financial support, or unmet maintenance issues with one’s previous housing affected being a renter. Freedom from maintenance concerns was the most positive aspect about being a renter while the absence of ownership was the most negative aspect. Most respondents wanted to stay in their current unit due to a lack of resources or future plans. Health concerns were the most cited challenges when aging in place. Three themes for low-income older renters‘ aging in place emerged: (1) housing affordability, (2) home environment to support autonomy, and (3) resources for formal and informal support systems. This qualitative study provides an opportunity to better understand low-income older renters’ aging in place, a topic that has been understudied in the field of housing.
Although community services support ageing-in-place, older adults often report feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Unmet emotional needs are associated with poorer health, reduced functional abilities and increased mortality in this population. Pet ownership is an avenue worth exploring to reduce these adverse outcomes. This scoping review maps main findings and identifies key gaps with respect to the pros and cons of pet ownership in community-dwelling older adults pertaining to psycho-social, physical and functional outcomes. Scientific and grey literature published from January 2000 to July 2018 was searched. Data selection and extraction were performed by the first author and a sub-sample was co-validated by two co-authors. A total of 62 sources were included for descriptive and thematic analysis. A variety of pros (increased physical activity, wellbeing) and cons (grief, risk of falls) pertaining to psycho-social and physical outcomes were identified. Not many functional outcomes (support for daily routines) were mentioned, and few studies explored the simultaneous balance between the pros and cons of pet care. Further research exploring both clinicians’ and older pet owners’ perspectives is needed to deepen our understanding of the importance of considering companion animals in older adults’ daily lives and to strike a balance between perceived risks and benefits.
Since the late 1970s, scientific evidence has accumulated showing that pet ownership can have positive effects on people’s physical and mental wellbeing. This paper reviews the current state of affairs regarding the relationship between companion animals and human health, focusing on both the physical and psychological health outcomes related to human–animal interactions. Although designed to set the general scene on the link between animals and human wellbeing, research specific to older adults is highlighted where relevant. A particular emphasis is placed on disorders prevalent in modern-day society, notably cardiovascular disease and depression. The possible mechanisms by which companion animals might be able to enhance human wellbeing and quality of life are discussed, focusing on routes including, amongst others, the provision of companionship, social lubrication, and improvements to physical fitness. The role of the social bonding hormone, oxytocin, in facilitating attachment to our pets and the implications for human health is also discussed. Inconsistencies in the literature and methodological limitations are highlighted throughout. It is concluded that future human–animal interaction experiments should aim to account for the confounding variables that are inherent in studies of this nature.
Inspired by poet J.L. Borges's intimations on acceptance, this commentary highlights the eviction of an older woman and her kitten from an affordable independent living facility as representing exclusionary practices and policies that compromise the ability for some lower-income older adults to age-in-place. Even as efforts to promote aging-in-place have prioritized housing as a key need, and public health evidence suggests benefits from animal companionship later in life, there is a shortage of social and other types of affordable housing in Canada and elsewhere that allows older adult tenants to reside independently with companion animals. Within the private housing market, however, companion animals may be leveraged as a marketing tactic, with 'pets' being welcomed into rental arrangements. In light of this means-patterned discrepancy, this commentary troubles the persistent undervaluing of human-animal relationships that exists at policy and practice levels. Furthermore, banning companion animals from affordable housing subsumes an accepted yet insidious practise of regulating the lives of older adults who have not achieved idealized conceptions of responsible aging, including home ownership. We draw these two concerns together by advocating for adequate provision of affordable housing opportunities where lower-income older adults may be granted the choice to establish a home that includes a companion animal as they age-in-place.
The next two chapters focus on the relationship older adults, and men in particular, have with their companion animals including the benefits, the challenges, and the programs designed to help preserve this bond. This chapter provides background on older adults - who they are and the challenges they face. It then explores the psychological and physiological benefits of pet ownership for this population. The chapter ends with challenges of pet ownership for older adults; providing the background for the next chapter that describes intergenerational service learning and one example, Pets Forever, a course designed to support pet ownership for older adults.
The physician utilization behavior of 938 Medicare enrollees in a health maintenance organization was prospectively followed for 1 year. With demographic characteristics and health status at baseline controlled for, respondents who owned pets reported fewer doctor contacts over the 1-year period than respondents who did not own pets. Furthermore, pets seemed to help their owners in times of stress. The accumulation of prebaseline stressful life events was associated with increased doctor contacts during the study year for respondents without pets. This relationship did not emerge for pet owners. Owners of dogs, in particular, were buffered from the impact of stressful life events on physician utilization. Additional analyses showed that dog owners in comparison to owners of other pets spent more time with their pets and felt that their pets were more important to them. Thus, dogs more than other pets provided their owners with companioship and an object of attachment.
Recent scientific work has established both a theoretical basis and strong empirical evidence for a causal impact of social
relationships on health. Prospective studies, which control for baseline health status, consistently show increased risk of
death among persons with a low quantity, and sometimes low quality, of social relationships. Experimental and quasi-experimental
studies of humans and animals also suggest that social isolation is a major risk factor for mortality from widely varying
causes. The mechanisms through which social relationships affect health and the factors that promote or inhibit the development
and maintenance of social relationships remain to be explored.
Research into the association between pet ownership and human health has produced intriguing, although frequently contradictory, results often raising uncertainty as to whether pet ownership is advisable on health grounds
Introduction
The question of whether someone should own a pet is never as simple as whether that pet has a measurably beneficial or detrimental effect on the owner's physical health. The emotional bond between owner and pet can be as intense as that in many human relationships and may confer similar psychological benefits. Death of a pet can cause grief similar to that in human bereavement, whereas threat of loss of a pet may be met with blunt refusal and non-compliance with advice on health.
We examine the current evidence for a link between pet ownership and human health and discuss the importance of understanding the role of pets in people's lives.
Is pet ownership associated with human health?
Research dating from the 1980s popularised the view that pet ownership could have positive benefits on human health. Benefits ranged from higher survival rates from myocardial infarction1; a significantly lower use of general practitioner services (prompting some researchers to speculate on considerable potential savings to health expenditure)2; a reduced risk of asthma and allergic rhinitis in children exposed to pet allergens during the first year of life3 4; a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease5; and better physical and psychological wellbeing in community dwelling older people.6 No studies have found significant social or economic differences between people who do or do not have pets that would adequately explain differences in health outcome, leading to the belief that pet ownership itself is the primary cause of the reported benefits.
Although the research did much to raise awareness of the importance that people attach to their pets, recent studies have failed to replicate the benefits. A review of the association between pets and allergic sensitisation found inconsistent results for cat ownership between studies of similar design, whereas dog ownership seemed to have no effect or even protected against specific sensitisation to dog allergens and allergic sensitisation in general.7 Other studies on the subject suggest that exposure to pets may be beneficial provided that exposure is sufficient, as lower levels may enhance sensitisation whereas higher levels may protect against sensitisation.8 Yet others suggest that the effects may heavily depend on age at exposure and type of pet.9
Similarly, recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease,10 a reduced use of general practitioner services,11 or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people.12 Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets.w1
Do we need a broader definition of health?
The main issue may not be whether pet ownership per se confers measurable physical benefits but the role that pets have in individual people's lives—namely, the contributions of the pet to quality of life or the costs to wellbeing through a pet's death. This issue embraces a broader definition of health that encompasses the dimensions of wellbeing (physical and mental) and a sense of social integration.
Three potential mechanisms have been proposed to explain the association between pet ownership and benefits to human health (fig 1).13 The first is that there is no real association between the two, rather that cofactors such as personality traits, age, and economic or health status impact on the decision to own a pet and thus produce an apparent link between pets and health. So far, however, evidence is lacking that any of these cofactors account for both health promoting attributes and propensity to own pets, suggesting that health benefits, when reported, may be attributable to some aspect of pet ownership.
View larger version:In a new windowDownload as PowerPoint SlideFig 1
Three proposed mechanisms for association between pet ownership and health benefits for humans
A Munduruku boy carries his pet, a domesticated wild boar, for a daily cleansing swim in the Rio Canuma
Credit: GERD LUDWIG/PANOS
The second proposal is that pets may enhance social interactions with other people, thus providing an indirect effect on wellbeing. Social contact has been long recognised as beneficial in that it alleviates feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Pets undoubtedly act as “social catalysts,” leading to greater social contact between people.14 These factors may be particularly important for those at risk of social isolation, such as elderly people or people with physical disabilities, who lack many of the opportunities for social interactions of their more able bodied peers.15
The third proposal focuses on ways in which pet ownership may exert a direct effect on human health and wellbeing through the nature of the relationship. Close human relationships have a powerful influence on wellbeing by providing emotional support. They may reduce perceptions of stressful events thus protecting against anxiety related illness, may give confidence that successful coping strategies can be found to deal with stress, and may enhance recovery from serious illness such as stroke, myocardial infarction, and cancer. These aspects of a relationship are collectively referred to as social support. Social relationships, or the lack of, seem to constitute a major risk factor for health, rivalling the effects of well established risk factors such as cigarette smoking, blood pressure, blood lipid concentrations, obesity, and lack of physical activity.16
The value of companionship
Companionship—a commonly stated reason for pet ownership—is regarded as theoretically distinct from social support in that it does not offer extrinsic support but provides intrinsic satisfactions, such as shared pleasure in recreation, relaxation, and uncensored spontaneity, all of which add to quality of life. Thus companionship may be important in fostering positive mental health on a day to day basis, whereas social support may be of particular value in buffering threats to mental health and wellbeing from real or perceived stressors. Figure 2 illustrates the inter-relationship between functions served by pet ownership and human health outcomes.15
View larger version:In a new windowDownload as PowerPoint SlideFig 2
Correlations between questionnaire items measuring social facilitation, affectionate relationship, social support, and recipients' self perceived health in study on non-task related benefits of a trained assistance dog to people with physical disabilities. Correlations, derived from carrying out Pearson's correlation, are significant at P<0.05
Although research has primarily focused on human relationships as providing support and companionship, it is a short step to extrapolating these to pets. Studies have shown that the support from pets may mirror some of the elements of human relationships known to contribute to health.17 Although support from pets should not be regarded as a replacement for help from people, the fact that pets are not human confers certain advantages; the relationships are less subject to provider burnout or to fluctuations, and they do not impose a strain or cause concern about continuing stability. Relationships with pets seem to be of value in the early stages of bereavementw2 and after treatment for breast cancer.w3
Most pets are valued family members
Credit: BARRY LEWIS/NETWORK PHOTOGRAPHERS
Why pet ownership should be taken seriously
The question of whether a person should acquire a pet or continue to own a pet requires careful consideration of the balance between benefits and potential problems. About half of households in the United Kingdom own pets.w4 Most are valued as family members. Conflict between health interests and pet ownership can cause non-compliance with advice on health. Some sources estimate that up to 70% of pet owners would disregard advice to get rid of a pet owing to allergies,w5 whereas reports abound of older people avoiding medical care through fear of being admitted to hospital or residential care as this often means giving up a pet.w6
Summary points
Over 90% of pet owners regard their pet as a valued family member
Reluctance to part with a pet may lead to non-compliance with health advice
Pets may be of particular value to older people and patients recovering from major illness
The death of a pet may cause great distress to owners, especially when the pet has associations with a deceased spouse or former lifestyle
Many people would welcome advice and support to enable them to reconcile or manage pet ownership and health problems whenever possible
The loss of a pet may be particularly distressing for owners if it was linked with a deceased spouse or if it offered companionship or social contact with people.18 For these reasons many people may appreciate help and advice on how to manage a pet in the event of a health problem in the family.
Animal welfare organisations cite allergies and the fear of zoonoses as common reasons for people giving up their pets. Yet in some cases this may not be necessary. Research from the University of West Virginia shows that simple, day to day hygiene and pet care can reduce allergic reactions by up to 95%.3 A recent review of pets in nursing homes provides a comprehensive list of potential health problems and steps that can be taken to avoid these.19
People do not own pets specifically to enhance their health, rather they value the relationship and the contribution their pet makes to their quality of life.20 Greater understanding among health professionals is needed to assure people that they do not need to choose between pet ownership and compliance with health advice.
Footnotes
References w1 to w6 are on bmj.com
Contributors and sources JMcN has special research interests in the influence of pet ownership on health and lifestyle. She was formerly based at the University of Warwick. Her current work is with Dogs for the Disabled, the Society for the Protection of Animals Abroad, and Cats Protection, UK. She is a member of the Society of Companion Animal Studies. AG gained his doctorate from the University of Warwick, researching the role of pets in the alleviation of loneliness. AR and SA are members of the Society of Companion Animal Studies. J-AD has a degree in psychology and is director of the Society of Companion Animal Studies. EO is chairwoman of the Society of Companion Animal Studies. References refer to primary sources located through MIMAS web of knowledge service/web of science records. JMcN wrote the article, with contributions from the other authors, and is guarantor.
Competing interests JMcN received a research award, 2000-2, from Masterfoods UK to investigate the role of pets in children's health. AG was employed as a research assistant at University of Warwick, 1999-2003, funded by Waltham Centre for Animal Nutrition.References↵Friedmann E, Katcher AH, Lynch JJ, Thomas S. Animal companions and one year survival of patients after discharge from a coronary care unit. Public Health Rep 1980; 95: 30712.OpenUrlMedlineWeb of Science↵Headey B. Health benefits and health cost savings due to pets: preliminary estimates from an Australian national survey. Soc Indic Res 1998: 111.↵Ownby DR, Johnson CC, Peterson EL. Exposure to dogs and cats in the first year of life and risk of allergic sensitization at 6 to 7 years of age. JAMA 2002; 288: 96372.OpenUrlFREE Full Text↵Nafsted P, Magnus P, Gaader PI, Jaakola JJK. Exposure to pets and atopy-related diseases in the first 4 years of life. Allergy 2001; 56: 30712.OpenUrlCrossRefMedlineWeb of Science↵Anderson WP, Reid CM, Jennings GL. Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Med J Aust 1992; 157: 298301.OpenUrlMedlineWeb of Science↵Raina P, Waltner-Toews D, Bonnett B, Woodward C, Abernathy T. Influence of companion animals on the physical and psychological health of older people: an analysis of a one-year longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 3239.OpenUrlMedlineWeb of Science↵Simpson A, Custovic A. Pets and the development of allergic sensitiziation. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2005; 5: 21220.OpenUrlMedlineWeb of Science↵Frew AJ. Advances in environmental and occupational diseases 2004. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 115: 1197202.OpenUrlCrossRefMedlineWeb of Science↵Behrens T, Maziak W, Weiland SK, Rzehak P, Siebert E, Keil U. Symptoms of asthma and the home environment. The ISAAC I and III cross-sectional surveys in Munster, Germany. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 137: 5361.OpenUrlCrossRefMedlineWeb of Science↵Parslow RA, Jorm AF. Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular disease: another look. Med J Aust 2003; 179: 4668.OpenUrlMedlineWeb of Science↵Parslow RA, Jorm AF. The impact of pet ownership on health and health service use: results from a community samples of Australians aged 40 to 44 years. Anthrozoos 2003; 16: 4356.OpenUrl↵Parslow RA, Jorm AF, Christensen H, Rodgers B, Jacomb P. Pet ownership and health in older adults: findings from a survey of 2551 community based Australians aged 60–64. Gerontology 2005; 51: 407.OpenUrlCrossRefMedlineWeb of Science↵Dono J, Ormerod EMcNicholas J, Murray A. The benefits of pets for older people: a review. In: Dono J, Ormerod E, eds. Older people and pets: a comprehensive guide. Oxford: Society for Companion Animal Studies Publications, 2005.↵McNicholas J, Collis GM. Dogs as catalysts for social interactions: robustness of the effect. Br J Psychol 2000; 91: 6170.↵Lane DR, McNicholas J, Collis GM. Dogs for the disabled: benefits to recipients and welfare of the dog. Appl Anim Behav Sci 1998; 59: 4960.OpenUrlCrossRef↵House JS, Landis KR, Umberson D. Social relationships and health. Science 1988; 241: 5404.OpenUrlFREE Full Text↵Wilson C, Turner DCollis GM, McNicholas J. A theoretical basis for health benefits of pet ownership: attachment versus psychological support. In: Wilson C, Turner D, eds. Companion animals and human health. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998: 10522.↵Robinson IMcNicholas J, Collis GM. The end of a relationship: coping with pet loss. In: Robinson I, ed. The Waltham book of human-companion animal interactions. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1995: 12743.↵Guay DR. Pet-assisted therapy in the nursing home setting: potential for zoonosis. Am J Infect Control 2001; 29: 17886.OpenUrlCrossRefMedlineWeb of Science↵Podbercek AL, Paul ES, Serpell JA, eds. Companion animals and us. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
consider an aspect of older adults' social relationships that has received less attention: social relationships as a source of companionship rather than of support per se / specifically . . . consider the contributions of companionship to psychological well-being in the context of older adults' everyday activities and plans rather than in the more specialized context of efforts to cope with stressful life events (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
American, Australian and British studies have shown that pet dogs and cats confer health benefits on their owners. This paper reports results from the first national survey (N = 1011) estimating the magnitude of these benefits. The survey showed that dog and cat owners make fewer annual doctor visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-owners. An important public policy implication is that pet ownership probably reduces national health expenditure. By linking sample survey results to data on health expenditure, the paper proposes a method of estimating savings. A preliminary estimate of savings of $988 million is given for Australia for financial year 1994--95.
Dogs for the Disabled is an organisation recently established in the UK to provide trained assistance dogs to enhance the mobility and independence of people with physical disabilities. Fifty-seven recipients of a Dog for the Disabled (90% of all recipients) took part in a questionnaire survey to assess satisfaction with their dog, commitment to the dog's welfare, and other changes in their life brought about by obtaining their dog. Subjects reported an increased sense of social integration, enhancement to self-perceived health, and an affectionate, often supportive, relationship with their dog. Levels of satisfaction with the dog's work and the quality of the recipient–dog relationship were greater in subjects for whom the idea to have a dog was their own than in subjects who were influenced by other people to acquire a dog. These differences were small but statistically significant and may be a useful predictor in future applicants of the success of the working relationship.
The physician utilization behavior of 938 Medicare enrollees in a health maintenance organization was prospectively followed for 1 year. With demographic characteristics and health status at baseline controlled for, respondents who owned pets reported fewer doctor contacts over the 1-year period than respondents who did not own pets. Furthermore, pets seemed to help their owners in times of stress. The accumulation of prebaseline stressful life events was associated with increased doctor contacts during the study year for respondents without pets. This relationship did not emerge for pet owners. Owners of dogs, in particular, were buffered from the impact of stressful life events on physician utilization. Additional analyses showed that dog owners in comparison to owners of other pets spent more time with their pets and felt that their pets were more important to them. Thus, dogs more than other pets provided their owners with companionship and an object of attachment.
Pets as providers of social support: evidence from a longitudinal study of spousal bereavement
- J Mcnicholas
- G M Collis
Older People and Pets: A Comprehensive Guide
- Ormerod Dono
Pets in the daily activities o older women: a telephone experience sampling study
- D Lago
- M Miller
The benefits of pets for older people: a review
- J Mcnicholas
- A Murray
Handbook on Animal Assisted Therapy; Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice
- J Mcnicholas
- G M Collis
Pets and people in residential care”, Social Care Findings
- J Mcnicholas
- G M Collis
- I E Morley
The role of pets in the support networks of people recovering from breast cancer
- J Mcnicholas
- G M Collis
- C Kent
- M Rogers
Cats and asthma: a review of recent findings”, Report for Cats Protection
- J Mcnicholas
Pets and older people in residential care”, A report prepared for the Pet Food Manufacturers Association
- J Mcnicholas
A Year of Health Hints - 365 Ways to Feel Better and Live Longer
- D R Powell