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Post‐exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long‐term adaptations in muscle to strength training
The Journal of Physiology
Abstract
We investigated functional, morphological and molecular adaptations to strength training exercise and cold water immersion (CWI) through two separate studies. In one study, 21 physically active men strength trained for 12 weeks (2 d⋅wk(-1) ), with either 10 min of CWI or active recovery (ACT) after each training session. Strength and muscle mass increased more in the ACT group than in the CWI group (P<0.05). Isokinetic work (19%), type II muscle fibre cross-sectional area (17%) and the number of myonuclei per fibre (26%) increased in the ACT group (all P<0.05) but not the CWI group. In another study, nine active men performed a bout of single-leg strength exercises on separate days, followed by CWI or ACT. Muscle biopsies were collected before and 2, 24 and 48 h after exercise. The number of satellite cells expressing neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) (10-30%) and paired box protein (Pax7)(20-50%) increased 24-48 h after exercise with ACT. The number of NCAM(+) satellitecells increased 48 h after exercise with CWI. NCAM(+) - and Pax7(+) -positivesatellite cell numbers were greater after ACT than after CWI (P<0.05). Phosphorylation of p70S6 kinase(Thr421/Ser424) increased after exercise in both conditions but was greater after ACT (P<0.05). These data suggest that CWI attenuates the acute changes in satellite cell numbers and activity of kinases that regulate muscle hypertrophy, which may translate to smaller long-term training gains in muscle strength and hypertrophy. The use of CWI as a regular post-exercise recovery strategy should be reconsidered. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Previous studies have provided evidence that cold interventions can inhibit certain adaptations to exercise training. CWI has been shown to decrease the activity of the MTORC1 signaling pathway (Roberts et al. 2015b), which is essential for protein translation, cell growth and muscle hypertrophy (Sanchez et al. 2019). CWI also reduces ribosome biogenesis and attenuates exercise-related changes in the satellite cell pool (Roberts et al. 2015b;Figueiredo et al. 2016). ...
... CWI has been shown to decrease the activity of the MTORC1 signaling pathway (Roberts et al. 2015b), which is essential for protein translation, cell growth and muscle hypertrophy (Sanchez et al. 2019). CWI also reduces ribosome biogenesis and attenuates exercise-related changes in the satellite cell pool (Roberts et al. 2015b;Figueiredo et al. 2016). On the other hand, CWI blunts and delays the increase in circulating testosterone and cytokines such as IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) after resistance exercise (Earp et al. 2019). ...
... On the other hand, CWI blunts and delays the increase in circulating testosterone and cytokines such as IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) after resistance exercise (Earp et al. 2019). CWI has been shown to hamper various training adaptations following strength training, with significant effects on satellite cell activation and the activity of proteins that regulate muscle growth after a single bout of resistance exercise (Roberts et al. 2015b;Méline et al. 2017). Over a long period, CWI can lead to fewer gains in hypertrophy and completely blunt maximal isometric strength gains within a training protocol comprising 12 weeks of biweekly resistance training (Roberts et al. 2015b). ...
Recovery methods, such as thermal interventions, have been developed to promote optimal recovery and maximize long-term training adaptations. However, the beneficial effects of these recovery strategies remain a source of controversy. This narrative review aims to provide a detailed understanding of how cold and heat interventions impact long-term training adaptations. Emphasis is placed on skeletal muscle adaptations, particularly the involvement of signaling pathways regulating protein turnover, ribosome and mitochondrial biogenesis, as well as the critical role of satellite cells in promoting myofiber regeneration following atrophy. The current literature suggests that cold interventions can blunt molecular adaptations (e.g., protein synthesis and satellite cell activation) and oxi-inflammatory responses after resistance exercise, resulting in diminished exercise-induced hypertrophy and lower gains in isometric strength during training protocols. Conversely, heat interventions appear promising for mitigating skeletal muscle degradation during immobilization and atrophy. Indeed, heat treatments (e.g., passive interventions such as sauna-bathing or diathermy) can enhance protein turnover and improve the maintenance of muscle mass in atrophic conditions, although their effects on uninjured skeletal muscles in both humans and rodents remain controversial. Nonetheless, heat treatment may serve as an important tool for attenuating atrophy and preserving mitochondrial function in immobilized or injured athletes. Finally, the potential interplay between exercise, thermal interventions and epigenetics is discussed. Future studies must be encouraged to clarify how repeated thermal interventions (heat and cold) affect long-term exercise training adaptations and to determine the optimal modalities (i.e., method of application, temperature, duration, relative humidity, and timing).
... Most notably, CWI has been reported to acutely attenuate post-RT mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 signaling (Fyfe et al., 2019), ribosome biogenesis (Figueiredo et al., 2016), muscle protein synthesis (MPS) (Fuchs et al., 2020), satellite cell activity (Roberts et al., 2015), and increases in circulating testosterone and cytokines (Earp et al., 2019)-responses which may, to varying degrees, negatively impact muscular adaptations (Crewther et al., 2006;Figueiredo & McCarthy, 2019;Koh & Pizza, 2009;Kraemer & Ratamess, 2005;Ogasawara & Suginohara, 2018). The purpose of this paper was to systematically review the literature and perform a meta-analysis of the existing data on the effects of postexercise cooling coupled with RT on gains in measures of muscle hypertrophy. ...
... The duration of the included studies ranged from 4 to 12 weeks. All studies included young adults (aged 20-26 years) of which 7 studies included only male participants (Fyfe et al., 2019;Horgan et al., 2023;Ohnishi et al., 2004;Roberts et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2021;Yamane et al., 2006;Yamane et al., 2015) and 1 study included both male and female participants (Poppendieck et al., 2021). Four studies examined resistance-trained participants (Horgan et al., 2023;Poppendieck et al., 2021;Roberts et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2021) and the others employed untrained participants (Fyfe et al., 2019;Ohnishi et al., 2004;Yamane et al., 2006;Yamane et al., 2015). ...
... All studies included young adults (aged 20-26 years) of which 7 studies included only male participants (Fyfe et al., 2019;Horgan et al., 2023;Ohnishi et al., 2004;Roberts et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2021;Yamane et al., 2006;Yamane et al., 2015) and 1 study included both male and female participants (Poppendieck et al., 2021). Four studies examined resistance-trained participants (Horgan et al., 2023;Poppendieck et al., 2021;Roberts et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2021) and the others employed untrained participants (Fyfe et al., 2019;Ohnishi et al., 2004;Yamane et al., 2006;Yamane et al., 2015). Six studies incorporated a parallel group design (Fyfe et al., 2019;Ohnishi et al., 2004;Roberts et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2021;Yamane et al., 2006;Yamane et al., 2015), and the other two employed a within-subject crossover design (Horgan et al., 2023;Poppendieck et al., 2021). ...
The purpose of this paper was to systematically review the literature and perform a meta‐analysis of the existing data on the effects of postexercise cold water immersion (CWI) coupled with resistance training (RT) on gains in measures of muscle growth. To locate relevant studies, we comprehensively searched the PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. A total of 8 studies met the inclusion criteria; all investigated CWI as the means of cold application. Preliminary analyses conducted on noncontrolled effect sizes provided strong evidence of hypertrophic adaptations with RT that were likely to be at least small in magnitude (SMD0.5 = 0.36 [95% CrI: 0.10–0.61]; p (>0) = 0.995, p (>0.1) = 0.977). In contrast, noncontrolled effect sizes provided some evidence of hypertrophic adaptations with CWI + RT that were likely to be small to negligible in magnitude (SMD0.5 = 0.14 [95% CrI: −0.08–0.36]; p (>0) = 0.906, p (>0.1) = 0.68). The primary analysis conducted on comparative effect sizes provided some evidence of greater relative hypertrophic adaptations with RT compared to CWI + RT (cSMD0.5 = −0.22 [95% CrI: −0.47 to 0.04]) with differences likely to be greater than zero (p (<0) = 0.957) and of at least a small magnitude of effect (p (<−0.1) = 0.834). Meta‐regression did not indicate a potential moderation effect of training status (βTrained:Untrained0.5 = −0.10 [95% CrI: −0.65 to 0.43] p < 0) = 0.653). In conclusion, based on the current data, the application of CWI immediately following bouts of RT may attenuate hypertrophic changes. Given the overall relatively fair to poor quality of the studies examined, the results of the current study should be interpreted with some caution.
... Our group has previously reported that, compared with active recovery, regular application of cold water immersion after exercise reduces gains in muscle mass and strength following 3 months of resistance training (Roberts et al. 2015b). Cold water immersion may have attenuated long-term adaptive responses to resistance exercise by modulating inflammation and cellular stress. ...
... The aim of the current study was to investigate whether cold water immersion reduces local inflammation in muscle following exercise compared with active recovery. To conduct this analysis, we used muscle samples that we collected as part of a large study (Roberts et al. 2015b). In this large study, we compared cold water immersion with active recovery for two reasons. ...
... All participants had at least 12 months of experience in resistance training ࣙ 3 times per week, and were familiar with all exercise aspects of the study. The data presented herein are part of a large study, from which we have previously published two papers containing separate findings, which are described above (Roberts et al. 2015b;Figueiredo et al. 2016). ...
Cold water immersion is often used to recover from exercise in the belief that it reduces muscle soreness and inflammation. However, no data currently exist to support this notion—at least in humans. We compared the effects of cold water immersion versus active recovery on neutrophil and macrophages, pro‐inflammatory cytokines, neurotrophic and growth factors, heat shock proteins and transcription factors in muscle after resistance exercise. In a randomized cross‐over design, 10 active men performed resistance exercise using one leg on separate days. On one day, they immersed their lower body in cold water (10°C) for 10 min after exercise. On the other day they cycled at a low‐intensity for 10 min after exercise. Muscle biopsies were collected from each leg before, 2, 24 and 48 h after exercise. Exercise induced a strong inflammatory response, as indicated by increases in neutrophil and macrophage counts and IL‐1β, TNF‐α, IL‐6 and MCP‐1 mRNA (P<0.05). Growth arrest and DNA damage‐inducible 45 protein (Gadd 45) mRNA also increased markedly (P<0.05). As evidence of hyperalgesia, nerve growth factor (NGF) and glial cell‐line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mRNA increased after exercise (P<0.05). The protein abundance of Forkhead box class O (FOXO) and αB‐crystallin in the cytosolic fraction of muscle homogenates decreased after exercise (P<0.05), indicating nuclear translocation. Despite these robust responses, there were no significant differences in any of these factors between the two trials. Therefore, contrary to popular belief, cold water immersion did not attenuate inflammation or markers of soreness in muscle after intense resistance exercise.
... CWI has been reported to attenuate muscle soreness and increase the speed of recovery of muscular function following exercise (Fonseca et al., 2016;Moore et al., 2022;Siqueira et al., 2018). While CWI following intense resistance exercise may be beneficial for sub-maximal aerobic function (Roberts et al., 2014), there is also evidence for reduced post-exercise rates of muscle protein synthesis rates (Fuchs et al., 2020) and blunted resistance traininginduced muscle hypertrophy and muscular strength (Roberts et al., 2015). CWI use with resistance training also shifts muscle cell adaptations toward a relatively slow twitch phenotype, with increased capillary formation (D'Souza, . ...
... Nine physically active men (22.1 ± 2.2 years old), with a history of at least 12 months experience in strength training completed a bout of single-leg strength exercise on two separate occasions using opposite legs, separated by at least 1 week (Roberts et al., 2015). The 8-repetition maximum (RM) strength of unilateral knee extension (71 ± 12.0 kg) and unilateral 45° leg press (299 ± 44.8 kg) for both legs was assessed 4-5 days prior to the first experimental exercise bout. ...
... From the current study, it is apparent that miR-1 and -133a expression were elevated after the CWI compared to ACT. This new finding may help explain the deleterious effects of CWI on resistance exercise-induced muscle anabolic signaling, protein synthesis, and hypertrophy previously reported by us and others (Figueiredo et al., 2016;Roberts et al., 2015). miR-1/133 targets several pro-growth genes and has been shown to be downregulated during muscle hypertrophy in mice (McCarthy & Esser, 2007). ...
Cold water immersion (CWI) following intense exercise is a common athletic recovery practice. However, CWI impacts muscle adaptations to exercise training, with attenuated muscle hypertrophy and increased angiogenesis. Tissue temperature modulates the abundance of specific miRNA species and thus CWI may affect muscle adaptations via modulating miRNA expression following a bout of exercise. The current study focused on the regulatory mechanisms involved in cleavage and nuclear export of mature miRNA, including DROSHA , EXPORTIN‐5 , and DICER . Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis of young males ( n = 9) at rest and at 2, 4, and 48 h of recovery from an acute bout of resistance exercise, followed by either 10 min of active recovery (ACT) at ambient temperature or CWI at 10°C. The abundance of key miRNA species in the regulation of intracellular anabolic signaling (miR‐1 and miR‐133a) and angiogenesis (miR‐15a and miR‐126) were measured, along with several gene targets implicated in satellite cell dynamics (NCAM and PAX7) and angiogenesis (VEGF and SPRED‐1). When compared to ACT, CWI suppressed mRNA expression of DROSHA (24 h p = 0.025 and 48 h p = 0.017), EXPORTIN‐5 (24 h p = 0.008), and DICER (24 h p = 0.0034). Of the analyzed miRNA species, miR‐133a (24 h p < 0.001 and 48 h p = 0.007) and miR‐126 (24 h p < 0.001 and 48 h p < 0.001) remained elevated at 24 h post‐exercise in the CWI trial only. Potential gene targets of these miRNA, however, did not differ between trials. CWI may therefore impact miRNA abundance in skeletal muscle, although the precise physiological relevance needs further investigation.
... However, there are various mechanistic reasons that suggest CWI may have detrimental effects on longitudinal skeletal muscle accretion. Most notably, CWI has been found to acutely attenuate post-RT mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 signaling [17] , ribosome biogenesis [18] , muscle protein synthesis (MPS) [19] , satellite cell activity [20] , and increases in circulating testosterone and cytokines [21] responses which may, to varying degrees, negatively impact muscular adaptations [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] . The purpose of this paper was to systematically review the literature and perform a metaanalysis of the existing data on the effects of post-exercise cooling coupled with RT on gains in measures of muscle growth. ...
... The SMART-LD tool consists of 20 questions that address the following aspects of a study's methodology: general (items 1-2); participants (items 3-7), training program (items 8-11), outcomes (items [12][13][14][15][16], and statistical analyses (17)(18)(19)(20). Each item in the checklist is given 1 point if the criterion is satisfied or 0 points if the criterion is not satisfied. ...
... Seven studies included only males [ [45] , and 1 study included both males and females [46] . Four studies employed resistance-trained participants [46] [41] [42] [20] and the others employed untrained participants [45] [44] [43] [17] . Six studies incorporated a parallel group design [45] [44] [43] [41] [20] [17] and the other 2 employed a within-subject crossover design [46] [42] . ...
2023). Throwing cold water on muscle growth: A systematic review with meta-analysis of the effects of post-exercise cold water immersion on resistance training-induced hypertrophy. SportRχiv. 1 ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper was to systematically review the literature and perform a meta-analysis of the existing data on the effects of post-exercise cooling coupled with resistance training (RT) on gains in measures of muscle growth. To locate relevant studies for the topic, we comprehensively searched the PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. A total of 8 studies met inclusion criteria; all employed cold water immersion (CWI) as the means of cold application. Preliminary analyses conducted on non-controlled effect sizes provided strong evidence of hypertrophic adaptations with RT that were likely to be at least small in magnitude (SMD0.5 = 0.36 [95%CrI: 0.10 to 0.61]; p(>0) = 0.995, p(>0.1) = 0.977). In contrast, non-controlled effect sizes provided some evidence of hypertrophic adaptations with CWI + RT that were likely to be between small and zero in magnitude (SMD0.5 = 0.14 [95%CrI:-0.08 to 0.36]; p(>0) = 0.906, p(>0.1) = 0.68). The primary analysis conducted on comparative effect sizes provided some evidence of greater relative hypertrophic adaptations with RT compared to CWI + RT (cSMD0.5 =-0.22 [95%CrI:-0.47 to 0.04]), with differences likely to be greater than zero (p(<0) = 0.957) and of at least a small magnitude of effect (p(<-0.1) = 0.834). Meta-regression did not indicate a potential moderation effect of training status (Trained:Untrained 0.5 =-0.10 [95%CrI:-0.65 to 0.43] < 0)=0.653). In conclusion, the current data suggest that the application of CWI immediately following bouts of RT may attenuate hypertrophic changes.
... Regardless of the optimal resistance training modalities, muscle hypertrophy can only occur in the presence of a positive net muscle protein balance and sufficient amino acid availability (Biolo et al., 1995;Phillips et al., 1997). Post-exercise muscle blood flow is known to be an important contributor to muscle protein synthesis (Biolo et al., 1995;Fujita et al., 2006;Timmerman et al., 2010), and a suppressed post-exercise blood flow may lead to reduced resistance training adaptations as proposed by post-exercise muscle cooling studies (Roberts et al., 2015;Fuchs et al., 2020;Fyfe et al., 2019). However, it remains to be investigated if the blood flow following training sessions of different training loads is different between ST and FT individuals. ...
... A selection of studies found a positive association between post-exercise hyperaemia and muscle protein synthesis rates (Fujita et al., 2006;Timmerman et al., 2010). Cold water immersion studies, in which blood flow is reduced (Mawhinney et al., 2017), provide further evidence in this regard by showing attenuated resistance training induced adaptations in muscle volume, strength and fibre CSA in the cold water-immersed limb (Roberts et al., 2015;Fyfe et al., 2019). The latter may be the result of a diminished amino acid delivery to the muscle and consequent suppressed myofibrillar protein synthesis rates (Biolo et al., 1995;Roberts et al., 2015;Fuchs et al., 2020;Fyfe et al., 2019). ...
... Cold water immersion studies, in which blood flow is reduced (Mawhinney et al., 2017), provide further evidence in this regard by showing attenuated resistance training induced adaptations in muscle volume, strength and fibre CSA in the cold water-immersed limb (Roberts et al., 2015;Fyfe et al., 2019). The latter may be the result of a diminished amino acid delivery to the muscle and consequent suppressed myofibrillar protein synthesis rates (Biolo et al., 1995;Roberts et al., 2015;Fuchs et al., 2020;Fyfe et al., 2019). The higher blood flow in FT individuals might therefore be indicative of a higher muscle protein synthesis potential and consequently superior resistance training induced whole-muscle adaptations in these individuals. ...
Considerable inter‐individual heterogeneity exists in the muscular adaptations to resistance training. It has been proposed that fast‐twitch fibres are more sensitive to hypertrophic stimuli and thus that variation in muscle fibre type composition is a contributing factor to the magnitude of training response. This study investigated if the inter‐individual variability in resistance training adaptations is determined by muscle typology and if the most appropriate weekly training frequency depends on muscle typology. In strength‐training novices, 11 slow (ST) and 10 fast typology (FT) individuals were selected by measuring muscle carnosine with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Participants trained both upper arm and leg muscles to failure at 60% of one‐repetition maximum (1RM) for 10 weeks, whereby one arm and leg trained 3×/week and the contralateral arm and leg 2×/week. Muscle volume (MRI‐based 3D segmentation), maximal dynamic strength (1RM) and fibre type‐specific cross‐sectional area (vastus lateralis biopsies) were evaluated. The training response for total muscle volume (+3 to +14%), fibre size (−19 to +22%) and strength (+17 to +47%) showed considerable inter‐individual variability, but these could not be attributed to differences in muscle typology. However, ST individuals performed a significantly higher training volume to gain these similar adaptations than FT individuals. The limb that trained 3×/week had generally more pronounced hypertrophy than the limb that trained 2×/week, and there was no interaction with muscle typology. In conclusion, muscle typology cannot explain the high variability in resistance training adaptations when training is performed to failure at 60% of 1RM. image
Key points
This study investigated the influence of muscle typology (muscle fibre type composition) on the variability in resistance training adaptations and on its role in the individualization of resistance training frequency.
We demonstrate that an individual's muscle typology cannot explain the inter‐individual variability in resistance training‐induced increases in muscle volume, maximal dynamic strength and fibre cross‐sectional area when repetitions are performed to failure.
Importantly, slow typology individuals performed a significantly higher training volume to obtain similar adaptations compared to fast typology individuals.
Muscle typology does not determine the most appropriate resistance training frequency. However, regardless of muscle typology, an additional weekly training (3×/week vs. 2×/week) increases muscle hypertrophy but not maximal dynamic strength.
These findings expand on our understanding of the underlying mechanisms for the large inter‐individual variability in resistance training adaptations.
... In non-athlete participants, the repeated use of postresistance exercise CWI has been shown to attenuate chronic responses in lean muscle mass (Roberts et al. 2015) or muscle thickness (Poppendieck et al. 2020), which may have contributed to attenuated increases in strength and power performance responses (Poppendieck et al. 2020). If CWI is used repeatedly following resistance exercise, this may result in the repetitive accrual of acute reductions in myofibrillar protein synthesis (Fuchs et al. 2020a,b) and down-regulation of satellite cell activity and hypertrophy signalling pathways (Roberts et al. 2015). ...
... In non-athlete participants, the repeated use of postresistance exercise CWI has been shown to attenuate chronic responses in lean muscle mass (Roberts et al. 2015) or muscle thickness (Poppendieck et al. 2020), which may have contributed to attenuated increases in strength and power performance responses (Poppendieck et al. 2020). If CWI is used repeatedly following resistance exercise, this may result in the repetitive accrual of acute reductions in myofibrillar protein synthesis (Fuchs et al. 2020a,b) and down-regulation of satellite cell activity and hypertrophy signalling pathways (Roberts et al. 2015). This has contributed to scepticism regarding repeated use of CWI application following resistance exercise. ...
... To date, researchers have not investigated the effects of repeated use of post-resistance exercise water immersion on muscular hypertrophy and neuromuscular performance responses in a highly trained athlete cohort (Roberts et al. 2015). This study aimed to determine the effects following a repeated, i.e., 4-week, CWI (15-min × 15 ºC) versus HWI (15-min × 39 ºC) strategy replicating pool temperatures and durations typically utilised by athletes in a high-performance training centre, compared to CON, on the muscular hypertrophy and neuromuscular performance responses following resistance exercise. ...
Purpose
Following resistance exercise, uncertainty exists as to whether the regular application of cold water immersion attenuates lean muscle mass increases in athletes. The effects of repeated post-resistance exercise cold versus hot water immersion on body composition and neuromuscular jump performance responses in athletes were investigated.
Methods
Male, academy Super Rugby players ( n = 18, 19.9 ± 1.5 y, 1.85 ± 0.06 m, 98.3 ± 10.7 kg) participated in a 12-week (4-week × 3-intervention, i.e., control [CON], cold [CWI] or hot [HWI] water immersion) resistance exercise programme, utilising a randomised cross-over pre–post-design. Body composition measures were collected using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry prior to commencement and every fourth week thereafter. Neuromuscular squat (SJ) and counter-movement jump (CMJ) performance were measured weekly. Linear mixed-effects models were used to analyse main (treatment, time) and interaction effects.
Results
There were no changes in lean ( p = 0.960) nor fat mass ( p = 0.801) between interventions. CON ( p = 0.004) and CWI ( p = 0.003) increased ( g = 0.08–0.19) SJ height, compared to HWI. There were no changes in CMJ height ( p = 0.482) between interventions.
Conclusion
Repeated post-resistance exercise whole-body CWI or HWI does not attenuate (nor promote) increases in lean muscle mass in athletes. Post-resistance exercise CON or CWI results in trivial increases in SJ height, compared to HWI. During an in-season competition phase, our data support the continued use of post-resistance exercise whole-body CWI by athletes as a recovery strategy which does not attenuate body composition increases in lean muscle mass, while promoting trivial increases in neuromuscular concentric-only squat jump performance.
... The use of CWI throughout a taper period during competition preparation resulted in unclear (15 °C × 15 min, whole-body) (Halson et al. 2014) or positive (15 °C × 15 min, whole-body; 10 °C × 10 min, partial-body) (Halson et al. 2014;Tavares et al. 2020) performance responses, which may be associated with attenuated increases in post-exercise inflammation. If the practice of applying post-resistance exercise CWI (8 °C × 20 min, single-limb; 10 °C × 10 min, partial-body) occurs repeatedly over time, this may result in the accumulation of multiple acute reductions in myofibrillar protein synthesis (Fuchs et al. 2020a, b) and the down-regulation of satellite cell activity and hypertrophy signalling pathways (Roberts et al. 2015). These findings have contributed to scepticism regarding repeated CWI application following resistance exercise in athletes. ...
... To date researchers have not investigated the cumulative effects of repeated post-resistance exercise water immersion on the adaptive inflammatory responses in a highly trained athlete cohort (Roberts et al. 2015). Studies utilising athletes in high performance training settings which investigate the underlying inflammatory adaptive responses to repeated post-resistance exercise water immersion are essential to advance the understanding of the role of post-resistance exercise water immersion, and how it can be periodised across training and competition. ...
Purpose
Uncertainty exists if post-resistance exercise hydrotherapy attenuates chronic inflammatory and hormone responses. The effects of repeated post-resistance exercise water immersion on inflammatory and hormone responses in athletes were investigated.
Methods
Male, academy Super Rugby players (n = 18, 19.9 ± 1.5 y, 1.85 ± 0.06 m, 98.3 ± 10.7 kg) participated in a 12-week programme divided into 3 × 4-week blocks of post-resistance exercise water immersion (either, no immersion control [CON]; cold [CWI]; or hot [HWI] water immersion), utilising a randomised cross-over pre-post design. Fasted, morning blood measures were collected prior to commencement of first intervention block, and every fourth week thereafter. Linear mixed-effects models were used to analyse main (treatment, time) and interaction effects.
Results
Repeated CWI (p = 0.025, g = 0.05) and HWI (p < 0.001, g = 0.62) reduced creatine kinase (CK), compared to CON. HWI decreased (p = 0.013, g = 0.59) interleukin (IL)-1ra, compared to CON. HWI increased (p < 0.001–0.026, g = 0.06–0.17) growth factors (PDGF-BB, IGF-1), compared to CON and CWI. CWI increased (p = 0.004, g = 0.46) heat shock protein-72 (HSP-72), compared to HWI.
Conclusion
Post-resistance exercise CWI or HWI resulted in trivial and moderate reductions in CK, respectively, which may be partly due to hydrostatic effects of water immersion. Post-resistance exercise HWI moderately decreased IL-1ra, which may be associated with post-resistance exercise skeletal muscle inflammation influencing chronic resistance exercise adaptive responses. Following post-resistance exercise water immersion, CWI increased HSP-72 suggesting a thermoregulatory response indicating improved adaptive inflammatory responses to temperature changes, while HWI increased growth factors (PDGF-BB, IGF-1) indicating different systematic signalling pathway activation. Our data supports the continued use of post-resistance exercise water immersion recovery strategies of any temperature during in-season competition phases for improved inflammatory adaptive responses in athletes.
... Cold water immersion has been reported as widely used in elite soccer (33,78). However, the recovery of physical performance and physiologic outcomes had been dubious (13,31,41,44,93); some detrimental effects in muscle protein synthesis and muscle adaptations have been reported after its extensive use (35,62,83,96), and its effectiveness has only been clearly proven for the recovery of perceptive outcomes (13,22,31,41,44,55,60,79,101). The use of cold therapies may be higher in home compared with away matches, whereas in away matches, cold water immersion is normally applied in MD + 1 because of logistical factors (33,78). ...
... However, some studies have reported that the effectiveness of cold water immersion is higher when performed immediately after harmful exercise (i.e., strenuous exercise) than at later times (2,82,99,101). As such, considering the known detrimental effects on muscle protein synthesis, muscle mass development, and strength after its extensive use (35,62,83,96), cold water immersion should preferably be applied immediately after the matches during competitive periods (82,96,101). ...
Several recovery methods have been proposed to optimize postmatch recovery in elite soccer. However, practical guidance for the implementation of recovery methods that somehow confer benefits on the recovery process immediately postmatch (MD), 1 day postmatch (MD + 1), and 2 days postmatch (MD + 2) is lacking. This article aimed to review the existing literature and provide a practical guide for sports scientists, coaches, clinicians, and players concerning implementing the most-used recovery methods after male and female soccer matches. For this purpose, we first presented a general 5-level recovery model that divides the recovery methods according to their relevance in recovery, based on their effectiveness in recovery, frequency of use, and reported detrimental effects. In addition, practical recommendations were provided for implementing each recovery method following two days post-match according to the recovery of various parameters (i.e., physical, physiologic, and perceptual) and physiologic and psychosocial assumptions. It was concluded that the application of recovery methods should be prioritized, periodized, and individualized over the recovery period postmatch. In addition, some recovery methods with limited effectiveness in postmatch recovery should be recommended based on physiologic assumptions and potential psychosocial benefits.
... The acute advantages of cold modalities for recovery have been documented, with several studies suggesting that CWI can reduce both immediate anabolic signaling and long-term adaptations after resistance exercise [12][13][14]. In a 2020 meta-analysis of male athletes, CWI following resistance exercise sessions attenuated improvements in muscular strength [15]. ...
... This type of soak could therefore be adopted as a new recovery intervention for athletes after resistance training. It has also been pointed out that CWI attenuates long-term adaptations after resistance exercise [12][13][14]40]. Therefore, the effects of CH-CWI after resistance exercise on long-term adaptations should be investigated. ...
Background: The findings of previous studies support the efficacy of cold-water immersion (CWI) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in enhancing muscle blood flow and maintaining aerobic performance efficiency. We hypothesize that the addition of hydrogen gas (H2), known for its antioxidant properties and role in inflammation regulation, to C-CWI can enhance recovery after eccentric exercise.
Subjects: and Methods: Thirty-four healthy subjects performed a knee-extensor eccentric exercise. They were randomly allocated into four groups: control, CWI, CO2-rich CWI (C-CWI), and CO2 + H2 gas mixture CWI (CH-CWI). In the three CWI groups, all subjects were immersed in the appropriate bath at 20 ◦C for 20 min immediately after 60 repetitions of eccentric exercise. Before exercise and after 48 h of recovery, the subjects’ maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque (MVC-ISO), maximal voluntary concentric (MVC-CON) contraction torque, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, knee flexion range of motion (ROM), muscle soreness, and muscle thickness were measured.
Results: In the CH-CWI group only, the MVC-ISO, CMJ height, and ROM did not decrease significantly post-exercise, whereas all of these decreased in the other three groups. Muscle soreness at palpation, contraction, and stretching significantly increased post-exercise in all groups. Echo intensity and tissue hardness did not increase significantly in the CH-CWI group.
Conclusions: CH-CWI stimulated recovery from impairments in MVC-ISO torque, CMJ height, knee-flexion ROM, tissue hardness, and echo intensity. These findings indicate that CH-CWI can
promote recovery after eccentric exercise.
... There is some evidence that icing may enhance the speed at which athletes return to training and competition (5,9). There is some evidence that cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long-term adaptations in muscle to strength training (33). Therefore, there needs to be an awareness of the impact of icing on recovery from soft tissue injuries (5,33). ...
... There is some evidence that cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long-term adaptations in muscle to strength training (33). Therefore, there needs to be an awareness of the impact of icing on recovery from soft tissue injuries (5,33). Alternatively, icing to treat soft tissue injuries may reduce the size of hematomas (10) and ultimately provide an optimal environment from which tissue healing and regeneration can be initiated. ...
ABSTRACT Whilst individual components of the RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation) principle have been tested, limited research has been conducted to prove the efficacy of this treatment modality in its entirety. To determine the efficacy of RICE therapy in ameliorating indices of muscle damage, and to investigate the 'repeated bout' phenomenon-which refers to how the adaptation to a single bout of eccentric exercise protects against muscle damage from subsequent eccentric exercise bouts, and if this is adaptation is observed following RICE intervention. Untrained males (n=16, age= 20y ± 1.3, height=1.8m ± 0.7, weight= 78.35kg) performed two bouts of eccentrically biased exercise, 4 weeks apart. After determining the participants' one rep max (1RM), the exercise bout, consisting of 4 sets of eccentric bicep curls at varying percentages of the participants 1RM, was performed. After bout 1, participants were assigned to a group receiving either RICE therapy or a non-medicated cream. Creatine kinase was 50% lower (p<0.05) for RICE during the 24h post-exercise intervals. Isometric strength was ~7% higher (p<0.0001) for RICE, suggesting less strength loss. Muscle soreness during movement was ~5% lower (p=0.009) for RICE. RICE experienced ~4% less (p=0.05) reduction in range of motion. Indirect measures of muscle damage (except for strength within the first 12h) were significantly lower after bout 2 for both groups. Results suggest that RICE therapy reduces markers of exercise-induced muscle damage. In addition, the typical adaptation seen after one bout of eccentrics is still present following RICE therapy.
... Using a between-subject design, participants were pair matched for baseline strength (1 repetition maximum [RM] back squat), and body composition (body surface area to body mass ratio) in line with previous research (Roberts et al., 2015) and assigned to HWI (n = 8) or passive recovery (PAS) (n = 8) groups. Previous research has shown the relationship between body surface area relative to body mass to be an important influencer on thermal and physiological responses to hydrotherapy (Stephens et al., 2014). ...
... Prior to visit 3, participants were provided with a standardised meal (27 g porridge oats, 180 mL semi-skimmed milk, 200 g high protein yoghurt) to consume 2 h before arrival at the laboratory. Participants also consumed a ready to drink protein milk (30 g protein) following completion of the exercise session and after the 2 h post-exercise assessments, between which they were required to be fasted (Roberts et al., 2015). Additionally, participants were asked to refrain from food consumption in the 2 hours prior to any testing procedures. ...
Purpose: Hot water immersion (HWI) is a strategy theorised to enhance exercise recovery. However, the acute physiological responses to HWI following resistance exercise are yet to be determined.
Methods: The effect of HWI on intramuscular temperature (IMT), muscle function, muscle soreness and blood markers of muscle cell disruption and inflammatory processes after resistance exercise was assessed. Sixteen resistance trained males performed resistance exercise, followed by either 10 min HWI at 40°C or 10 min passive recovery (PAS).
Results: Post-intervention, the increase in IMT at all depths was greater for HWI compared to PAS, however this difference had disappeared by 1 h post at depths of 1 and 2 cm, and by 2 h post at a depth of 3 cm. There were no differences between groups for muscle function, muscle soreness or any blood markers.
Conclusion: These results suggest that HWI is a viable means of heat therapy to support a greater IMT following resistance exercise. Recovery of muscle function and muscle soreness is independent of acute changes in IMT associated with HWI.
... Generally, there are inconsistent findings regarding the application of postexercise CWI, CWT, and HWI strategies on neuromuscular performance (22,50,57), hormonal (5), and perceptual (22) responses. Research to date has predominantly focused on the physiological effects of cooling after team sport (22), and endurance exercise (27), using untrained and recreationally active subjects (39,45). In studies that have investigated acute (#48 hours) effects of postexercise CWI after resistance exercise on neuromuscular performance (41,44), hormonal responses (11,12,45), and perceptual outcomes (2,41), there is substantial variation in the type of resistance exercise performed, water immersion protocols applied, and the performance and measurement tests used. ...
... Research to date has predominantly focused on the physiological effects of cooling after team sport (22), and endurance exercise (27), using untrained and recreationally active subjects (39,45). In studies that have investigated acute (#48 hours) effects of postexercise CWI after resistance exercise on neuromuscular performance (41,44), hormonal responses (11,12,45), and perceptual outcomes (2,41), there is substantial variation in the type of resistance exercise performed, water immersion protocols applied, and the performance and measurement tests used. These confounding methodologies limit the opportunity to make detailed comparisons on the use of postexercise CWI as a strategy to enhance recovery in highperforming athletes. ...
Horgan, BG, Tee, N, West, NP, Drinkwater, EJ, Halson, SL, Colomer, CME, Fonda, CJ, Tatham, J, Chapman, DW, and Haff, GG. Acute performance, daily well-being and hormone responses to water immersion after resistance exercise in junior international and subelite male volleyball athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-Athletes use postexercise hydrotherapy strategies to improve recovery and competition performance and to enhance adaptative responses to training. Using a randomized cross-over design, the acute effects of 3 postresistance exercise water immersion strategies on perceived recovery, neuromuscular performance, and hormone concentrations in junior international and subelite male volleyball athletes (n = 18) were investigated. After resistance exercise, subjects randomly completed either 15-minute passive control (CON), contrast water therapy (CWT), cold (CWI), or hot water immersion (HWI) interventions. A treatment effect occurred after HWI; reducing perceptions of fatigue (HWI > CWT: p = 0.05, g = 0.43); improved sleep quality, compared with CON (p < 0.001, g = 1.15), CWI (p = 0.017, g = 0.70), and CWT (p = 0.018, g = 0.51); as well as increasing testosterone concentration (HWI > CWT: p = 0.038, g = 0.24). There were trivial to small (p < 0.001-0.039, g = 0.02-0.34) improvements (treatment effect) in jump performance (i.e., squat jump and countermovement jump) after all water immersion strategies, as compared with CON, with high variability in the individual responses. There were no significant differences (interaction effect, p > 0.05) observed between the water immersion intervention strategies and CON in performance (p = 0.153-0.99), hormone (p = 0.207-0.938), nor perceptual (p = 0.368-0.955) measures. To optimize recovery and performance responses, e.g., during an in-season competition phase, postresistance exercise HWI may assist with providing small-to-large improvements for up to 38 hours in perceived recovery (i.e., increased sleep quality and reduced fatigue) and increases in circulating testosterone concentration. Practitioners should consider individual athlete neuromuscular performance responses when prescribing postexercise hydrotherapy. These findings apply to athletes who aim to improve their recovery status, where postresistance exercise HWI optimizes sleep quality and next-day perceptions of fatigue.
... Despite substantial research and widespread use of CWI by athletes, there is a considerable scepticism and debate concerning the suitability of CWI as a post-exercise recovery tool. These concerns in-part stem from emerging research demonstrating impaired hypertrophy gains following the regular use of CWI (Fyfe et al., 2019;Roberts, Raastad, 2015), coupled with the lack of strong evidence underpinning the mechanistic basis of this modality (Ihsan et al., 2016;Stephens et al., 2017). The ambiguity surrounding the efficacy of CWI for physiological recovery also stems from mixed findings reported by experimental research. ...
... Although our findings demonstrate recovery benefits with regards to muscle soreness and fatigue, the authors advocate caution to the unwarranted use of CWI following resistance exercise, as several studies have demonstrated impaired muscle hypertrophy and/or strength gains following the frequent use this modality during longer-term resistance training (Fröhlich et al., 2014;Fyfe et al., 2019;Poppendieck et al., 2020;Roberts, Raastad, 2015). However, there is emerging view that recovery benefits conferred by CWI may outweigh its dampening effects on hypertrophy response during intensified periods of training. ...
This review evaluated the effect of CWI on the temporal recovery profile of physical performance, accounting for environmental conditions and prior exercise modality. Sixty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria. Standardised mean differences were calculated for parameters assessed at <1, 1-6, 24, 48, 72 and ≥96 h post-immersion. CWI improved short-term recovery of endurance performance (p = 0.01, 1 h), but impaired sprint (p = 0.03, 1 h) and jump performance (p = 0.04, 6h). CWI improved longer-term recovery of jump performance (p < 0.01-0.02, 24 h and 96 h) and strength (p < 0.01, 24 h), which coincided with decreased creatine kinase (p < 0.01-0.04, 24-72 h), improved muscle soreness (p < 0.01-0.02, 1-72 h) and perceived recovery (p < 0.01, 72 h). CWI improved the recovery of endurance performance following exercise in warm (p < 0.01) and but not in temperate conditions (p = 0.06). CWI improved strength recovery following endurance exercise performed at cool-to-temperate conditions (p = 0.04) and enhanced recovery of sprint performance following resistance exercise (p = 0.04). CWI seems to benefit the acute recovery of endurance performance, and longer-term recovery of muscle strength and power, coinciding with changes in muscle damage markers. This, however, depends on the nature of the preceding exercise.
... Given the value of sprints for performance in soccer (Haugen et al., 2014), CWI might serve as a powerful strategy to recover from a match in a congested competitive schedule context, i.e. with a second match in the same week. However, in training context, it is important to note that systematic/repetitive CWI after trainings sessions could led to lower training adaptations (Fröhlich et al., 2014) as it may restrain the activation of key proteins and satellite cells in the skeletal muscle (Roberts et al., 2015). Moreover, given the association between neuromuscular fatigue and muscle adaptations (Borresen and Lambert, 2009), the attenuation of fatigue following CWI in the present study may support the validity of previous evidence of the negative impact of CWI application on a chronic basis (Fröhlich et al., 2014;Roberts et al., 2015). ...
... However, in training context, it is important to note that systematic/repetitive CWI after trainings sessions could led to lower training adaptations (Fröhlich et al., 2014) as it may restrain the activation of key proteins and satellite cells in the skeletal muscle (Roberts et al., 2015). Moreover, given the association between neuromuscular fatigue and muscle adaptations (Borresen and Lambert, 2009), the attenuation of fatigue following CWI in the present study may support the validity of previous evidence of the negative impact of CWI application on a chronic basis (Fröhlich et al., 2014;Roberts et al., 2015). Therefore, we recommend prescribing CWI only after matches, during an overcrowded competitive schedule, and not after training sessions. ...
The present study aimed to investigate the effect of cold water immersion (CWI) on the recovery of neuromuscular fatigue following simulated soccer match-play. In a randomized design, twelve soccer players completed a 90-min simulated soccer match followed by either CWI or thermoneutral water immersion (TWI, sham condition). Before and after match (immediately after CWI/TWI through 72 h recovery), neuromuscular and performance assessments were performed. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and twitch responses, delivered through electrical femoral nerve stimulation, were used to assess peripheral fatigue (quadriceps resting twitch force, Qtw,pot) and central fatigue (voluntary activation, VA). Performance was assessed via squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and 20 m sprint tests. Biomarkers of muscle damages (creatine kinase, CK; Lactate dehydrogenase, LDH) were also collected. Smaller reductions in CWI than TWI were found in MVC (-9.9 ± 3%vs-23.7 ± 14.7%), VA (-3.7 ± 4.9%vs-15.4 ± 5.6%) and Qtw,pot (-15.7 ± 5.9% vs. -24.8 ± 9.5%) following post-match intervention (p < 0.05). On the other hand, smaller reductions in CWI than TWI were found only in Qtw,pot (-0.2 ± 7.7% vs. -8.8 ± 9.6%) at 72 h post-match. Afterwards, these parameters remained lower compared to baseline up to 48–72 h in TWI while they all recovered within 24 h in CWI. The 20 m sprint performance was less impaired in CWI than TWI (+11.1 ± 3.2% vs. +18 ± 3.6%, p < 0.05) while SJ and CMJ were not affected by the recovery strategy. Plasma LDH, yet no CK, were less increased during recovery in CWI compared to TWI. This study showed that CWI reduced both central and peripheral components of fatigue, which in turn led to earlier full recovery of the neuromuscular function and performance indices. Therefore, CWI might be an interesting recovery strategy for soccer players.
... Altogether, these important findings provide evidence that CWI does not help further than ACT in restricting inflammation and cellular stress responses in muscle following resistance exercise. Importantly, compared to ACT, regular application of CWI was shown by the same team to reduce gains in muscle strength and mass after 3 months of resistance training (Roberts et al. 2015). Such an application may result in a decrease in inflammation and cellular stress responses that appears necessary to induce cell adaptations. ...
... Consistent with this, the authors previously found that CWI attenuated and/or delayed the acute changes in satellite cell numbers and activity of a downstream target of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways (i.e. p70S6K) that regulate muscle growth and hypertrophy (Roberts et al. 2015). Taken together, these results strongly suggest that the blunting of ribosome biogenesis may be one important factor that contributes to the impaired hypertrophic response with regular use of CWI after resistance training. ...
... Under the pressure to address this hot topic, both coaches and players frequently apply strategies that are believed to be effective, while the scientific evidence and the physiological benefits are often unclear (Crowther et al., 2017;Kellmann, 2010;Venter, 2014). In some cases, however, recovery modalities are either ineffective (Afonso et al., 2021), ineffectively timed (Ivy et al., 1988) or even harmful to athletes, i.e., an application impairing the adaptation of a training stimulus (Roberts et al., 2015), or a recovery treatment leading to potential damage in tissues and bones (Freiwald et al., 2016a). These obstacles underline the need to educate practitioners and athletes towards an effective use of commonly applied recovery strategies (Crowther et al., 2017;Murray et al., 2018). ...
... It cannot be ruled out that CWI has detrimental effects on muscular adaptations. Long term adaptations after CWI in resistance exercise seem impaired as satellite cell activity was shown to be suppressed, which may inhibit muscle hypertrophy (Frohlich et al., 2014;Roberts et al., 2015). However, the results of a recent review suggest that long-term training adaptations in endurance sports may not be affected (Broatch et al., 2018). ...
Strategies to improve recovery are widely used among soccer players at both amateur and professional levels. Sometimes, however, recovery strategies are ineffective, improperly timed or even harmful to players. This highlights the need to educate practitioners and athletes about the scientific evidence of recovery strategies as well as to provide practical approaches to address this issue. Therefore, recent surveys among soccer athletes and practitioners were reviewed to identify the recovery modalities currently in use. Each strategy was then outlined with its rationale, its physiological mechanisms and the scientific evidence followed by practical approaches to implement the modality. For each intervention, practical and particularly low-effort strategies are provided to ensure that practitioners at all levels are able to implement them. We identified numerous interventions regularly used in soccer, i.e., sleep, rehydration, nutrition, psychological recovery, active recovery, foam-rolling/massage, stretching, cold-water immersion, and compression garments. Nutrition and rehydration were classified with the best evidence, while cold-water immersion, compression garments, foam-rolling/massage and sleep were rated with moderate evidence to enhance recovery. The remaining strategies (active recovery, psychological recovery, stretching) should be applied on an individual basis due to weak evidence observed. Finally, a guide is provided, helping practitioners to decide which intervention to implement. Here, practitioners should rely on the evidence, but also on their own experience and preference of the players.
... This has been suggested to be a mechanism that helps with the flushing of waste products, such as lactic acid, out of the affected tissue. Moreover, Roberts et al. [10] demonstrated that cold baths had a positive effect on improving post-workout recovery. Individuals who regularly practice ...
An important area of health is health promotion. A healthy lifestyle supports health improvement and early prevention of chronic diseases. Stimulation of the body by cold water swimming and swimming in a swimming pool can lead to adaptive changes beneficial for the human cardiovascular system. Within the winter swimming season of 2023/2024, for a period of 5 months, from November to March, once a week, study participants (n = 30; n = 15 females and n = 15 males) from the Krakow Society of Winter Swimmers ‘Kaloryfer’ in Krakow (Poland) practiced winter swimming in cold water (4–5 °C) and swam in the sports pool of the University of Physical Culture in Krakow in water at a temperature of 28 °C. After a full season of winter swimming and swimming pool sessions, both males and females exhibited a tendency towards lower erythrocyte (p = 0.002), leukocyte (p < 0.001), and platelet counts (p < 0.001), as well as an increase in blood plasma viscosity (within normal limits) (p = 0.001), without any changes in blood aggregation or fibrinogen indicators. The remaining morphological indicators and the elongation index demonstrated only limited variation. Winter swimming induces positive changes in blood morphology and rheology.
... Hydrotherapies, such as cold-water and hot-water immersion (HWI), are widely used as post-exercise recovery strategies for athletes (11). Cold-water immersion after RE impairs increases in muscle mass and ribosome biogenesis (12,13). In contrast, HWI has been suggested as an effective strategy for enhancing muscle hypertrophy. ...
Ribosome biogenesis is an important regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy induced by repeated bouts of resistance exercise (RE). Hot-water immersion (HWI), a widely used post-exercise recovery strategy, activates the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, a key regulator of ribosome biogenesis in skeletal muscle. However, the effect of HWI on skeletal muscle ribosome biogenesis is not well understood. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of HWI and post-exercise HWI on ribosome biogenesis using a rat RE model. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to HWI and non-HWI groups. In both groups, the right leg was isometrically exercised using transcutaneous electrical stimulation, while the left leg was used as an internal non-RE control. Following RE, both limbs were immersed in hot water (41.2 ± 0.03℃) for 20 min under isoflurane anesthesia in the HWI group and the gastrocnemius muscles were sampled at 3 and 24 h post-exercise. HWI significantly increased mTOR signaling and c-Myc mRNA expression, whereas post-exercise HWI significantly increased transcription initiation factor-IA mRNA expression. However, neither HWI nor post-exercise HWI enhanced 45S pre-rRNA expression, ribosomal RNA, or ribosomal protein content. Additionally, HWI tended to decrease 28S rRNA and 18S rRNA content, widely used markers of ribosome content. These results suggest that HWI as a post-exercise recovery is not effective in activating ribosome biogenesis.
... The content of this editorial is related to a literature review on ice usage in sports medicine. 10 ...
... Most notably Roberts (Roberts et al., 2015) has conducted primary research which demonstrate reduction in muscle mass and strengths from cold water immersion (CWI) for up to two days. The researchers do not recommend this recovery method to improve athletic performance. ...
Amateur marathon runners desire to excel at their chosen sport and to use the correct and latest research on how to optimise training and competition outcomes. Yet they do not have access to professional team of sport scientists, nutritionists, psychologists, and a well-equipped sports lab. This paper intends to review from the perspective of a self-coached 50year old sub-3 marathon runner for the marathon world championships in Sydney what is the latest research, what tools and technologies are available and how can they be integrated into the training of such amateur athletes.
We will construct an Annual Training Plan; our starting point is the current level within a multi-year plan, the race ambitions for current year, and overall longer-term athletic goals. With an amateur runner, five years of experience, and a desire to diversify into middle-distance triathlon for current athletic year we will use a traditional training plan with a single peak for Sydney.
We now need to assess the athletes fitness, based on VO2max , LT, and RE. Based on this, the desired race outcomes, and the training phase we construct the weekly running workouts. Generally speaking VO 2max is best supported by HIIT, LT by long-runs, and RE by running volume and strength workouts. The initial stages focus on volume which is gradually replaced by intensity. To help recovery within the week we need to vary training intensity and include lower-intensity weeks. To reduce injury risk from high running mileage we will focus only on four high quality run workouts and enhance the overall aerobic system with cross-training (cycling and swimming) and strength training.
Training intensity needs to be distributed in a polarised way with 80% of volume in moderate aerobic zones and upto 20% in severe zones. Strength training is 3 session in the general stages, becoming 2 in competitive stage and completely removed in final pre-race weeks.
To “Dose & Response” running intensity we will use critical power as measured by Stryd and benchmark against gold-standard laboratory tests. Other measures we will track with TrainingPeaks and WKO5 are key internal and external load for stress management (CTL, RHR, HRV), recovery management (sleep duration, time awake, and sleep quality), injury prevention (weekly running mileage and perceived injury for injury prevention), body composition (caloric expenditure, BMR, BM, and skinfold measurement), and polarised weekly running volume (hours of run training by intensity domain).
Nutrition needs to be aligned to daily workloads mostly by varying levels of CHO, while guaranteeing a steady and well-distributed level of protein, mostly in the form of EAA. Nutritional needs are aligned with phases in the training plan, most notably in later precompetition stages where glycogen stores need to be topped-up while keeping body mass as low as possible. This is also supported by 1-2 LSD in fasted state to help use fat as substrate.
In addition to physiologic adaptations, training also needs to hone psychological skills. Mental fatigue can be detrimental to competition as central and peripheral muscle fatigue. We will train the psychology by focusing on setting goals, dissociation from fatigue, association with the flow of the exercise, attentional focus which we will also train through yoga, visualisation of the event, positive self-talk, and flow & prayer.
With 12 time zone difference and 24-hour long flight we must minimise travel fatigue and jet lag with melatonin, nutrition, recovery, easy workouts, and pre-taper psychology. Moreover we need gut training to assume 90 g/CHO/hour with 40mg caffeine.
If all this is executed well we anticipate a sub-3, fastest Hungarian running outcome for Sydney 2024 world championships.
... Hydrotherapies, such as cold-water and hot-water immersion (HWI), are widely used as post-exercise recovery strategies for athletes (11). Cold-water immersion after RE impairs increases in muscle mass and ribosome biogenesis (12,13). In contrast, HWI has been suggested as an effective strategy for enhancing muscle hypertrophy. ...
Cancer cachexia is the result of complex interorgan interactions initiated by cancer cells and changes in patient behavior such as decreased physical activity and energy intake. Therefore, it is crucial to distinguish between the direct and indirect effects of cancer cells on muscle mass regulation and bioenergetics to identify novel therapeutic targets. In this study, we investigated the direct effects of Colon-26 cancer cells on the molecular regulating machinery of muscle mass and its bioenergetics using a coculture system with C2C12 myotubes. Our results demonstrated that coculture with Colon-26 cells induced myotube atrophy and reduced skeletal muscle protein synthesis and its regulating mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 signal transduction. However, we did not observe any activating effects on protein degradation pathways including ubiquitin-proteasome and autophagy-lysosome systems. From a bioenergetic perspective, coculture with Colon-26 cells decreased the Complex I-driven, but not Complex II-driven, mitochondrial ATP production capacity, while increasing glycolytic enzyme activity and glycolytic metabolites, suggesting a shift in energy metabolism towards glycolysis dominance. Gene expression profiling by RNA-seq showed that the increased activity of glycolytic enzymes was consistent with changes in gene expression. However, the decreased ATP production capacity of mitochondria was not in line with the gene expression. The potential direct interaction between cancer cells and skeletal muscle cells revealed in this study may contribute to a better fundamental understanding of the complex pathophysiology of cancer cachexia.
... , and 49 may impede natural adaptive responses to heavy train- 50 ing [19,20,21,22,23]. Burke et al. [24] and Yamane et Some studies have shown that cryotherapy has an 57 effect on proprioception [25,26]. ...
BACKGROUND: Cryotherapy is widely utilized for therapeutic purposes, yet its specific effects on knee joint proprioception and quadriceps muscle performance in healthy individuals remain unclear. This study addresses this gap by examining the impact of a 20-minute cryotherapy session on knee joint proprioception and related muscle parameters in a cohort of healthy college students. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effects of cryotherapy on knee joint proprioception and quadriceps muscle peak moment, work and power in healthy college male and female students. METHODS: Thirty-two healthy students, aged 19–23, underwent a 20-minute cryotherapy session using Cryogel packs applied to the anterior thigh and knee. An isokinetic dynamometer measured knee joint proprioception and quadriceps muscle parameters before, immediately after, 10-min, and 20-min post-cryotherapy. RESULTS: Proprioception values did not significantly differ between genders or post-tests (p> 0.05). However, the female group exhibited significantly lower moment, power, and work values compared to males (p< 0.05). No significant differences were observed within or between post-tests in moment, power, and work for both genders (p> 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: A 20-minute cryotherapy application demonstrated no adverse effects on knee joint proprioception or quadriceps muscle metrics in healthy college students, supporting the safety of cryotherapy in this context.
... In general, meta-analyses and reviews on the topic tend to support CWI/CWT use as an acute post-exercise recovery strategy, with performance benefits for a variety of sports [48][49][50]. However, emerging research has shown that chronic ice-bath use following resistance training may disrupt the post-training inflammation process and blunt physiological signals and adaptations over time [51]. Although, this has not been reported following aerobic exercise performance in the chronic setting [52], whereby improvements in acute recovery may allow athletes to maintain or increase training load and thereby stimulate greater physiological adaptation [50]. ...
The sport and athletic performance industry has seen a plethora of new recovery devices and technologies over recent years, and it has become somewhat difficult for athletes, coaches, and practitioners to navigate the efficacy of such devices or whether they are even required at all. With the increase in recovery devices and tools, it has also become commonplace for athletes to overlook more traditional, well-established recovery strategies. In this narrative review, we discuss recovery strategies in relation to the hierarchy of scientific evidence, classifying them based on the strength of the evidence, ranging from meta-analyses through to case studies and reports. We report that foam rolling, compression garments, cryotherapy, photobiomodulation, hydrotherapy, and active recovery have a high level of positive evidence for improved recovery outcomes, while sauna, recovery boots/sleeves, occlusion cuffs, and massage guns currently have a lower level of evidence and mixed results for their efficacy. Finally, we provide guidance for practitioners when deciding on recovery strategies to use with athletes during different phases of the season.
... massage contrasted therapy) on recovery and performance in further investigations. However, it has been evidenced that CWI blunts several training adaptations after strength training, with significant effects on the satellite cell pool and the activity of proteins regulating muscle growth after a single bout of resistance exercise (Méline et al., 2017;Roberts et al., 2015). Chronically, CWI results in lesser gains in hypertrophy and maximal isometric strength within a training protocol. ...
This study compared the acute effects of three recovery methods: active recovery (AR), hot- and cold-water immersion (HWI and CWI, respectively), used between two training sessions in elite athletes. Twelve national-team skaters (7 males, 5 females) completed three trials according to a randomized cross-over study. Fifteen minutes after an exhaustive ice-skating training session, participants underwent 20 min of HWI (41.1 ± 0.5°C), 15 min of CWI (12.1 ± 0.7°C) or 15 min of active recovery (AR). After 1 h 30 min of the first exercise, they performed a repeated-sprint cycling session. Average power output was slightly but significantly higher for AR (767 ± 179 W) and HWI (766 ± 170 W) compared to CWI (738 ± 156 W) (p = 0.026, d = 0.18). No statistical difference was observed between the conditions for both lactatemia and rating of perceived exertion. Furthermore, no significant effect of recovery was observed on the fatigue index calculated from the repeated sprint cycling exercises (p > 0.05). Finally, a positive correlation was found between the average muscle temperature measured during the recoveries and the maximal power output obtained during cycling exercises. In conclusion, the use of CWI in between high-intensity training sessions could slightly impair the performance outcomes compared to AR and HWI. However, studies with larger samples are needed to confirm these results, especially in less trained athletes.
Keywords: Cryotherapy; hot tub therapy; hot-water bathing; repeated sprint exercises; short-track speed skating.
... Notably, this practice is popular in the athletic sphere given that certain lines of research indicate that CWI reduces postexercise soreness and promotes a more rapid restoration of muscle strength after rigorous exercise (766). However, limited research in this area indicates that CWI blunts certain aspects of mTORC1 signaling and satellite cell proliferation (767,768). Although not explicitly stated, the potential contributions of reduced prostaglandin signaling cannot be discounted, given that cryotherapy has been shown to reduce tissue prostaglandins in other models of inflammation (769,770). ...
Mechanisms underlying mechanical overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy have been extensively researched since the landmark report by Morpurgo (1897) of "work-induced hypertrophy" in dogs that were treadmill-trained. Much of the pre-clinical rodent and human resistance training research to date supports that involved mechanisms include enhanced mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling, an expansion in translational capacity through ribosome biogenesis, increased satellite cell abundance and myonuclear accretion, and post-exercise elevations in muscle protein synthesis rates. However, several lines of past and emerging evidence suggest additional mechanisms that feed into or are independent of these processes are also involved. This review will first provide a historical account as to how mechanistic research into skeletal muscle hypertrophy has progressed. A comprehensive list of mechanisms associated with skeletal muscle hypertrophy is then outlined and areas of disagreement involving these mechanisms are presented. Finally, future research directions involving many of the discussed mechanisms will be proposed.
... Though cooling was applied in the postexercise period (20 min arm cold water immersion at 10°C), Yamane et al (Yamane et al., 2006) reported similar improvements in forearm isometric strength following 4-wk training at ~75% MVC. While not all studies agree (Hyldahl et al., 2020), others also report improved performance when incorporating postexercise cooling with RE training, including 35% greater dynamic strength, but not isometric, following 12-wk RE with limb immersion in cold water (10 min at 10°C) (Roberts et al., 2015). Compared to effects of cold, much less is known about heat and adaptability to RE. ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of local heating and cooling with isometric exercise training of upper arm and forearm. College-aged (n=12; 21±1 y) volunteers performed 4-wk isometric exercise training of the non-dominant arm (upper arm, isometric bicep curl; forearm, handgrip), while the dominant arm served as the control. Training was performed 3x/wk and consisted of 1 set of isometric handgrip and bicep curl until volitional exhaustion at 60% pre-training MVC for the forearm (handgrip) and 1RM for the upper arm (bicep curl). Randomized ordering of heating (40°C; 15 min) and cooling (12°C; 15 min) preceded each training session. Indirect assessment of muscle size (fat-free cross-sectional area [FFCSA]) was made before and after the training period via skin fold and limb circumference measures. Biceps 1RM increased significantly (p < 0.05) after the intervention in both conditions (trained: +6%; control: +7%), whereas only the control arm increased time to fatigue (+40%; p < 0.05). FFSCA of the upper arm remained unchanged (p>0.05) in both conditions. An effect of time was noted for forearm MVC (+8%; p < 0.05), while both groups increased (p < 0.05) time to fatigue (trained: +82%; control: +64%). A trend toward an effect of time was also noted for FFCSA of the forearm (+3%; p <.10). While the intervention employed here led to many notable adaptations, the thermal stress did not appear to exert a clear benefit. Coupled with the practicality and feasibility, improving size and performance in such a short time frame has therapeutic and ergogenic aid implications.
... The screening phase in this work, including title and abstract screening, left 51 articles. The authors excluded five articles from the meta-analysis because of: (1) one mixed intervention study with whole-body vibration [51]; (2) two studies without a mean or SD [52,53]; (3) one study presenting a Pax7 + /MyoD + sub-fraction with no total Pax7 + data [4]; and (4) one study using aerobic running in the eccentric contraction mode [38]. These studies were included in the systemic review. ...
Background
Skeletal muscle has extraordinary regenerative capabilities against challenge, mainly owing to its resident muscle stem cells, commonly identified by Pax7⁺, which expediently donate nuclei to the regenerating multinucleated myofibers. This local reserve of stem cells in damaged muscle tissues is replenished by undifferentiated bone marrow stem cells (CD34⁺) permeating into the surrounding vascular system.
Objective
The purpose of the study was to provide a quantitative estimate for the changes in Pax7⁺ muscle stem cells (satellite cells) in humans following an acute bout of exercise until 96 h, in temporal relation to circulating CD34⁺ bone marrow stem cells. A subgroup analysis of age was also performed.
Methods
Four databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and BASE) were used for the literature search until February 2022. Pax7⁺ cells in human skeletal muscle were the primary outcome. Circulating CD34⁺ cells were the secondary outcome. The standardized mean difference (SMD) was calculated using a random-effects meta-analysis. Subgroup analyses were conducted to examine the influence of age, training status, type of exercise, and follow-up time after exercise.
Results
The final search identified 20 studies for Pax7⁺ cells comprising a total of 370 participants between the average age of 21 and 74 years and 26 studies for circulating CD34⁺ bone marrow stem cells comprising 494 participants between the average age of 21 and 67 years. Only one study assessed Pax7⁺ cells immediately after aerobic exercise and showed a 32% reduction in exercising muscle followed by a fast repletion to pre-exercise level within 3 h. A large effect on increasing Pax7⁺ cell content in skeletal muscles was observed 24 h after resistance exercise (SMD = 0.89, p < 0.001). Pax7⁺ cells increased to ~ 50% above pre-exercise level 24–72 h after resistance exercise. For a subgroup analysis of age, a large effect (SMD = 0.81, p < 0.001) was observed on increasing Pax7⁺ cells in exercised muscle among adults aged > 50 years, whereas adults at younger age presented a medium effect (SMD = 0.64, p < 0.001). Both resistance exercise and aerobic exercise showed a medium overall effect in increasing circulating CD34⁺ cells (SMD = 0.53, p < 0.001), which declined quickly to the pre-exercise baseline level after exercise within 6 h.
Conclusions
An immediate depletion of Pax7⁺ cells in exercising skeletal muscle concurrent with a transient release of CD34⁺ cells suggest a replenishment of the local stem cell reserve from bone marrow. A protracted Pax7⁺ cell expansion in the muscle can be observed during 24–72 h after resistance exercise. This result provides a scientific basis for exercise recommendations on weekly cycles allowing for adequate recovery time. Exercise-induced Pax7⁺ cell expansion in muscle remains significant at higher age, despite a lower stem cell reserve after age 50 years. More studies are required to confirm whether Pax7⁺ cell increment can occur after aerobic exercise.
Clinical Trial Registration
Registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) [identification code CRD42021265457].
... Change in rating of perceived exertion for control (CON), lower-limb cold-water immersion condition (LCWI) and wholebody cold-water immersion condition (WCWI) conditions. However, the duration of CWI that was employed in these previous studies (10-15 min) was longer compared to that in our study and may induce overcooling, impair the contractile apparatus of the cooled muscles, and decrease the high-speed actions of the athletes immediately following the intervention (Roberts et al., 2014;Roberts et al., 2015). By employing a 3 min CWI at 15°C within a 15-min recovery period, the present study showed that WCWI as well as LCWI inhibited the decreased performance of the t-test and 20M-ST during exercise protocol 2. These results suggest that 3-min WCWI or LCWI can be applied at half-time periods during team sport matches to attenuate the impairment of the subsequent initial, brief, and all-out-effort speed actions. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of whole-body cold-water immersion (WCWI) and lower-limb cold-water immersion (LCWI) employed during a 15-min recovery period on the subsequent exercise performance as well as to determine the physiological and perceptual parameters in the heat (39°C). Eleven males performed team-sports-specific tests outdoors. The exercise program consisted of two identical exercise protocols (1 and 2) separated by a 15-min recovery period. The participants completed the same tests in each exercise protocol, in the following order: agility t test (t-test), 20-m sprint test (20M-ST), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo). During the recovery period, a 3-min recovery intervention of a passively seated rest (control, CON), WCWI, or LCWI was performed. The t-test and 20M-ST for the CON group were significantly longer during exercise protocol 2, but they were not significantly different between the two exercise protocols for the WCWI and LCWI groups. The completed Yo-Yo distance for the CON and LCWI groups was shorter during exercise protocol 2, but it was not significantly different between the two exercise protocols for the WCWI group. The chest temperature (Tchest), upper arm temperature (Tarm), thigh temperature (Tthigh), mean skin temperature (Tskin), and thermal sensation (TS) values were lower for the WCWI group than for the CON group; but only the Tthigh, Tskin, and TS values were lower for the LCWI group compared to the CON group. The Tchest, Tarm, Tskin, and TS values after the intervention were lower for the WCWI group than for the LCWI group. None of the three intervention conditions affected the core temperature (Tcore), heart rate (HR), or rating of perceived exertion (RPE). These results suggest that WCWI at 15°C for 3 min during the 15-min recovery period attenuates the impairment of agility, sprint, and intermittent-endurance performance during exercise protocol 2, but LCWI only ameliorates the reduction of agility and sprint performance. Furthermore, the ergogenic effects of WCWI and LCWI in the heat are due, at least in part, to a decrease of the Tskin and improvement of perceived strain.
... However, the moderate increase in CK activity (Peake et al., 2017) and the absence of functional measurements do not allow to ascertain the occurrence of muscle damage in this study. Finally, cold water immersion blunts myonuclear accretion, attenuates the increase in MuSC number and limits myofiber growth in response to strength training (Fyfe et al., 2019;Roberts et al., 2015). It remains however to be determined whether and to what extent these deleterious effects of cooling on muscle hypertrophy are directly due to changes in the number and/or status of macrophages. ...
Skeletal muscle is a plastic tissue that regenerates ad integrum after injury and adapts to raise mechanical loading/contractile activity by increasing its mass and/or myofiber size, a phenomenon commonly refers to as skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Both muscle regeneration and hypertrophy rely on the interactions between muscle stem cells and their neighborhood, which include inflammatory cells, and particularly macrophages. This review first summarizes the role of macrophages in muscle regeneration in various animal models of injury and in response to exercise‐induced muscle damage in humans. Then, the potential contribution of macrophages to skeletal muscle hypertrophy is discussed on the basis of both animal and human experiments. We also present a brief comparative analysis of the role of macrophages during muscle regeneration versus hypertrophy. Finally, we summarize the current knowledge on the impact of different immunomodulatory strategies, such as heat therapy, cooling, massage, nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs and resolvins, on skeletal muscle regeneration and their potential impact on muscle hypertrophy. Macrophage dynamics during muscle regeneration versus hypertrophy.
... CWI has gained an overwhelming amount of anecdotal support as well as empirical evidence for the treatment of various indices of EIMD [5]. Several studies used CWI protocols of 8-10°C [6][7][8], and only one of these studies reported improvements in markers of EIMD, including decreased myoglobin, soreness, and increased muscle contraction force [6]. Research has demonstrated that cellular metabolism is halved when tissue is cooled by 7-10°C [9]; however, previous CWI protocols (10 ± 2°C, 10 ± 2 min) reduced the intramuscular temperature by 1.61°C at a depth of 3 cm, 3.65°C at 2 cm, and 6.40°C at 1 cm [10], which indicates the protocols were likely insufficient to cause adequate tissue cooling to induce the proper amount of tissue metabolism. ...
OBJECTIVES To investigate the relationships among intramuscular cooling rates during (IM cooling rate) and after cold water immersion (CWI) (Post-IM cooling rate), skin tissue cooling rate during CWI (skin cooling rate), and anthropometric characteristics, and develop prediction models to assist clinical decision making.METHODS After a 30-min cycling trial, 16 young healthy adults received a CWI treatment (10 °C) until either intramuscular thigh temperature (2 cm sub-adipose) of the rectus femoris decreased 7 °C below preexercise level or 30 minutes was reached. Temperatures were recorded using skin and implantable finewire thermocouples. Before the cycling trial, %BF, anterior thigh adipose tissue thickness, muscle thickness, total thigh volume, and thigh circumference were measured. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to determine significant predictors of IM and Post-IM cooling rates (cooling rate: the amount of temperature reduction per minute). All predictors, including skin cooling rate, %BF, adipose tissue thickness, muscle thickness, total thigh volume, and thigh circumference, were included in multiple linear regression models to figure out factors that best predict the IM and Post-IM cooling rates.RESULTS Correlation analysis demonstrated significant correlations between IM cooling rate and skin cooling rate (r=.85), %BF (r=-.79), and adipose tissue thickness (r=-.79), and between Post-IM cooling rate and thigh circumference (r=-.68), adipose tissue thickness (r=-.58), total thigh volume (r=-.56), and %BF (r=-.53). Regression models identified skin cooling rate and %BF to have the greatest predictability for IM cooling rate (R2 =.82) and muscle thickness and thigh circumference to have the greatest predictability for the Post-IM cooling rate (R2 =.68).CONCLUSIONS This study provides justification for the use of skin cooling rates during CWI and %BF to estimate IM cooling rate and muscle thickness and thigh circumference to estimate Post-IM cooling rate. These findings will help practitioners to determine the duration of CWI treatment after exercise.
The present chapter delves into the topic of muscle hypertrophy in detail, focusing on defining what muscle hypertrophy is, the types of hypertrophy, the mechanisms, and the relationship with resistance training, as well as the variables affecting hypertrophy such as nutrition, rest, exercise selection, training volume, and training frequency, among others. The importance of mechanical tension, metabolic stress, and muscle damage as triggers for muscle hypertrophy is emphasized. Various types of muscle hypertrophy are explored, including connective tissue hypertrophy and sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar hypertrophy. The text also delves into how hypertrophy mechanisms relate to resistance training, highlighting the significance of mechanical tension and metabolic stress as stimuli for muscle hypertrophy. In a practical point of view, the text also discusses factors like nutrition and recovery, highlighting the importance of maintaining a positive energy balance and adequate protein intake to promote muscle growth optimally. Training variables such as exercise selection, exercise order, intensity, volume, frequency, and tempo of execution are discussed in detail, outlining their impact on muscle hypertrophy. The text provides a comprehensive overview of muscle hypertrophy, analyzing various factors that influence the ability to increase muscle mass. It offers detailed information on the biological mechanisms, types of hypertrophy, training strategies, and nutritional and recovery considerations necessary to achieve optimal results in terms of muscle hypertrophy.
Systemic resistance training aims to enhance performance by balancing stress, fatigue and recovery. While fatigue is expected, insufficient recovery may temporarily impair performance. The aim of this review was to examine evidence regarding manipulation of resistance training variables on subsequent effects on recovery and performance. PubMed, Medline, SPORTDiscus, Scopus and CINAHL were searched. Only studies that investigated recovery between resistance training sessions were selected, with a total of 24 articles included for review. Training to failure may lengthen recovery times, potentially impairing performance; however, it may be suitable if implemented strategically ensuring adequate recovery between sessions of similar exercises or muscle groups. Higher volumes may increase recovery demands, especially when paired with training to failure, however, with wide variation in individual responses, it is suggested to start with lower volume, monitor recovery, and gradually increase training volume if appropriate. Exercises emphasising the lower body, multi-joint movements, greater muscle recruitment, eccentric contractions, and/or the lengthened position may require longer recovery times. Adjusting volume and frequency of these exercises can affect recovery demands depending on the goals and training logistics. Daily undulating programming may maximise performance on priority sessions while maintaining purposeful and productive easy days. For example, active recovery in the form of training opposing muscle groups, light aerobic cardio, or low-volume power-type training may improve recovery and potentially elicit a post activation potentiation priming effect compared to passive recovery. However, it is possible that training cessation may be adequate for allowing sufficient recovery prior to sessions of importance.
Cold water immersion (CWI) involves rapid cooling of the body, which, in healthy individuals, triggers a defence response to an extreme stimulus, to which the body reacts with stress. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of CWI on hemorheological blood indicators. The study group consisted of 13 young males. Blood samples were collected before and after CWI. The assessed parameters included the complete blood count, fibrinogen, hs-C-reactive protein (CRP), proteinogram, and blood rheology factors, such as erythrocyte elongation index (EI), half-time of total aggregation, and aggregation index. Additionally, the effect of reduced temperature on primary human vascular endothelium was investigated in vitro. CWI resulted in the decrease of body temperature to 31.55 ± 2.87 °C. After CWI, neutrophil count and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were significantly increased in the study group, while lymphocyte count was significantly decreased. Significantly higher levels of total blood protein and albumin concentration were detected after the immersion. Among hemorheological characteristics, erythrocyte EIs at shear stress values ranging from 2.19 to 60.30 Pa were significantly lower after CWI. No significant changes in other rheological, morphological or biochemical parameters were observed. In vitro, human umbilical vein endothelial cells responded to 3 h of temperature decrease to 25 °C with unchanged viability, but increased recruitment of THP-1 monocytic cells and changes in cell morphology were observed. This was the first study to evaluate the effect of single CWI on rheological properties of blood in healthy young men. The results indicate that a single CWI may increase blood protein concentrations and worsen erythrocyte deformability parameters.
Skeletal muscle contractions during cold exposure are stimulated by muscle shivering and enhance the endocrine function by releasing certain muscle-derived peptides: myokines and exerkines, which may prevent or even reverse negative effects of different health conditions. At the same time, shivering induced by cold exposure is the most important means to maintain body temperature. The effects of whole-body cryostimulation (WBC) on muscle damage secondary to eccentric contractions, its impact on aerobic or anaerobic capacity and exercise capacity are reviewed in this chapter. Exercise and cold exposure activate the same pathways in myokines released by the muscle: changes in myokines during shivering or in response to exercise alone or together with WBC are described. WBC can be a practical tool to support the effects of regular training workouts, especially among those subjects who are beginning to be active. WBC alone is not able to significantly modify physical performance or body composition, but by improving muscle regeneration and flexibility and endocrine function it may have beneficial effects on health.
Objetivo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da crioterapia por imersão (CI) sobre o desempenho sensório-motor de esportistas após protocolo para indução de fadiga muscular localizada. Método: O presente estudo teve caráter experimental e delineamento prospectivo e teve participação de 36 esportistas universitários que foram divididos em três grupos: grupo recuperação passiva (RP), grupo crioterapia por imersão a 5ºC (CI5º) e grupo crioterapia por imersão a 10ºC (CI10º). Todos os grupos foram submetidos a protocolo de fadiga de membro inferior dominante em cadeira extensora. Posteriormente, o RP foi mantido em repouso, enquanto os demais grupos foram submetidos à imersão em água gelada a 5ºC e 10ºC, respectivamente, durante 10 minutos. Para avaliação do desempenho sensório-motor, foi utilizado o teste de equilíbrio (YBT), que foi realizado antes e no decorrer de 120 minutos após indução de fadiga. Resultados: Embora os resultados absolutos não tenham mostrado diferenças significativas entre os grupos, em termos relativos (%), o CI5º mostrou menor desempenho sensório-motor do que RP, o que foi mais acentuado no membro não-dominante. Todos os grupos obtiveram maior desempenho no YBT após 120 minutos de recuperação, quando comparado aos primeiros momentos de análise. Conclusão: Em conclusão, pode-se afirmar que o protocolo de CI de 5ºC durante 10 minutos aplicado após indução de fadiga neuromuscular resultou em menor desempenho sensório-motor no YBT, em comparação com o método de RP.
Muscle mass is balanced between hypertrophy and atrophy by cellular processes, including activation of the Akt-mTOR signaling cascade. Stressors apart from exercise and nutrition, such as heat stress, can stimulate the heat shock protein A (HSPA) and C (HSPC) families alongside hypertrophic signaling factors and muscle growth. The effects of heat stress on HSP expression and Akt-mTOR activation in human skeletal muscle, and their magnitude of activation compared to known hypertrophic stimuli is unclear. Here we show a single session of whole-body heat stress followed by resistance exercise increases the expression of HSPA as well as activation of the Akt-mTOR cascade in skeletal muscle compared to resistance exercise in a healthy, resistance trained population. Heat stress alone may also exert similar effects, though the responses are notably variable and require further investigation. Additionally, acute heat stress in C2C12 muscle cells enhanced myotube growth and myogenic fusion, albeit to a lesser degree than growth factor mediated hypertrophy. Though the mechanisms by which heat stress stimulates hypertrophy related signaling and the potential mechanistic role of HSPs remain unclear, these findings provide additional evidence implicating heat stress as a novel growth stimulus when combined with resistance exercise in human skeletal muscle and alone in isolated murine muscle cells. We believe these findings will help drive further applied and mechanistic investigation into how heat stress influences muscular hypertrophy and atrophy.
Post-exercise cooling studies reveal inhibitory effects on markers of skeletal muscle growth. However, the isolated effect of local cold application has not been adequately addressed. It is unclear if the local cold or the combination of local cold and exercise is driving negatively altered skeletal muscle gene expression. The purpose was to determine the effects of a 4 h local cold application to the vastus lateralis on the myogenic and proteolytic response. Participants (n = 12, 27 ± 6 years, 179 ± 9 cm, 82.8 ± 13.0 kg, 18.4 ± 7.1 %BF) rested with a thermal wrap placed on each leg with either circulating cold fluid (10 °C, COLD) or no fluid circulation (room temperature, RT). Muscle samples were collected to quantify mRNA (RT-qPCR) and proteins (Western Blot) associated with myogenesis and proteolysis. Temperatures in COLD were lower than RT at the skin (13.2 ± 1.0 °C vs. 34.8 ± 0.9 °C; p < 0.001) and intramuscularly (20.5 ± 1.3 °C vs. 35.6 ± 0.8 °C, p < 0.001). Myogenic-related mRNA, MYO-G and MYO-D1, were lower in COLD (p = 0.001, p < 0.001, respectively) whereas myogenic-mRNA, MYF6, was greater in COLD (p = 0.002). No other myogenic associated genes were different between COLD and RT (MSTN, p = 0.643; MEF2a, p = 0.424; MYF5, p = 0.523; RPS3, p = 0.589; RPL3-L, p = 0.688). Proteolytic-related mRNA was higher in COLD (FOXO3a, p < 0.001; Atrogin-1, p = 0.049; MURF-1, p < 0.001). The phosphorylation:total protein ratio for the translational repressor of muscle mass, 4E-BP1Thr37/46, was lower in COLD (p = 0.043), with no differences in mTORser2448 (p = 0.509) or p70S6K1Thr389 (p = 0.579). Isolated local cooling over 4 h exhibits inhibited myogenic and higher proteolytic skeletal muscle molecular response.
Athletes can experience loss of muscle mass and function for multiple reasons following a sports injury, surgery, fracture, or joint degeneration. High load resistance training is often contraindicated early on in rehabilitation. Low-load blood flow restriction (BFR) training has beneficial effects on skeletal muscle strengthening while avoiding the risks of heavy loads. BFR can be used in a wide range of clinical applications including prehabilitation, rehabilitation, potentially reducing return to sport timelines. It may assist athletes looking for those marginal gains when their current training program has plateaued. Managing or preventing musculoskeletal injuries in a sports setting can be challenging with a plethora of modalities and options to facilitate rehabilitation and recovery. Dry Needling and Cupping Therapy may be beneficial in reducing pain. While cryotherapy can be used for pain relief and recovery, it has recently been discouraged in the management of acute soft tissue injuries. New innovations in manual therapy, including foam rolling, percussive massage devices, and instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization, extrapolate their benefit primarily from sports massage promoting pain relief, increased flexibility, and faster recovery. They are popularized for allowing “self-massage.” Muscle energy and active release techniques aim to reduce pain, increase range of motion (ROM) and facilitate optimal tissue healing. All these innovations may have a role in managing an endurance athlete through rehabilitation, training, competition, recovery, and injury prevention; however most require more high quality research with greater homogeneity across samples, methods, measurements, and treatment protocols in the future.KeywordsBlood flow restrictionCuppingDry needlingPercussive massageInstrument-assisted massageCryotherapyFoam rollingMETRecoverySelf-massageMassage device
Unter einem „Übertrainingssyndrom“ versteht man einen unerwarteten Abfall der Leistungsfähigkeit ohne organisch krankhaften Befund, der auch nach einer längeren Regenerationsphase nachweisbar ist. Es existiert kein einzelner zuverlässiger Marker zur Diagnose von chronischen Überlastungszuständen. Die Diagnose eines Übertrainingssyndroms ist eine klinische Ausschlussdiagnose. Zur Prävention sind standardisierte Leistungstests und Fragebögen zur Erfassung der subjektiven Befindlichkeit mit Kenntnis individueller Basiswerte geeignet. Eine angemessene Ernährung, Kälteanwendungen, adäquater Schlaf sowie eine präventive individuelle Trainingsplanung und -dokumentation scheinen geeignete Möglichkeiten, die Erholung zu unterstützen und somit die Qualität des Trainings zu gewährleisten. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportmedizin, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Holger HW Gabriel, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.
Objective
To observe the effect of Tuina (Chinese therapeutic massage) on creatine kinase (CK), mitochondrial Ca2+ concentration, and ultrastructure of skeletal muscle in delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) model rats.MethodsA total of 130 healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into a blank group, an exercise control group, a pre-exercise Tuina group, and a post-exercise Tuina group. According to the time points for sample collection, the exercise control group was divided into a 0 h exercise control group, a 24 h exercise control group, a 48 h exercise control group, and a 72 h exercise control group; the pre-exercise Tuina group was further divided into a 0 h pre-exercise Tuina group, a 24 h pre-exercise Tuina group, a 48 h pre-exercise Tuina group, and a 72 h pre-exercise Tuina group; and the post-exercise Tuina group was divided into a 0 h post-exercise Tuina group, a 24 h post-exercise Tuina group, a 48 h post-exercise Tuina group, and a 72 h post-exercise Tuina group. Rats in all groups except for the blank group received DOMS modeling. Professionals performed Nie-Pinching manipulation and finger Nian-Twisting manipulation on the lower limbs of the rats. The samples were collected at 0 h, 24 h, 48 h, or 72 h after exhaustive exercise for each pre-exercise Tuina group. The samples were collected at 0 h, 24 h, 48 h, or 72 h after Tuina for each post-exercise Tuina group. The changes in serum CK, skeletal muscle mitochondrial Ca2+ concentration, and Ca2+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) were determined. The ultrastructure changes of skeletal muscles in each group were observed by a transmission electron microscope.ResultsThe electron microscope showed that compared with the exercise control group, the skeletal muscle structures of the pre-exercise Tuina group and the post-exercise Tuina group were significantly improved, and the overall performance of skeletal muscle in the pre-exercise Tuina group was more similar to that of the blank group. The level of serum CK in the pre-exercise Tuina group and the post-exercise Tuina group was significantly lower than that in the exercise control group (P<0.01). The Ca2+ concentration of skeletal muscle in the 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h pre-exercise Tuina groups was lower than that in the post-exercise Tuina group at the same time point (P<0.01). The Ca2+-ATPase concentration of skeletal muscle in the 24 h and 72 h pre-exercise Tuina groups was lower than that in the post-exercise Tuina group at the same time point (P<0.05).Conclusion
Tuina effectively prevents muscle damage caused by heavy exercise and long-term exercise, which may be related to the increase of skeletal muscle Ca2+-ATPase activity and mitochondrial Ca2+ transport.
The repeated sprint ability (RSA) was considered as a major physical determinant of performance in rugby union. However, some studies from rugby league highlighted that the simple RSA is not sufficiently representative of the physical constraints of the sport and does not prepare properly the players to the game. In this context, the ability to repeat high intensity efforts (RHIE) is suggested as a physical quality more specific to rugby union and thus more discriminant of the performance. The RHIE topic is address in 3 different steps : the evaluation, the development and the optimization.
In a first study, the assessment of metrological properties of key outcomes from sprint and tackle performance is made using a RHIE test, specifically modified to represent the physical demands of rugby union. Results show that only sprint indices have a sufficient level of reliability to be used with players. Measures of tackle intensity are too variable for an appropriate interpretation. However, this test allows practitioners to identify the physical qualities associated with RHIE, in order to prescribe coherent development strategies with rugby union players. This topic is discussed during the second study. In this context, body composition, maximal sprinting speed and aerobic capacity are the major performance determinants of the RHIE. Therefore, they should be integrated to specific strength and conditioning programs in rugby union. To verify this hypothesis is the aim of the third study, during which an improvement in RHIE ability is observed after a training block composed of an integrated high intensity interval method. Furthermore, results show that coaches or athletes could benefit from a training methodology based on the alternation of contacts and movements, without limiting the adaptation process. The third part of this thesis focus on the RHIE optimization specially to prepare key games or playoffs, periods during which a taper strategy seems to be preferred by coaches. However, the meta-analysis and review of literature performed during the fourth study of this thesis highlight that although a taper is effective to improve neuromuscular and cardiovascular qualities, there is no information available concerning the RHIE ability. In this context, the fifth study consists in the implementation of a taper strategy following an overload training block, with a focus on the influence of the pre-taper fatigue level on the RHIE supercompensation process. Results confirm the improvement of RHIE after the taper, and highlight an inverted U relationship between the pre-taper fatigue level and the magnitude of improvement in performance. Despite minor performance consequences, players on the left side of the relationship do not benefit from the taper due to a too small accumulated fatigue level. However, the situation of those on the right side of the relationship is more problematic. These players do not benefit from the taper due to an incomplete recovery provoked by a too severe state of accumulated fatigue considering the taper implemented. This phenomenon could be observed during short-term taper, often the only solution available within the context of professional sport. By including sleep quality as a moderator of the taper benefits, results of the sixth study show that poor sleep quality predispose athletes to a severe state of accumulated fatigue and therefore to a reduced taper efficiency with a higher risk of injury and upper respiratory tract infections.
This thesis is based on scientific studies providing key information to coaches wishing to focus on the evaluation, development and optimization of their players’ repeated high intensity efforts ability. This work leads to key practical applications, which should guide coaches in their understanding of the RHIE.
Limited evidence advocates the most beneficial recovery strategies including contemporary cooling applications. Twenty, elite male academy footballers took part. Following a normal fatiguing training session, players were randomly assigned to receive either cryotherapy (CRYO) or passive recovery (PAS). Data was collected at match-day+1, immediately post-training and post-intervention. Performance measures included countermovement jump (CMJ), isometric adductor strength (IAS), hamstring flexibility (HF), and skin surface temperature (Tsk). Significant main effects for group for CMJ data following exposure to cooling were displayed (p=<0.05). Significant reductions in CMJ performance in the CRYO group were reported (p=<0.05) immediately post, but not for PAS. No main effects were identified for the CRYO or PAS group for IAS or HF (p=>0.05). Reductions in performance immediately following exposure to pneumatic cryo-compressive devices may negate the justification of this recovery strategy if neuromuscular mechanisms are required in the immediate short term. The application of such recovery strategies however is dependent on the type of recovery demand and should be adapted individually to suit the needs of the athlete to optimise readiness to train/play.
Purpose:
The aim of the present investigation was to determine whether a one-hour floatation-REST session could augment recovery from high-intensity resistance exercise (6 x10 back squats, 2 minutes rest) known to induce significant metabolic, adrenergic, and mechanical stress.
Methods:
Eleven healthy resistance-trained males (age: 22.5 ± 2.3 years; height: 176.4 ± 6.0 cm; weight: 85.7 ± 6.2 kg, back squat 1RM: 153.1 ± 20.1 kg; strength to weight ratio: 1.8 ± 0.2) completed the within-subjects, cross-over controlled study design. Participants completed two exercise testing blocks separated by a two-week washout. In one block, the high-intensity resistance exercise protocol was followed by a one-hour floatation-REST session, while recovery in the alternate block consisted of a passive sensory-stimulating control. Markers of metabolic stress, neuroendocrine signaling, structural damage, inflammation, and perceptions of soreness, mood state and fatigue were assessed over a 48-hour recovery window.
Results:
Floatation-REST significantly attenuated muscle soreness across recovery (p = 0.035) with greatest treatment difference immediately following the intervention (p = 0.002, ES = 1.3). Significant differences in norepinephrine (p = 0.028, ES = 0.81) and testosterone (p = 0.028, ES = 0.81) immediately following treatment revealed modification of neuroendocrine signaling pathways which were accompanied by greater improvements in mood disturbance (p = 0.029, ES = 0.81) and fatigue (p = 0.001, ES = 1.04).
Conclusions:
As no adverse effects and significant and meaningful benefits were observed, floatation-REST may prove a valuable intervention for managing soreness and enhancing performance readiness following exercise.
This study investigated the effect of regular post-exercise cold water immersion (CWI) on muscle aerobic adaptations to endurance training. Eight males performed 3 sessions∙wk-1 of endurance training for 4 weeks. Following each session, subjects immersed one leg in a cold water bath (10°C; COLD) for 15 min while the contra-lateral leg served as control (CON). Muscle biopsies were obtained from vastus lateralis of both CON and COLD legs prior to training and 48 h following the last training session. Samples were analysed for signalling kinases; p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), enzyme activities indicative of mitochondrial biogenesis and protein subunits representative of respiratory chain complexes I-V. Following training, subjects' peak oxygen uptake and running velocity were improved by 5.9% and 6.2%, respectively (p < 0.05). Repeated CWI resulted in higher total AMPK, phosphorylated AMPK, phosphorylated acetyl-CoA carboxylase, β-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA-dehydrogenase and the protein subunits representative of complex-I and III (p < 0.05). Moreover, large effect sizes (Cohen's d > 0.8) were noted with changes in protein content of p38 (d = 1.02, p = 0.064), PGC-1α (d = 0.99, p = 0.079) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (d = 0.93, p = 0.010) in COLD compared with CON. No differences between conditions were observed in the representative protein subunits of respiratory complexes-II, IV, V and in the activities of several mitochondrial enzymes (p > 0.05). These findings indicate that regular CWI enhances p38, AMPK and possibly mitochondrial biogenesis.
Copyright © 2015, American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology.
The extent of skeletal muscle hypertrophy in response to resistance training is highly variable in humans. The main objective of this study was to explain the nature of this variability. More specifically, we focused on the myogenic stem cell population, the satellite cell (SC) as a potential mediator of hypertrophy. Twenty-three males (aged 18-35 yrs) participated in 16 wk of progressive, whole body resistance training, resulting in changes of 7.9±1.6% (range of -1.9-24.7%) and 21.0±4.0% (range of -7.0 to 51.7%) in quadriceps volume and myofibre cross-sectional area (CSA), respectively. The SC response to a single bout of resistance exercise (80% 1RM), analyzed via immunofluorescent staining resulted in an expansion of type II fibre associated SC 72 h following exercise (pre: 11.3±0.9; 72 h: 14.8±1.4 SC/type II fibre; p<0.05). Training resulted in an expansion of the SC pool associated with type I (pre: 10.7±1.1; post: 12.1±1.2 SC/type I fibre; p<0.05) and type II fibres (pre: 11.3±0.9; post: 13.0±1.2 SC/type II fibre; p<0.05). Analysis of individual SC responses revealed a correlation between the relative change in type I associated SC 24 to 72 hours following an acute bout of resistance exercise and the percentage increase in quadriceps lean tissue mass assessed by MRI (r2 = 0.566, p = 0.012) and the relative change in type II associated SC following 16 weeks of resistance training and the percentage increase in quadriceps lean tissue mass assessed by MRI (r2 = 0.493, p = 0.027). Our results suggest that the SC response to resistance exercise is related to the extent of muscular hypertrophy induced by training.
Immobilization causes skeletal muscle atrophy via complex signaling pathways that are not well understood. To better understand these pathways, we investigated the roles of p53 and ATF4, two transcription factors that mediate adaptations to a variety of cellular stresses. Using mouse models, we demonstrate that three days of muscle immobilization induces muscle atrophy and increases expression of p53 and ATF4. Furthermore, muscle fibers lacking p53 or ATF4 are partially resistant to immobilization-induced muscle atrophy, and forced expression of p53 or ATF4 induces muscle fiber atrophy in the absence of immobilization. Importantly, however, p53 and ATF4 do not require each other to promote atrophy, and co-expression of p53 and ATF4 induces more atrophy than either transcription factor alone. Moreover, muscle fibers lacking both p53 and ATF4 are more resistant to immobilization-induced atrophy than fibers lacking only p53 or ATF4. Interestingly, the independent and additive nature of the p53 and ATF4 pathways allows for combinatorial control of at least one downstream effector, p21. Using genome-wide mRNA expression arrays, we identified p21 mRNA as a skeletal muscle transcript that is highly induced in immobilized muscle via the combined actions of p53 and ATF4. Additionally, in mouse muscle, p21 induces atrophy in a manner that does not require immobilization, p53 or ATF4; and p21 is required for atrophy induced by immobilization, p53 and ATF4. Collectively, these results identify p53 and ATF4 as essential and complementary mediators of immobilization-induced muscle atrophy, and discover p21 as a critical downstream effector of the p53 and ATF4 pathways.
Muscle hypertrophy following resistance training (RT) involves activation of myofibrillar protein synthesis (MPS) to expand the myofibrillar protein pool. The degree of hypertrophy following RT is, however, highly variable and thus we sought to determine the relationship between the acute activation of MPS and RT-induced hypertrophy. We measured MPS and signalling protein activation after the first session of resistance exercise (RE) in untrained men (n = 23) and then examined the relation between MPS with magnetic resonance image determined hypertrophy. To measure MPS, young men (24±1 yr; body mass index = 26.4±0.9 kg•m(2)) underwent a primed constant infusion of L-[ring-(13)C6] phenylalanine to measure MPS at rest, and acutely following their first bout of RE prior to 16 wk of RT. Rates of MPS were increased 235±38% (P<0.001) above rest 60-180 min post-exercise and 184±28% (P = 0.037) 180-360 min post exercise. Quadriceps volume increased 7.9±1.6% (-1.9-24.7%) (P<0.001) after training. There was no correlation between changes in quadriceps muscle volume and acute rates of MPS measured over 1-3 h (r = 0.02), 3-6 h (r = 0.16) or the aggregate 1-6 h post-exercise period (r = 0.10). Hypertrophy after chronic RT was correlated (r = 0.42, P = 0.05) with phosphorylation of 4E-BP1(Thr37/46) at 1 hour post RE. We conclude that acute measures of MPS following an initial exposure to RE in novices are not correlated with muscle hypertrophy following chronic RT.
Several studies analysed the effectiveness of cold water immersion (CWI) to support recovery after strenuous exercise but the overall results seem to be conflicting. Most of these studies analysed only short-term recovery effects, whereas the adaptational aspect has been widely neglected. Therefore, we analysed the effects of repeated cooling following training sessions (CWI) on adaptations to strength training. 17 trained male students volunteered. After a two week familiarization period, a pre-test (T1) of 1-RM and 12-RM was conducted followed by the 5-week strength training period (withinsubject design). After the post-test (T2) and a 2-week detraining period a retention-test (T3) was carried out. Directly after each training session, CWI was applied for one randomly assigned leg. Cooling consisted of three 4-minute intervals with a 30-s rest period. The other leg was not cooled. A significant increase in 1-RM and 12-RM from baseline to T2 and T3 (p < 0.001), respectively, as well as a further significant increase in 12-RM from T2 to T3 (p < 0.05) was observed. In addition, a tendency for a large leg effect with higher values for the "control leg" in both parameters (p = 0.08 each) as well as a moderate time * leg interaction in favor of the control leg was found (1-RM: p = 0.11; 12-RM: p = 0.09). The percentage change differences between both conditions were 1.6% for the increase in 1-RM from T1 to T2 and 2.0% from T1 to T3 in favor of the control leg. Long-term strength training adaptations in trained subjects can be negatively affected by CWI. However, effects were small and the practical relevance relative to possible recovery effects needs to be considered in a sports practical setting.
Cold water immersion may be beneficial for acute recovery from exercise, but it may impair long-term performance by attenuating the stimuli responsible for adaptation to training. We compared effects of cold water immersion and passive rest on cycling performance during a simulated cycling grand tour.
Thirty-four male endurance-trained competitive cyclists were randomized to cold water immersion (CWI) for four times per week for 15 min at 15°C or control (passive recovery) groups for 7 d of baseline training, 21 d of intensified training, and an 11 d taper. Criteria for completion of training and testing were satisfied by 10 cyclists in the CWI group (maximal aerobic power, 5.13 ± 0.21 W/kg; mean ± SD) and 11 in the control group (5.01 ± 0.41 W/kg). Each week cyclists completed a high intensity interval cycling test and two 4-min bouts separated by 30 min. CWI was performed four times per week for 15 min at 15°C.
Between baseline and taper, cyclists in the CWI group had an unclear change in overall 4-min power relative to control (2.7%, ±5.7%), although mean power in the second effort relative to the first was likely higher for the CWI group relative to control (3.0%, ±3.8%). The change in 1-s maximum mean sprint power in the CWI group was likely beneficial compared to control (4.4%, ±4.2%). Differences between groups for the 10-min time trial were unclear (-0.4%, ±4.3%).
While some effects of CWI on performance were unclear, data from this study do not support recent speculation that CWI is detrimental to performance following increased training load in competitive cyclists.
Water immersion is increasingly being used by elite athletes seeking to minimize fatigue and accelerate post-exercise recovery. Accelerated short-term (hours to days) recovery may improve competition performance, allow greater training loads or enhance the effect of a given training load. However, the optimal water immersion protocols to assist short-term recovery of performance still remain unclear. This article will review the water immersion recovery protocols investigated in the literature, their effects on performance recovery, briefly outline the potential mechanisms involved and provide practical recommendations for their use by athletes. For the purposes of this review, water immersion has been divided into four techniques according to water temperature: cold water immersion (CWI; ≤20 °C), hot water immersion (HWI; ≥36 °C), contrast water therapy (CWT; alternating CWI and HWI) and thermoneutral water immersion (TWI; >20 to
Physical activity and molecular ageing presumably interact to precipitate musculoskeletal decline in humans with age. Herein, we have delineated molecular networks for these two major components of sarcopenic risk using multiple independent clinical cohorts. We generated genome-wide transcript profiles from individuals (n = 44) who then undertook 20 weeks of supervised resistance-exercise training (RET). Expectedly, our subjects exhibited a marked range of hypertrophic responses (3% to +28%), and when applying Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) up-stream analysis to ∼580 genes that co-varied with gain in lean mass, we identified rapamycin (mTOR) signaling associating with growth (P = 1.4×10(-30)). Paradoxically, those displaying most hypertrophy exhibited an inhibited mTOR activation signature, including the striking down-regulation of 70 rRNAs. Differential analysis found networks mimicking developmental processes (activated all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA, Z-score = 4.5; P = 6×10(-13)) and inhibited aryl-hydrocarbon receptor signaling (AhR, Z-score = -2.3; P = 3×10(-7))) with RET. Intriguingly, as ATRA and AhR gene-sets were also a feature of endurance exercise training (EET), they appear to represent "generic" physical activity responsive gene-networks. For age, we found that differential gene-expression methods do not produce consistent molecular differences between young versus old individuals. Instead, utilizing two independent cohorts (n = 45 and n = 52), with a continuum of subject ages (18-78 y), the first reproducible set of age-related transcripts in human muscle was identified. This analysis identified ∼500 genes highly enriched in post-transcriptional processes (P = 1×10(-6)) and with negligible links to the aforementioned generic exercise regulated gene-sets and some overlap with ribosomal genes. The RNA signatures from multiple compounds all targeting serotonin, DNA topoisomerase antagonism, and RXR activation were significantly related to the muscle age-related genes. Finally, a number of specific chromosomal loci, including 1q12 and 13q21, contributed by more than chance to the age-related gene list (P = 0.01-0.005), implying possible epigenetic events. We conclude that human muscle age-related molecular processes appear distinct from the processes regulated by those of physical activity.
Purpose:
The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that postexercise cold-water immersion (CWI, via its associated reductions in skeletal muscle blood flow) attenuates muscle glycogen resynthesis during short-term recovery from exhaustive exercise.
Methods:
In a repeated-measures design, nine recreationally active men performed an exhaustive glycogen depleting cycling protocol (consisting of intermittent exercise the night before and steady-state exercise on the subsequent morning of the main trial) followed by 10 min of lower-limb CWI (8°C) or remained seated in normal ambient conditions (CONT). Subjects were fed carbohydrate (CHO) at an ingestion rate of 0.6 g·kg body mass at 30 min postexercise and at 1, 2, and 3 h postexercise.
Results:
Reductions in thigh skin temperature and muscle temperature during postexercise recovery were greater in CWI compared with CONT (P < 0.01). In addition, norepinephrine and blood glucose concentrations were increased and decreased, respectively, during recovery in CWI compared with CONT (P < 0.01). Postexercise muscle glycogen (CONT and CWI postexercise = 76 ± 43 and 77 ± 26 mmol·kg dry weight [dw], respectively; mean ± SD) progressively increased (P < 0.01) during recovery, although rates of resynthesis did not differ (P = 0.719) between conditions (CONT and CWI 4 h postexercise = 160 ± 34 and 157 ± 59 mmol·kg dw, respectively). Total glycogen synthesis during recovery was comparable (CONT and CWI = 83 ± 43 and 79 ± 58 mmol·kg dw, respectively).
Conclusions:
Postexercise CWI does not attenuate muscle glycogen resynthesis rates during short-term recovery even when CHO availability is considered suboptimal. Athletes who regularly incorporate CWI as a recovery strategy to alleviate symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage should therefore not be concerned with potential negative effects of the associated reductions in muscle blood flow on the restoration of muscle glycogen stores.
For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the
analysis of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solutions of these two programs,
and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.
The aim of this work was to study the effect of training volume on activation of satellite cells. Healthy untrained men were randomly assigned into two groups. The 3L-1UB group (n = 10) performed three-set leg exercises and single-set upper body exercises, and the 1L-3UB group (n = 11) performed single-set leg exercises and three-set upper body exercises. Both groups performed three sessions (80-90 min) per week for 11 weeks. Biopsies were taken from m. vastus lateralis and m. trapezius. The number of satellite cells, satellite cells positive for myogenin and MyoD, and the number of myonuclei were counted. Homogenized muscle was analyzed for myogenin and MyoD, and extracted ribonucleic acid (RNA) was monitored for selected growth factor transcripts. Knee extensor strength increased more in the 3L-1UB group than in the 1L-3UB group (48 ± 4% vs 29 ± 4%), whereas the strength gain in shoulder press was similar in both training groups. The number of satellite cells in m. vastus lateralis increased more in the 3L-1UB group than in the 1L-3UB group. The number of myonuclei increased similarly in both groups. The messenger RNA expression of growth factors peaked after 2 weeks of training. In conclusion, increasing training volume enhanced satellite cell numbers in the leg muscle, but not in the upper body muscle.
Skeletal muscle protein metabolism is resistant to the anabolic action of insulin in healthy, nondiabetic older adults. This defect is associated with impaired insulin-induced vasodilation and mTORC1 signaling. We hypothesized that, in older subjects, pharmacological restoration of insulin-induced capillary recruitment would improve the response of muscle protein synthesis and anabolism to insulin.
Twelve healthy, nondiabetic older subjects (71 ± 2 years) were randomized to two groups. Subjects were studied at baseline and during local infusion in one leg of insulin alone (Control) or insulin plus sodium nitroprusside (SNP) at variable rate to double leg blood flow. We measured leg blood flow by dye dilution; muscle microvascular perfusion with contrast enhanced ultrasound; Akt/mTORC1 signaling by Western blotting; and muscle protein synthesis, amino acid, and glucose kinetics using stable isotope methodologies.
There were no baseline differences between groups. Blood flow, muscle perfusion, phenylalanine delivery to the leg, and intracellular availability of phenylalanine increased significantly (P < 0.05) in SNP only. Akt phosphorylation increased in both groups but increased more in SNP (P < 0.05). Muscle protein synthesis and net balance (nmol · min(-1) · 100 ml · leg(-1)) increased significantly (P < 0.05) in SNP (synthesis, 43 ± 6 to 129 ± 25; net balance, -16 ± 3 to 26 ± 12) but not in Control (synthesis, 41 ± 10 to 53 ± 8; net balance, -17 ± 3 to -2 ± 3).
Pharmacological enhancement of muscle perfusion and amino acid availability during hyperinsulinemia improves the muscle protein anabolic effect of insulin in older adults.
The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) and active recovery (ACT) on resting limb blood flow, rectal temperature and repeated cycling performance in the heat. Ten subjects completed two testing sessions separated by 1 week; each trial consisted of an initial all-out 35-min exercise bout, one of two 15-min recovery interventions (randomised: CWI or ACT), followed by a 40-min passive recovery period before repeating the 35-min exercise bout. Performance was measured as the change in total work completed during the exercise bouts. Resting limb blood flow, heart rate, rectal temperature and blood lactate were recorded throughout the testing sessions. There was a significant decline in performance after ACT (mean (SD) -1.81% (1.05%)) compared with CWI where performance remained unchanged (0.10% (0.71%)). Rectal temperature was reduced after CWI (36.8°C (1.0°C)) compared with ACT (38.3°C (0.4°C)), as was blood flow to the arms (CWI 3.64 (1.47) ml/100 ml/min; ACT 16.85 (3.57) ml/100 ml/min) and legs (CW 4.83 (2.49) ml/100 ml/min; ACT 4.83 (2.49) ml/100 ml/min). Leg blood flow at the end of the second exercise bout was not different between the active (15.25 (4.33) ml/100 ml/min) and cold trials (14.99 (4.96) ml/100 ml/min), whereas rectal temperature (CWI 38.1°C (0.3°C); ACT 38.8°C (0.2°C)) and arm blood flow (CWI 20.55 (3.78) ml/100 ml/min; ACT 23.83 (5.32) ml/100 ml/min) remained depressed until the end of the cold trial. These findings indicate that CWI is an effective intervention for maintaining repeat cycling performance in the heat and this performance benefit is associated with alterations in core temperature and limb blood flow.
High-resistance exercise training results in an increase in muscle wet mass and protein content. To begin to address the acute changes following a single bout of high-resistance exercise, a new model has been developed. Training rats twice a week for 6 wk resulted in 13.9 and 14.4% hypertrophy in the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles, respectively. Polysome profiles after high-resistance lengthening contractions suggest that the rate of initiation is increased. The activity of the 70-kDa S6 protein kinase (p70(S6k)), a regulator of translation initiation, is also increased following high-resistance lengthening contractions (TA, 363 +/- 29%; EDL, 353 +/- 39%). Furthermore, the increase in p70(S6k) activity 6 h after exercise correlates with the percent change in muscle mass after 6 wk of training (r = 0.998). The tight correlation between the activation of p70(S6k) and the long-term increase in muscle mass suggests that p70(S6k) phosphorylation may be a good marker for the phenotypic changes that characterize muscle hypertrophy and may play a role in load-induced skeletal muscle growth.
Normal human fibroblasts grown in cell culture undergo a reversible growth arrest when incubated at 28 degrees C. During incubation at 28 degrees C, levels of p53 and p21 rise in these cells and cell cycle analysis shows that they have undergone a cell cycle arrest. To examine the importance of p53 in mediating this arrest, mouse embryo fibroblasts that are either wild-type or that are defective in p53 were also subjected to hypothermia. Only those cells with wild-type p53 undergo a cell cycle arrest, indicating that p53 has a role in mediating this response. Because many tumor cells have defective p53, this suggests that hypothermia may increase the selective toxicity of chemotherapeutic agents for tumor cells.
To further understand molecular mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle hypertrophy, expression profiles of translationally and transcriptionally regulated genes were characterized following an acute bout of maximally activated eccentric contractions. Experiments demonstrated that translational mechanisms contribute to acute gene expression changes following high resistance contractions with two candidate mRNAs, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and elongation factor-1 alpha (EF1alpha), targeted to the heavier polysomal fractions after a bout of contractions. Gene profiling was performed using Affymetrix Rat U34A GeneChips with either total RNA or polysomal RNA at one and six hours following contractions. There were 18 genes that changed expression at one hour and 70 genes that were different (60 genes increased:10 genes decreased)at six hours after contractions. The model from this profiling suggests that following high resistance contractions skeletal muscle shares a common growth profile with proliferating cells exposed to serum. This cluster of genes can be classified as "growth" genes and is commonly associated with progression of the cell cycle. However, a unique aspect was that there was induction of a cluster of tumour suppressor or antigrowth genes. We propose that this cluster of "antigrowth" genes is induced by the stress of contractile activity and may act to maintain skeletal muscle in the differentiated state. From the profiling results, further experiments determined that p53 levels increased in skeletal muscle at 6 h following contractions. This novel finding of p53 induction following exercise also demonstrates the power of expression profiling for identification of novel pathways involved in the response to muscle contraction.
To investigate the in vivo effects of resistance exercise on translational control in human skeletal muscle, we determined the phosphorylation of AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4E-BP1), p70/p85-S6 protein kinase (S6K1), and ribosomal S6 protein (S6). Furthermore, we investigated whether changes in the phosphorylation of S6K1 are muscle fiber type specific. Eight male subjects performed a single high-intensity resistance exercise session. Muscle biopsies were collected before and immediately after exercise and after 30 and 120 min of postexercise recovery. The phosphorylation statuses of AMPK, 4E-BP1, S6K1, and S6 were determined by Western blotting with phospho-specific and pan antibodies. To determine fiber type-specific changes in the phosphorylation status of S6K1, immunofluorescence microscopy was applied. AMPK phosphorylation was increased approximately threefold immediately after resistance exercise, whereas 4E-BP1 phosphorylation was reduced to 27 +/- 6% of preexercise values. Phosphorylation of S6K1 at Thr421/Ser424 was increased 2- to 2.5-fold during recovery but did not induce a significant change in S6 phosphorylation. Phosphorylation of S6K1 was more pronounced in the type II vs. type I muscle fibers. Before exercise, phosphorylated S6K1 was predominantly located in the nuclei. After 2 h of postexercise recovery, phospho-S6K1 was primarily located in the cytosol of type II muscle fibers. We conclude that resistance exercise effectively increases the phosphorylation of S6K1 on Thr421/Ser424, which is not associated with a substantial increase in S6 phosphorylation in a fasted state.
Insulin promotes muscle anabolism, but it is still unclear whether it stimulates muscle protein synthesis in humans. We hypothesized that insulin can increase muscle protein synthesis only if it increases muscle amino acid availability. We measured muscle protein and amino acid metabolism using stable-isotope methodologies in 19 young healthy subjects at baseline and during insulin infusion in one leg at low (LD, 0.05), intermediate (ID, 0.15), or high (HD, 0.30 mUxmin(-1)x100 ml(-1)) doses. Insulin was infused locally to induce muscle hyperinsulinemia within the physiological range while minimizing the systemic effects. Protein and amino acid kinetics across the leg were assessed using stable isotopes and muscle biopsies. The LD did not affect phenylalanine delivery to the muscle (-9 +/- 18% change over baseline), muscle protein synthesis (16 +/- 26%), breakdown, or net balance. The ID increased (P < 0.05) phenylalanine delivery (+63 +/- 38%), muscle protein synthesis (+157 +/- 54%), and net protein balance, with no change in breakdown. The HD did not change phenylalanine delivery (+12 +/- 11%) or muscle protein synthesis (+9 +/- 19%), and reduced muscle protein breakdown (-17 +/- 15%), thus improving net muscle protein balance but to a lesser degree than the ID. Changes in muscle protein synthesis were strongly associated with changes in muscle blood flow and phenylalanine delivery and availability. In conclusion, physiological hyperinsulinemia promotes muscle protein synthesis as long as it concomitantly increases muscle blood flow, amino acid delivery and availability.
High-resistance strength training (HRST) is one of the most widely practiced forms of physical activity, which is used to enhance athletic performance, augment musculo-skeletal health and alter body aesthetics. Chronic exposure to this type of activity produces marked increases in muscular strength, which are attributed to a range of neurological and morphological adaptations. This review assesses the evidence for these adaptations, their interplay and contribution to enhanced strength and the methodologies employed. The primary morphological adaptations involve an increase in the cross-sectional area of the whole muscle and individual muscle fibres, which is due to an increase in myofibrillar size and number. Satellite cells are activated in the very early stages of training; their proliferation and later fusion with existing fibres appears to be intimately involved in the hypertrophy response. Other possible morphological adaptations include hyperplasia, changes in fibre type, muscle architecture, myofilament density and the structure of connective tissue and tendons. Indirect evidence for neurological adaptations, which encompasses learning and coordination, comes from the specificity of the training adaptation, transfer of unilateral training to the contralateral limb and imagined contractions. The apparent rise in whole-muscle specific tension has been primarily used as evidence for neurological adaptations; however, morphological factors (e.g. preferential hypertrophy of type 2 fibres, increased angle of fibre pennation, increase in radiological density) are also likely to contribute to this phenomenon. Changes in inter-muscular coordination appear critical. Adaptations in agonist muscle activation, as assessed by electromyography, tetanic stimulation and the twitch interpolation technique, suggest small, but significant increases. Enhanced firing frequency and spinal reflexes most likely explain this improvement, although there is contrary evidence suggesting no change in cortical or corticospinal excitability. The gains in strength with HRST are undoubtedly due to a wide combination of neurological and morphological factors. Whilst the neurological factors may make their greatest contribution during the early stages of a training programme, hypertrophic processes also commence at the onset of training.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possible relationship between a change in Thr(389) phosphorylation of p70S6 kinase (p70(S6k)) after a single resistance training session and an increase in skeletal muscle mass following short-term resistance training. Eight male subjects performed an initial resistance training session in leg press, six sets of 6RM with 2 min between sets. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis before (T1) and 30 min after the initial training session (T2). Six of these subjects completed a 14-week resistance-training programme, three times per week (nine exercises, six sets, 6RM). A third muscle biopsy was obtained at the end of the 14-week training period (T3). One repetition maximum (1RM) squat, bench press and leg press strength as well as fat-free mass (FFM, with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry) were determined at T1 and T3. The results show that the increase in Thr(389) phosphorylation of p70(S6k) after the initial training session was closely correlated with the percentage increase in whole body FFM (r = 0.89, P < 0.01), FFM(leg) (r = 0.81, P < 0.05), 1RM squat (r = 0.84, P < 0.05), and type IIA muscle fibre cross sectional area (r = 0.82, P < 0.05) after 14 weeks of resistance training. These results may suggest that p70(S6k) phosphorylation is involved in the signalling events leading to an increase in protein accretion in human skeletal muscle following resistance training, at least during the initial training period.
A present debate in muscle biology is whether myonuclear addition is required during skeletal muscle hypertrophy. We utilized K-means cluster analysis to classify 66 humans after 16 wk of knee extensor resistance training as extreme (Xtr, n = 17), modest (Mod, n = 32), or nonresponders (Non, n = 17) based on myofiber hypertrophy, which averaged 58, 28, and 0%, respectively (Bamman MM, Petrella JK, Kim JS, Mayhew DL, Cross JM. J Appl Physiol 102: 2232-2239, 2007). We hypothesized that robust hypertrophy seen in Xtr was driven by superior satellite cell (SC) activation and myonuclear addition. Vastus lateralis biopsies were obtained at baseline and week 16. SCs were identified immunohistochemically by surface expression of neural cell adhesion molecule. At baseline, myofiber size did not differ among clusters; however, the SC population was greater in Xtr (P < 0.01) than both Mod and Non, suggesting superior basal myogenic potential. SC number increased robustly during training in Xtr only (117%; P < 0.001). Myonuclear addition occurred in Mod (9%; P < 0.05) and was most effectively accomplished in Xtr (26%; P < 0.001). After training, Xtr had more myonuclei per fiber than Non (23%; P < 0.05) and tended to have more than Mod (19%; P = 0.056). Both Xtr and Mod expanded the myonuclear domain to meet (Mod) or exceed (Xtr) 2,000 mum(2) per nucleus, possibly driving demand for myonuclear addition to support myofiber expansion. These findings strongly suggest myonuclear addition via SC recruitment may be required to achieve substantial myofiber hypertrophy in humans. Individuals with a greater basal presence of SCs demonstrated, with training, a remarkable ability to expand the SC pool, incorporate new nuclei, and achieve robust growth.
Statistical procedures underpin the process of scientific discovery. As researchers, one way we use these procedures is to test the validity of a null hypothesis. Often, we test the validity of more than one null hypothesis. If we fail to use an appropriate procedure to account for this multiplicity, then we are more likely to reach a wrong scientific conclusion-we are more likely to make a mistake. In physiology, experiments that involve multiple comparisons are common: of the original articles published in 1997 by the American Physiological Society, approximately 40% cite a multiple comparison procedure. In this review, I demonstrate the statistical issue embedded in multiple comparisons, and I summarize the philosophies of handling this issue. I also illustrate the three procedures-Newman-Keuls, Bonferroni, least significant difference-cited most often in my literature review; each of these procedures is of limited practical value. Last, I demonstrate the false discovery rate procedure, a promising development in multiple comparisons. The false discovery rate procedure may be the best practical solution to the problems of multiple comparisons that exist within physiology and other scientific disciplines.