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The Teacher Educator
ISSN: 0887-8730 (Print) 1938-8101 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utte20
Toward Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative
Classroom Practices with Students with FASD
Cheryl Poth, Jacqueline Pei, Jenelle M. Job & Katherine Wyper
To cite this article: Cheryl Poth, Jacqueline Pei, Jenelle M. Job & Katherine Wyper (2014) Toward
Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices with Students with FASD, The
Teacher Educator, 49:4, 247-264, DOI: 10.1080/08878730.2014.933642
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08878730.2014.933642
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The Teacher Educator, 49:247–264, 2014
Copyright ©Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0887-8730 print/1938-8101 online
DOI: 10.1080/08878730.2014.933642
RESEARCH ARTICLE
TOWARD INTENTIONAL, REFLECTIVE, AND ASSIMILATIVE CLASSROOM
PRACTICES WITH STUDENTS WITH FASD
CHERYL POTH, JACQUELINE PEI, JENELLE M. JOB, and KATHERINE WYPER
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta
The value of research-informed classroom practices is well recognized and thus this qualitative study was
designed to explore, from multiple perspectives, the experiences and influences of classroom practices for
students with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD). The inductive analysis of 11 focus groups
and three interviews involving 60 individuals working closely with this student population—31
teachers, seven administrators, 16 allied professionals, and six caregivers—generated three themes:
understanding the whole student, responding within dynamic environments, and optimizing student-
centered programming. This study provides an essential step toward better-prepared educators for meeting
the learning and developmental needs of students with FASD as well as other complex populations.
The implications for developing professional learning opportunities reflective of intentional, reflective,
and assimilative classroom practices are discussed.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) is an umbrella term used to classify a range
of disabilities caused by prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) including physical, cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral deficits (Burd, Klug, Martsolf, & Kerbeshian, 2003; Connor
& Streissguth, 1996; Kelly, Day, & Streissguth, 2000; Pei, Denys, Hughes, & Rasmussen,
2011; Rasmussen, 2005). The school experience for students with FASD is challenging not
only for students but for all those involved in their education, including educators (i.e.,
administrators and teachers), caregivers, and allied professionals (e.g., teaching assistants,
psychologists, social workers, and counselors). For children and adolescents with FASD,
the school environment can be particularly demanding, as neurodevelopmental damage
resulting from PAE greatly impacts behavioral and cognitive functioning (Koren, Nulman,
Chudley, & Loocke, 2003). The cognitive deficits associated with FASD (e.g., weak memory
retention, limitations in abstract reasoning, and poor information transfer) have significant
effects on the student’s learning and achievement (Duquette, Stodel, Fullarton, & Hag-
glund, 2006b; Rasmussen & Bisanz, 2006). Equally challenging are the social and emotional
impairments associated with FASD (e.g., emotional outbursts, poor empathy, and a narrow
social conscience), which have been shown to significantly hinder a student’s ability to
Address correspondence to Cheryl Poth, Ph.D., Centre for Research in Applied Measurement and
Evaluation, Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Alberta, 6-110 Education
North, Edmonton, Alberta T6E 2G5, Canada. E-mail: cpoth@ualberta.ca
247
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248 C. Poth et al.
form positive and appropriate relationships with peers and teachers (Kalberg & Buckley,
2007; Roebuck, Mattson, & Riley, 1999). Given these struggles, it is not surprising that up
to 60% of students with FASD will experience some disruption to their education (e.g.,
suspension, expulsion, or drop out) before the age of 18 (Streissguth, 1997). Efforts from
educators, caregivers, and allied professionals are key to decreasing these disruptions and
ensuring that students with FASD receive the education and care needed to lead high
quality lives (Green, 2007; Ryan & Ferguson, 2006a). However, it remains uncertain what
strategies and classroom practices are effective for guiding these efforts.
The literature has highlighted a number of factors associated with successful edu-
cational experiences for students with FASD, including a welcoming environment, willful
administration, adequate resources, and knowledgeable teachers (Brownell & Pajares, 1999;
Cook, Tankersley, Cook, & Landrum, 2000; Federico, Herrold, & Venn, 1999). Specifically
impactful are teachers who can adapt classroom practices to respond to diverse student
needs, yet many teachers report being limited by a lack of knowledge about the complex
learning, social, and behavioral difficulties of students with FASD. Thus, these teachers
are often challenged to understand and effectively respond to the learning needs of
students with FASD (Blackburn, 2009). Limited professional learning opportunities lead to
a dearth of critical knowledge and skills for guiding appropriate educational programming
(Carpenter, 2011).
The need for further professional learning opportunities for teachers is underscored
by recent findings from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. Multiple UK-
based studies reveal startlingly limited FASD awareness and knowledge among educators
(e.g., Blackburn, 2009; Blackburn, Carpenter, & Egerton, 2010). In a study of 161 early
childhood practitioners, 78% reported little to no knowledge about FASD and maternal
alcohol consumption, a noteworthy finding given that 40% of early education settings in
the United Kingdom include students with FASD (Blackburn, 2009). Similarly, a recent
survey involving 77 preservice Canadian teachers revealed a limited understanding of the
causes and learning challenges of students with FASD leading to misinformed assumptions
(Pei, Job, Poth, O’Brien-Langer, & Tang, 2013). The study further highlighted the focus of
initial teacher education on the observed behavioral difficulties rather than the underlying
cognitive and learning deficits of students with FASD. This finding is important because
it may reflect use of strategies that fail to address the core needs of the child as well as
observed difficulties (Pei, Job, Poth, O’Brien-Langer et al., 2013).
Although the majority of literature focuses on general teacher preparation, a U.S.
study focusing on the initial preparation of special educators and speech-language pathol-
ogists working with students affected by PAE found a significant need for greater knowledge
and skill-building in applying strategies to effectively assist student difficulties (Watson,
Gable, & Tonelson, 2003). The message is clear: Improved awareness and education
is imperative if educators and allied professionals are to understand and respond to
the unique needs of students with FASD in ways that allow these students to maximize
their potential and achieve educational, social, and behavioral goals (Blackburn et al.,
2010).
In seeking to integrate students with FASD and other complex needs into the class-
room, generation of strategies will require an understanding of the environmental influ-
ences that shape students with and without FASD. This understanding is paramount to
developing collaborative working relationships between caregivers and school personnel,
which then enables development of interventions that center on holistic and systemic
change (Rogers-Adkinson & Stuart, 2007). Ecological systems theory emphasizes the man-
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 249
ifold, interconnected environmental systems in which students develop (Bronfenbrenner,
1979). The most important ecologies in this context are ‘‘systems’’ of direct relationships
between students with FASD and caring adults including caregivers and teachers.
In ecological systems theory, three of the five layers described (Bronfenbrenner,
1979) are pertinent for informing this study. These layers refer to different contexts that
influence the learning environment and are important for teachers in understanding their
potential roles. Examples of how this theory applies to an FASD population are put forth.
The first layer, the microsystem, contains the places and people that are within a student’s
immediate environment such as the family and school. For example, the immediate family
including siblings and caregivers of a student with FASD and members of the student’s
school community contribute to their home–school relationships and experiences. The
second layer is referred to as the mesosystem and includes the interrelations of two or
more microsystems in which the developing student learns and grows. For example, the
relationship between caregivers and teachers of a student with FASD is relevant at the
mesosystem level as it affects the caregiver’s decision to use teacher-recommended learning
strategies when helping with homework. The exosystem is the third layer and involves
connections between a social setting in which students do not have an active role in their
immediate contexts (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). For instance, the child welfare system could
be considered part of the exosystem of a student with FASD because of the high number
of foster, adoptive, and institutional care situations in this population (Barth, 2001). This
system is a context that is external to students and their families but affects them through
determining custody arrangements (Rogers-Adkinson & Stuart, 2007).
It is important for teachers to recognize that communication and collaboration among
the three levels of systems is vital in providing a quality educational experience for the
student with FASD. Although caregivers can help with advocacy and modeling, school
personnel and allied professionals have influence by creating and following individual
education plans, establishing smooth transition plans, and collaborating with caregivers
(Duquette, Stodel, Fullarton, & Hagglund, 2006a). Therefore, it may serve schools to
consider how skill-building opportunities that facilitate effective collaboration between
home and school might be integrated into initial teacher preparation. One study that
integrated caregiver interaction in educational programming enabled preservice teachers
to see the benefits of including caregivers in the development of individualized interven-
tions, respecting caregivers’ expert knowledge of the child (Murray, Curran, & Zellers,
2008). In a similar vein, Canadian researchers found that the fostering of positive working
relationships between caregivers, school personnel, and allied professionals led to the
formation of personal and professional beliefs based on accurate and sound information
and improved care across settings (Job et al., 2013). These studies led us to reflect on the
tremendous value the caregiver can add to a child’s education, especially where complex
needs are concerned. This underscores the importance of communication between the
family, school, and community systems in decision making about educational programming
(Rogers-Adkinson & Stuart, 2007).
Moreover, the paucity of research examining effective classroom strategies for stu-
dents with disabilities and specifically with FASD is striking given the well-documented
myriad of educational challenges and importance of early intervention (Kodituwakku &
Kodituwakku, 2011; Ryan & Ferguson, 2006a). Yet research to date has failed to integrate
findings to inform such strategies. For example, some researchers have highlighted the im-
portance of addressing the self-worth and identity of students with disabilities through men-
toring and conversation with trusted adults as well as engagement in personally meaningful
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250 C. Poth et al.
activities that facilitate self-awareness and independence (Benz, Lindstrom, & Yovanoff,
2000; Lindstrom et al., 2007). Other research related specifically to students with FASD
have emphasized the students’ learning and achievement difficulties as most important,
specifying intervention efforts geared toward more educationally related goals including
helping students to understand rules, transition between different environments, and use
feedback to create new learning habits (Green, 2007). By integrating differing perspectives
on what constitutes promising classroom practices, this study aims to generate a more
holistic guiding framework for teaching and intervention.
The school setting is a place where the unique set of challenges experienced by
students with FASD is evident (Green, 2007), thus it seemed logical to begin with an
exploratory study involving those who work most closely with these students in this context
(e.g., teachers and administrators). In addition, caregivers and allied professionals were
included in this study because of their potential to provide invaluable insight into how
educational practices translate and influence the home and community systems. Each
student with FASD brings unique thoughts, feelings, aspirations, interests, and talents to
the learning process. The effort to recognize and cultivate these attributes is critical to the
development and implementation of successful strategies and interventions. The purpose
of the present study was to unite diverse beliefs about the learning and developmental
needs of students with FASD.
The exploration of experiences and influences of classroom practices for students
with FASD is part of a larger program of research focused on improving assessment and
intervention for these students (e.g., Pei, Job, Poth, & Atkinson, 2013). Of particular
importance to the present study was capturing a rich description of the collaborative ef-
forts to understand and overcome the developmental, learning, and behavioral challenges
of students with FASD from multiple perspectives. Thus, to be able to inform student
programming that follows a holistic approach to education, this study documented the
experiences of teachers, administrators, caregivers, and allied professionals and influence
of different systems in the education of students with FASD and then identified influential
teaching strategies for meeting the learning and developmental needs of students with
FASD.
Method
A qualitative approach was appropriate for generating rich descriptions, given the focus
of the study to explore the multiple experiences and perspectives of those working with
students with FASD, with the aim of identifying effective classroom practices (Creswell,
2013). Specifically, the choice of focus groups as a suitable method of data collection was
based on the desire for facilitated discussions around a specific topic, that is, experiences
of working with students with FASD (Krueger & Casey, 2000). A distinct advantage of
a focus group is its effectiveness in collecting rich qualitative data in a short amount
of time, giving access to observing the interactions among participants, and providing
opportunities for participants to build upon each other’s responses (Creswell, 2009). For
those participants who were not able to attend a scheduled focus group, an individual semi-
structured interview was offered as an alternative option. Trustworthiness and confidence in
the data was enhanced by the use of verbatim transcripts, member checking, and multiple
coders (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002).
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 251
Participants
A total of 60 individuals participated in the present study including 31 teachers, seven
administrators, 16 allied professionals, and six caregivers. Teachers reported having a
degree of expertise in special education, a mean of 13.2 years of experience (range 1–
32 years), and representing all levels of instruction (seven identified as kindergarten to
grade 5, whereas 24 identified as grades 6 to 12). Administrators had a mean of 22 years of
experience (range 15–30 years) and various roles (two principals, four assistant principals,
and one head of student services). Allied professionals reported a mean of 10.9 years
of experience (range 1–25 years), with the majority (nD12) identifying their roles as
educational assistants and the remaining as ‘‘other’’ (i.e., in-home consultant, reading
specialist, guidance counselor, and manager of the school’s Academy of Reading & Math
Programs). Caregivers consisted of two maternal grandmothers, three foster mothers, and
one adoptive mother. Caregiver years of experience ranged from six to 43 with a mean of
17.8 years. The age range for children with FASD with whom the stakeholders worked was
three to 18 years with a mean age of 12.4 years.
Data Collection
Participant recruitment was ongoing from March 2009 to May 2010 through established
clinical networks via e-mail and telephone, using snowball sampling. Allied professional
and caregiver participants were identified through their involvement with local FASD
networks and programs. Administrator and teachers were required to meet all of the
following inclusion criteria: (a) experience with a student with FASD; (b) involvement
in that student’s psycho-educational or neuropsychological assessment (e.g., completing
forms, providing an interview, and/or being provided with assessment results); (c) working
with that student in the classroom or having knowledge of the student’s classroom expe-
rience; and (d) communicating with caregivers, administrators, teachers, and/or allied
professionals in support of successful outcomes.
In total, 11 focus groups were held with a mean number of six participants grouped
according to role and three individual interviews involving one administrator and two
caregivers. Each session lasted approximately one hour and followed a semi-structured
protocol of eight questions with minor adaptations to account for differences in expe-
rience between roles. For example, the question, ‘‘What supports outside the school system
have you accessed to help your child?’’ was asked solely of caregivers to provide information
about community supports and resources. Two research assistants (a moderator and a
note-taker) with advanced training in qualitative research methods and analysis facilitated
and audio-recorded each focus group or interview. Following each of the sessions, the
research assistants debriefed with each other to capture in field notes the atmosphere
of the discussion as well as the issues and concerns that had emerged unprompted.
The conversations were then transcribed verbatim, and a preliminary analysis generated
summaries that were electronically distributed to participants as a means of member
checking. Subsequent participant feedback and additional comments were incorporated
into the transcriptions to ensure accuracy of the data and completeness of participant
responses.
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252 C. Poth et al.
FIGURE 1 Summary of coding process and theme development involved in data analysis.
Data Analysis
The analysis was undertaken in two iterative phases to allow for three types of comparisons
across individual focus groups, same-role focus groups (e.g., teachers, administrators), and
different-role focus groups (e.g., teachers vs. caregivers, allied professionals vs. adminis-
trators). First, two independent researchers for the same transcript inductively generated
codes and compared similarities and differences between the code lists. Once consensus
related to definitions and examples was reached, the code definitions were used on a
second transcript and an interrater reliability of 90% was sought and achieved. The code
definitions were then applied across all the transcripts and summaries for each role to
highlight similarities within and differences across roles (see Figure 1).
To ensure the inductive process captured all ideas across roles, a second deductive
analysis process was undertaken whereby the two researchers read each transcript inde-
pendently focusing on each of the protocol questions (e.g., the code expectations emerged
in part from, ‘‘What are your expectations of a student with an FASD in the classroom?’’). These
findings were compared with issues and concerns gathered from the research assistants’
post-session field notes. Taken together, the deductive analysis allowed for more compre-
hensive understanding and further streamlining of the themes generated by the inductive
analysis. Finally, a third researcher reviewed the analysis procedures and confirmability
(i.e., the degree to which the themes were grounded in the data) and dependability of the
data was discussed as a group (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Findings and Discussion
By employing a holistic lens integrating multiple perspectives to the present study it was
possible to generate a more comprehensive understanding of student programming that
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 253
follows a holistic approach to education. In so doing, we build on existing research on
the educational and behavioral challenges of the FASD student population to forward
successful strategies and interventions. The analysis of the data begins to address the
study’s purpose to unite diverse beliefs about the learning and developmental needs of
students with FASD in its generation of three overarching themes: understanding the whole
student, responding within dynamic environments, and optimizing student-centered programming,
which lend considerable support for a holistic approach in the education of students
with FASD and provide direction for teacher education and professional development.
The following section is organized by each theme and subthemes to identify influential
classroom strategies.
Understanding the Whole Student
The investment of time with the aim of getting to know students on a personal level rather
than relying on external reports is the focus of the first theme. To gain an understanding
of the whole student, educators, caregivers, and allied professionals encouraged individual
interactions between teachers and students to minimize pre-conceived assumptions, recog-
nize positive behaviors to encourage future actions, and integrate choice with expectations
in order to encourage students to see themselves as decision makers. These strategies were
perceived as foundational to the progression involved in student identity development and
transition to adulthood.
Interacting with Individuals
Both teacher and allied professional groups identified individual interactions with stu-
dents as having a major impact on building effective relationships. For one teacher, Callie,
getting to know students allowed her to provide an individualized approach saying, ‘‘it is
all about building relationships with kids ::: thinking or understanding their limitations
or their strengths and what they are capable of really on an individual basis::::’’ Famil-
iarity with students’ individual triggers better positions teachers for proactively managing
behavioral difficulties as Sandra (teacher) explained:
‘‘: : : as soon as they walk in the door : : : [it’s important to discover] : : : who’s in what kind
of a mood : : : and which ones you can get to work hard [versus those who] are going to flip
out on you if you push their button : : : ’’
To that end, an individualized teaching approach may be more effective when con-
trasted with a homogeneous approach based on preconceived notions or understanding
of FASD. These findings point to the successes associated with this approach and are
consistent with previous research wherein teachers relay the importance of remembering
that students with FASD are individuals with unique interests and talents (Ryan, 2006; Ryan
& Ferguson, 2006b).
For allied professionals, the key concern was getting to know students before reading
their cumulative records (i.e., a compilation of information regarding a student’s academic
progress, mid-term and final marks, adaptations, and attendance). This was important
because of the potential influence that such a record may have on a professional’s view
of a student prior to working with him or her: ‘‘::: some of the stuff that you read is
very negative ::: and whether you think it will or not, it does [matter]. It’s in the back
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254 C. Poth et al.
of your mind :::’’ (Daria, allied professional). Indeed, there was considerable agreement
across participants that much of the information contained within cumulative records
is more likely to be deficit-related and unconstructive in terms of highlighting student
strengths. Bob, an allied professional, expressed a similar view, and the described the
potential implications of having pre-conceived ideas prior to interacting with the student
with FASD:
I don’t : : : want to look at [cumulative files] because so much of it is : : : negative : : : sometimes
I think what is in [cumulative files] is in support of maintaining funding rather than being a
clear picture of [who] this child is : : : [with] a lot of kids I have worked with, we would not
have had nearly so much success : : : had [I] read the [cumulative file] first.
These findings point to concerns on the part of allied professionals to access cumula-
tive records prior to interacting with students because of the potential for information
contained within the files to influence how they view students’ potential. This idea aligns
with research in the identity literature suggesting that making assumptions about the skills
and abilities of students with FASD based on general knowledge or previous reports can
be detrimental to student self-efficacy and achievement—two aspects that are key to the
development of a healthy identity and successful educational outcomes (Lindstrom et al.,
2007). If school personnel and allied professionals focus on the person rather than the
disability, it will be easier to help students with FASD identify their own values, needs,
capabilities, and interests, and develop a more positive sense of self and others (Lindstrom
et al., 2007; Ryan & Ferguson, 2006b).
Recognizing Positive Behaviors
Participants highlighted the importance of practices focused on building students’
positive assets rather than focusing on negative characteristics. As one participant com-
mented, ‘‘these kids get in trouble so much of the time that ::: if I ::: see them being good
I try to do something with that’’ (Bob, allied professional). Becky, an administrator, agreed
that it is imperative to ‘‘::: recogniz[e] the positive behavior and reinforc[e] [it].’’ These
findings are not surprising given literature that details the social struggles experienced by
students with FASD due to limitations in impulse control, planning, and judgment, which
lead to inappropriate behaviors (Burgess & Streissguth, 1992). Positive asset building can
be accomplished at home and school, through both acknowledgment of positive behavior
and providing opportunities for involvement in helpful, productive activities:
: : : another thing that I’ve seen is that a lot of foster parents and direct caregivers do that has
made a huge difference for a lot of the kids is positive asset building. They identify interests
early and they get them involved in those things ::: leadership opportunities ::: part-time
work and work experience: : : : (Hailey, allied professional)
The academic and behavioral challenges of students with FASD can be so profound that it
is sometimes difficult to recognize strengths or encourage positive behaviors when they are
demonstrated (Ryan & Ferguson, 2006b). For this reason, it is crucial for stakeholders to
examine their contributions to the education of students with FASD and work to promote
healthy identity development. With an emphasis on positive behaviors and collaborative
interventions that focus on holistic change, it is believed that school personnel and allied
professionals will be able to make lasting positive impacts in the lives of students with FASD
(Rogers-Adkinson & Stuart, 2007).
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 255
Integrating Choice with Expectations
Participants across roles noted several key responsibilities of school personnel and
caregivers including offering students choice within consistent expectations. Allowing stu-
dents with FASD liberties to be who they are helps to build their personal identity. As
Katie, an allied professional, shared:
I: : : allow them to make choices for themselves within a confined boundary of what those
choices can be and they tend to actually really like the idea that they’re making their own
choices. I don’t ever like to take their choices away from them. So, I try to direct them to
choices that they’re able to have ::: and any time we see anything that’s positive to mention
it : : :
Previous researchers have emphasized the benefit of affording students some degree of
control over their decision making by providing choice. In a qualitative study exploring
transitional resources for students with disabilities, one participant noted the value of
creating an agenda with the student that emphasizes choice and options. It allows that
student ‘‘to feel the power that comes with being independent and making your own
choices’’ (Lindstrom et al., 2007, p. 11).
Darlene, a caregiver, also noted her desire to have teachers and allied professionals
maintain consistency in expectation despite her son’s learning limitations. In this way, the
student with FASD is included in the class and encouraged to work through challenges
and failures, building up his confidence and skills:
: : : my five year old is very, very delayed : : : but I let [the teachers] know that he’s not coming
[to school] to play: : : : He will be expected to do what the other kids are doing : : : and if he
can’t then he has to make an attempt:::: I know what he’s capable of, so we need to push
him ::: because then [he] can reach [his] full potential.
Additional research involving school personnel, adults with disabilities, and employers
has identified several strategies helpful in preparing students with disabilities for the
transition to adulthood including involvement in individualized programming and mean-
ingful activity focused on developing self-awareness and independence (Benz et al., 2000;
Lindstrom et al., 2007). Based on this research and the current findings, it seems that
providing students with FASD the opportunity to practice autonomous decision making
and encouraging positive behaviors enhances the likelihood that these students will be
equipped for life beyond school.
Responding within Dynamic Environments
The focus of the second theme aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems
theory; that is, the influence of different environments on student development, learning,
and achievement. To be able to respond within these dynamic environments, educa-
tors, caregivers, and allied professionals paid attention to how the three independent
systems (i.e., school, home, and government) influenced their work with students with
FASD. Specifically of interest was whether the school fostered an inclusive atmosphere that
welcomed students and caregivers, how developing home–school relationships provided
consistency for students, and how accessing individualized funding provided early supports.
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256 C. Poth et al.
These strategies were perceived as important for providing information that supported the
educational experiences of students with FASD.
Fostering an Inclusive Atmosphere
The way in which a school operates and how classrooms are managed emerged as
an influential microsystem for students with FASD. Chloe, a caregiver, recounted her
experience enrolling her son in kindergarten:
: : : as soon as we mention FAS, right away [the principal says], ‘‘well, I don’t even think he’s
in our school zone. I better check: : : : ’’ She didn’t want him in that school. She look[ed] to
verify that he was in the correct boundaries and then : : : [tried] to convince us that maybe
they didn’t have the right programming for him and that [we] should go to a special needs
school.
Participants across roles spoke to the need for inclusive school and classroom environments
wherein students with FASD and their families are welcomed and supported. Despite
this consensus, caregivers and administrators alike acknowledged that there remains a
resistance to including students with FASD in classrooms due to a lack of awareness of the
needs of these students and professional opportunities to learn about effective strategies.
This sentiment is consistent with research that shows greater opposition with regard to
enrollment and accommodations from schools where the administration and teaching
staff are unfamiliar with the disorder (Duquette et al., 2006b).
Building Home–School Relationships
The strength of relationships between home and school emerged as a central mesosys-
tem involved in setting up students with FASD for success. Teachers and allied professionals
alike stated that successful outcomes for students with FASD are largely dependent on
the teacher-student relationship, and that trust between those involved in the students’
home and school environments is imperative for promoting consistent educational and
behavioral practices across settings. Caregivers pointed to the need for students with FASD
to see caregivers and teachers as working together to reinforce consistent practices:
I want the school to work with me because with FASD kids, consistency is the key [across
domains] ::: because a lot of kids think that school and home are separate and that mom
doesn’t know what goes on in the school and school doesn’t know what goes on at home: : : :
(Darlene, caregiver)
Although educators and allied professionals in the present study recognized the value and
potential for developing relationships with families, they noted the need for sensitivity
to the barriers and challenges associated with raising a child with FASD. One teacher,
Brad, described his perception of the tremendous effects of the lack of a home–school
relationship on academic routine and achievement: ‘‘There are times that it would be nice
almost if there wasn’t a weekend ::: [the] continuity gets broken ::: [and] I find we lose
[progress] over the breaks and on the weekends::::’’ In the same way, Chloe, a caregiver,
noted the negative consequences of one attempt to speak with her child’s principal where
she was met with unresponsiveness and apathy: ‘‘The principal ::: is someone who :::
runs his own ship ::: we don’t have much of a rapport with him. When I did try to talk to
him, his answer was if we weren’t happy we could [change schools]::::’’ Other caregivers
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 257
expressed similar experiences wherein they were concerned that their voices would not
be heard and that educators would not appropriately consider the unique needs of their
children.
The contribution of bidirectional efforts for developing trust is highlighted by these
findings. Specifically, literature clearly establishes the need for increased partnership be-
tween families and educators and allied professionals as well as the desire for reliable
relationships with teachers and administrators from the caregivers’ perspective (e.g., Ryan
& Ferguson, 2006b) yet the impact on increasing consistency must be given significant
consideration. Thus, it is not surprising that previous conversations with families of students
with FASD have revealed that caregivers report feeling overwhelmed by the challenging
behaviors of their child and frustrated by the lack of specialized community and school
resources (Job et al., 2013; Ryan & Ferguson, 2006a). The pervasive and taxing nature of
FASD, together with the absence of services, has been shown to greatly impact a family’s
relationships, social networks, and daily activities (Fox, Vaughn, Wyatte, & Dunlap, 2002).
Research also clearly demonstrates that a stable home environment can serve as a protective
factor for students with FASD. However, creating this home environment and advocating
for needed services often require more time and effort than caregivers are able to give
(Carmichael-Olson, Rudo-Stern, & Gendler, 2011). Therefore, any additional advocacy or
support that educators or allied professionals can provide may greatly improve consistency
in educational and behavioral strategies across home and school.
Accessing Individualized Funding
The level of individualized support school personnel are able to provide is greatly
influenced by the financial resources for services within school districts and individual
schools allocated by the exosystem involving government policy. Not surprising, access to
services such as psychoeducational assessment, speech and language therapy, and occupa-
tional therapy are based on whether the student with FASD qualifies for funding. What
became apparent in this study was the positive impact of early access to such services
on the student’s learning environment. In some instances, caregivers report that the
experience of assessment and diagnosis led to valuable support that would have been
otherwise inaccessible:
: : : our grandson was given two years [of funding] in kindergarten and he had occupational
therapists and physiotherapists [in the classroom] because he was eligible for it : : : [as well we
had] someone coming to the house to work with him : : : so everything was really good but it
was all based on that diagnosis. (Laura, caregiver)
However, not all experiences accessing services were so encouraging. As Tom, an admin-
istrator, noted, some aspects of the assessment process can be quite difficult including
significant wait times and poor caregiver advocacy:
: : : sometimes the family has challenges of their own so they don’t always recognize : : : that
they need to take some extra steps to get help for their child : : : if their circumstances aren’t
the greatest, you can give them all the information to get to the supports but they don’t
necessarily make it :::
If the goal is to provide quality education and support for all students then this study
points to the need for early access to assessment and diagnosis. Researchers (e.g., Ryan &
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258 C. Poth et al.
Ferguson, 2006a) remain hopeful that continued study of challenging behaviors, positive
behavioral supports, and coordinated systems of support for students with FASD will aid in
transcending current government and school district policies to increase early assessment
for this often overlooked population, and encourage stakeholders to employ suitable
strategies for intervening effectively with students with FASD and their families (OMHSAS
Bureau of Children’s Behavioral Health Services, 2011).
Optimizing Student-Centered Programming
Maximizing opportunities for student-centered programming that meets the individual
needs of students with FASD is highlighted as the final theme across groups. In order to
create student-centered programming, educators, caregivers, and allied professionals must
be open to adapting programming in response to available resources as well as advocating
for more support where needed. Specifically, this theme included classroom strategies
designed to provide students with FASD the specialized programming they need to be
successful by matching learning supports and addressing gaps in service.
Matching Supports with Need
The ability to successfully match learning supports with need is based on the shared
view of the importance of individualized programming for students with FASD. The major-
ity of participants spoke to the need for a structured learning environment with consistent
leadership, rules, routines, and consequences for behavior: ‘‘::: kids need to know who’s in
charge. They need to know they’re safe and the way that they know that is by setting limits
and consequences’’ (Darlene, caregiver). Participants also acknowledged that teaching
a student with FASD is challenging in any setting: ‘‘::: it’s hard because everything is
concrete with a child [with FASD] and everything has to be consistent ::: and structured’’
(Chloe, caregiver). Some settings, in particular, were described as effective for meeting
individual students’ learning needs:
: : : the thing coming [to a school for students with cognitive and educational disabilities] is
the level of programming that we can offer and the [activities] ::: the kids can be involved
in. It’s more life-skills oriented : : : there’s a lot of hands-on [learning] : : : that is going to be
meaningful to them. (Bryan, administrator)
A perception common across all roles was the necessity of intensive and specialized in-
struction emphasizing the development of academic skills and personal characteristics:
I think intensive programming is necessary initially to give them some strategies and some good
self-concept feelings and then maybe slowly try to wean as they adjust to school and they’ve
built that confidence ::: to assist themselves more than anything. (Wynne, administrator)
These findings align with those of a recent investigation supporting the use of targeted
instructional strategies for students with FASD (O’Connor et al., 2006) as well as interven-
tions that promote behavioral reframing and environmental accommodations (Jirikowic,
Gelo, & Astley, 2010; Olson et al., 2005). This signifies an emerging trend in conversations
with stakeholders involved in the education and care of students with FASD—highlighting
the importance of supporting not only academic learning but also the development of
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 259
confidence and identity among these students so that they may achieve successful outcomes
beyond the classroom (Rogers-Adkinson & Stuart, 2007). It is essential for educators and
allied professionals to possess knowledge of the needs of individual students and to consider
a variety of educational and behavioral strategies in their work with students with FASD.
Addressing Service Gaps
More effective collaboration among school- and community-based services is necessary
for increased access to assessment and effective transition to adulthood. Allied professionals
and administrators remarked that some progress has been made with school and children’s
services beginning to acknowledge gaps in community support yet struggling with a need
for more resources: ‘‘We ::: need to bring in a lot of outside support for students who
have FAS[D] because they don’t always make those connections ::: you have to provide
mental health support ::: ’’ (Tom, administrator) and ‘‘informal supports [within the]
community :::’’ (Hailey, allied professional). In particular, participants agreed that some
classroom strategies such as smaller class sizes and a greater focus on vocational skills,
especially at the high school level, would aid in preparing students with FASD for life
beyond the classroom: ‘‘Basic literacy if they get it ::: but more vocational and life skills’’
(Larry, teacher).
Researchers (e.g., Clark, Minnes, Lutke, & Ouellette-Kuntz, 2008; Duquette et al.,
2006b; Watson & Westby, 2003) have echoed participants’ emphasis on the importance of
specialized services for students with FASD within the classroom as well as in transition to
work and independent living. Specifically, the work of Lindstrom and colleagues (2007)
highlighted the need for an individualized approach offering multiple opportunities for
students with FASD to learn from challenges and successes as they prepare for adult roles
and responsibilities. One of the remaining challenges is limited awareness of FASD among
community-based services. A collaborative approach to educate community organizations
about the condition in order to obtain suitable resources is crucial to effecting positive
change (Caley, Kramer, & Robinson, 2005).
Implications
The importance of this study for teacher education and professional development is two-
fold: (a) FASD now outranks autism and Down syndrome in prevalence (Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2005), and (b) students with FASD
typically receive instruction in general education classroom settings (Ryan & Ferguson,
2006a). Thus, the likelihood of having a student with an FASD is high, and teachers need to
be prepared. Researchers have been divided in their views of how teachers should approach
education with this special student population. Many have concentrated on learning and
achievement, gearing intervention ideas toward behavioral and educational and goals
(Dybdahl & Ryan, 2009; Green, 2007). In contrast, some authors speak to the emotional
and psychological health of students, highlighting the development of self-worth, emotional
regulation, and personal identity as key to student success (Benz et al., 2000; Lindstrom
et al., 2007). The present study combined both perspectives and suggested a holistic
framework that emphasizes developmentally appropriate practice wherein the teacher
nurtures a student’s social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development (Kochhar-
Bryant, 2010). This approach to classroom practice expresses an ecological consciousness—
recognizing that everything in the world exists in context, and that the diversity of students
with FASD should be embraced and cultivated.
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260 C. Poth et al.
Taken together, the study findings supported an overarching framework to classroom
practice that is intentional, reflective, and assimilative, and to professional learning oppor-
tunities that are grounded in classroom-based research. This approach bridges all three
themes suggesting positive outcomes are achieved through classroom strategies that gain
an understanding of the whole student, respond appropriately to the dynamic influences
on the student’s complex environments, and maximize programming that supports the
student’s learning and development. To be intentional is to use actions that are chosen
based on an understanding of the complex needs of the student with FASD, the envi-
ronment within which the student functions, and the supports necessary for optimizing
programming to achieve desired learning and development goals. Reflective practice then
requires engagement in thinking processes to evaluate actions, determine the extent to
which desired goals were achieved, and consider the potential reasons for the observed
outcomes. Finally, to be assimilative entails responding to the new ideas and learning
gained through reflection so that future action may be shaped by experiences. These three
actions—intention, reflection, and assimilation—enable teachers to respond to complex
student needs, dynamic environmental influences, and variable support allocation in ways
that are both innovative and adaptive.
There are three implications for developing professional learning opportunities reflec-
tive of an approach incorporating the iterative processes of intentional actions, reflective
thinking, and assimilation of ideas (see Figure 2). The first is the need for teachers to
FIGURE 2 Visual representation of the three iterative processes and implications of the approach
involving intentionality, reflection, and assimilation.
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Intentional, Reflective, and Assimilative Classroom Practices 261
reconceptualize their classroom practices as evolutionary; that is, viewed as a constant
progression of adaptation. To this end, teachers respond to students in their classroom
in a way that is not constrained by rules or routine but rather as part of an evolutionary
process that can inform and improve classroom practice for all children. Second is the
need for monitoring students’ dynamic environments, which can greatly influence their
potential academic outcomes. To this end, teachers learn about how the classroom, school,
home, and broader systems affect each student, which better positions the teacher to meet
individual learning needs. The final implication relates to the need for alternative strategies
and novel programming in a low-risk environment wherein teachers engage in trial and
error teaching and programming, reflect upon successful and unsuccessful practices, and
communicate openly with others to explore what may be done differently to establish a
shared understanding of the needs and strengths of students with FASD.
To capture the experiences and perspectives of those involved in the education of
students with FASD, focus groups and interviews were conducted. This can be considered
both a limitation and a strength of the present study because they are limited to what
participants are willing and able to articulate within a group setting; however, all possible
measures were taken (e.g., grouping by role, beginning with low-risk questions) to provide
a comfortable atmosphere for sharing, and it is believed that participants were forthright
and honest. Evidence of this was provided through detailed answers and field notes indi-
cating observations that participants were engaged and often stayed after the sessions were
completed to converse further. Finally, the focus on individuals involved in the education of
students with FASD provided a comprehensive understanding of the experiences of only
this specific population; however, the findings remain relevant for other students with
complex needs as well. Further research is recommended to (a) address the limitations
highlighted within these findings and to (b) replicate this study across populations for
greater generalization and understanding of how an approach characterized by intention-
ality, reflection, and assimilation could enhance classroom practices beyond the FASD
population for additional complex student populations.
Conclusion
By documenting experiences and identifying influential classroom strategies, this study
provides an essential step toward better-prepared educators and allied professionals for
meeting diverse learning and developmental needs of students with FASD as well as
additional complex student populations. The study highlights the untapped potential for
evidence-based practices to inform the expansion of professional learning opportunities
for educators by forwarding an approach characterized by intentionality, reflection, and
assimilation. This research was not about identifying a set of rules for working with students
with FASD but rather about establishing a basic philosophy of positive interaction and
understanding of the core developmental needs of children with complex presentations.
The hope is that once established, this philosophy may lead to changes in the way we
interact with all students in order to increase their chances of successful outcomes.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank Erin Sulla for helpful comments during the review of a draft of this
article.
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262 C. Poth et al.
Funding
This work was supported by a grant awarded to Drs. Poth and Pei from the Alberta Centre
for Child, Family and Community Research.
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