Article

Post‐exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long‐term adaptations in muscle to strength training

July 2015
The Journal of Physiology 593(18)

DOI:10.1113/JP270570

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Llion Roberts

Griffith University

Truls Raastad

Norwegian School of Sport Sciences (NIH)

James F Markworth

Purdue University

Vandré Casagrande Figueiredo

University of Kentucky

Show all 9 authorsHide

We investigated functional, morphological and molecular adaptations to strength training exercise and cold water immersion (CWI) through two separate studies. In one study, 21 physically active men strength trained for 12 weeks (2 d⋅wk(-1) ), with either 10 min of CWI or active recovery (ACT) after each training session. Strength and muscle mass increased more in the ACT group than in the CWI group (P<0.05). Isokinetic work (19%), type II muscle fibre cross-sectional area (17%) and the number of myonuclei per fibre (26%) increased in the ACT group (all P<0.05) but not the CWI group. In another study, nine active men performed a bout of single-leg strength exercises on separate days, followed by CWI or ACT. Muscle biopsies were collected before and 2, 24 and 48 h after exercise. The number of satellite cells expressing neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) (10-30%) and paired box protein (Pax7)(20-50%) increased 24-48 h after exercise with ACT. The number of NCAM(+) satellitecells increased 48 h after exercise with CWI. NCAM(+) - and Pax7(+) -positivesatellite cell numbers were greater after ACT than after CWI (P<0.05). Phosphorylation of p70S6 kinase(Thr421/Ser424) increased after exercise in both conditions but was greater after ACT (P<0.05). These data suggest that CWI attenuates the acute changes in satellite cell numbers and activity of kinases that regulate muscle hypertrophy, which may translate to smaller long-term training gains in muscle strength and hypertrophy. The use of CWI as a regular post-exercise recovery strategy should be reconsidered. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion Effects on Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training and the Underlying Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle: A Narrative Review

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Post-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) is a popular recovery modality aimed at minimizing fatigue and hastening recovery following exercise. In this regard, CWI has been shown to be beneficial for accelerating post-exercise recovery of various parameters including muscle strength, muscle soreness, inflammation, muscle damage, and perceptions of fatigue. Improved recovery following an exercise session facilitated by CWI is thought to enhance the quality and training load of subsequent training sessions, thereby providing a greater training stimulus for long-term physiological adaptations. However, studies investigating the long-term effects of repeated post-exercise CWI instead suggest CWI may attenuate physiological adaptations to exercise training in a mode-specific manner. Specifically, there is evidence post-exercise CWI can attenuate improvements in physiological adaptations to resistance training, including aspects of maximal strength, power, and skeletal muscle hypertrophy, without negatively influencing endurance training adaptations. Several studies have investigated the effects of CWI on the molecular responses to resistance exercise in an attempt to identify the mechanisms by which CWI attenuates physiological adaptations to resistance training. Although evidence is limited, it appears that CWI attenuates the activation of anabolic signaling pathways and the increase in muscle protein synthesis following acute and chronic resistance exercise, which may mediate the negative effects of CWI on long-term resistance training adaptations. There are, however, a number of methodological factors that must be considered when interpreting evidence for the effects of post-exercise CWI on physiological adaptations to resistance training and the potential underlying mechanisms. This review outlines and critiques the available evidence on the effects of CWI on long-term resistance training adaptations and the underlying molecular mechanisms in skeletal muscle, and suggests potential directions for future research to further elucidate the effects of CWI on resistance training adaptations.

Effects of compression garment on muscular efficacy, proprioception, and recovery after exercise-induced muscle fatigue onset for people who exercise regularly

Article

Feb 2022
PLOS ONE

Fatigue is a major cause of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). Compression garments (CGs) can aid post-exercise recovery, therefore, this study explored the effects of CGs on muscular efficacy, proprioception, and recovery after exercise-induced muscle fatigue in people who exercise regularly. Twelve healthy participants who exercised regularly were enrolled in this study. Each participant completed an exercise-induced muscle fatigue test while wearing a randomly assigned lower-body CG or sports pants (SP); after at least 7 days, the participant repeated the test while wearing the other garment. The dependent variables were muscle efficacy, proprioception (displacements of center of pressure/COP, and absolute error), and fatigue recovery (muscle oxygen saturation/SmO2, deoxygenation and reoxygenation rate, and subjective muscle soreness). A two-way repeated measure analysis of variance was conducted to determine the effect of garment type. The results indicated that relative to SP use, CG use can promote muscle efficacy, proprioception in ML displacement of COP, and fatigue recovery. Higher deoxygenation and reoxygenation rates were observed with CG use than with SP use. For CG use, SmO2 quickly returned to baseline value after 10 min of rest and was maintained at a high level until after 1 h of rest, whereas for SP use, SmO2 increased with time after fatigue onset. ML displacement of COP quickly returned to baseline value after 10 min of rest and subsequently decreased until after 1 hour of rest. Relative to SP use, CG use was associated with a significantly lower ML displacement after 20 min of rest. In conclusion, proprioception and SmO2 recovery was achieved after 10 min of rest; however, at least 24 h may be required for recovery pertaining to muscle efficacy and soreness regardless of CG or SP use.

The Acute and Longer-Term Effects of Cold Water Immersion in Highly-Trained Volleyball Athletes During an Intense Training Block

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2020

Background: The use of cold water immersion (CWI) as a recovery strategy following exercise has drawn mixed findings over the last few decades. The purpose of the current study was twofold ; (1) to determine the acute effects of CWI within the training week, and (2) to investigate the longer-term effects of CWI over a 16-day period. Methods: In a randomized, controlled trial, 13 national-level volleyball athletes were allocated to two groups, an experimental (CWI, n = 7) and a control group (n = 6) during a 3-week national training camp. The experimental group were exposed to a CWI protocol after the last training session of each day (12 CWI sessions). Measures of lower (countermovement jump and squat jump height) and upper-body (medicine ball throw distance) power were collected pre-and post-training camp. Perceptual and neuromuscular performance measures (countermovement jump) were obtained during the training camp. Results: No significant differences between groups were observed for any measure (p > 0.05), however, small effect sizes were observed between experimental and control groups on day two of weeks one and two. Three weeks of training resulted in a significant decrease in countermovement jump height in the control group. A moderate effect size (d = 0.65) was found for countermovement jump performance between the experimental and control groups. Conclusion: Cold water immersion seems to provide little benefit to recovery in the acute setting (within the training week), however, chronically, there was a trend toward a benefit when implementing cold water immersion in well-trained volleyball athletes over 16 days.

PhD Thesis Thomas Bjørnsen

Thesis

Full-text available

Aug 2019

Thomas Bjørnsen

SUMMARY Purpose: The overarching aim of this thesis was to investigate the effect of short-term blocks with high-frequency low-load blood flow restricted resistance exercise (BFRRE) on muscular adaptations in untrained individuals, recreationally trained individuals and elite strength athletes. Three independent studies with four original papers have been completed towards this objective. High-frequency BFRRE has been shown to induce rapid muscle growth accompanied by increased numbers of satellite cells and myonuclei. However, the satellite cell and myonuclear responses appears to plateau after an initial block of training and it may be speculated that a rest period can reset the responsiveness of the system after the initial training response. Thus, the aims of Study I and II were to investigate the effect and time-course of changes in fiber and whole muscle areas, myonuclear and satellite cell numbers and muscle strength during two five-day blocks of high-frequency low-load BFRRE, separated by 10 days of rest. In addition, the importance of performing BFRRE sets to failure on cellular adaptations has not been investigated. Therefore, Study II compared the effect of a failure- vs. a non-failure high-frequency BFRRE protocol. Despite the impressive rates of muscle growth reported in some studies on high-frequency BFRRE, several recent studies have shown that BFRRE increases markers of muscle damage and cellular stress. To shed light on possible mechanisms for myocellular stress and damage after strenuous high-frequency BFRRE, heat shock protein (HSP) responses, glycogen content and inflammatory markers were investigated in Study I (paper II). Finally, the impact of low-load BFRRE has not yet been investigated in highly specialized strength athletes, such as powerlifters. Thus, the aim of Study III was to investigate the effect of implementing two five-day blocks of high-frequency low-load BFRRE during six weeks of periodized strength training in elite powerlifters, on the changes in number of satellite cells, myonuclei and muscle size and strength. METHODS: A total of 47 healthy men and women participated in the studies. Thirteen recreationally trained sports students in Study I (24±2 yrs [mean±SD], 9 men) and 17 untrained men in Study II (25±6 yrs), completed two 5-day-blocks of seven BFRRE sessions, separated by a 10-day rest period. A failure BFRRE protocol consisting of four sets with knee extensions to voluntary failure at 20% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) was performed with both legs in Study I, and randomized to one of the legs in Study II. The other leg in Study II performed a non-failure BFRRE protocol (30, 15, 15, 15 repetitions). In Study I, muscle samples from m. vastus lateralis (VL) obtained before and 1h after the first session in the first and second block (“Acute1” and “Acute2”), after three sessions (“Day4”), during the “Rest Week”, and at three (“Post3”) and ten days post-intervention (“Post10”), were analyzed for muscle fiber area (MFA), myonuclei, satellite cells, mRNA, miRNA, HSP70, αB-crystallin, glycogen (PAS staining), CD68+ (macrophages) and CD66b+ (neutrophils) cell numbers. Muscle strength (1RM knee-extension) and whole muscle size (ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging) was measured up until 20 days after the last exercise session (Post20). In Study II, muscle samples obtained before, at midtraining, and 10 days post-intervention (Post10) were analyzed for muscle fiber area (MFA), myonuclei, and satellite cells. Muscle thickness, cross-sectional area and echo intensity were measured by ultrasonography, and knee-extension strength with 1RM and maximal isometric contraction (isomMVC) up until Post24. In Study III, seventeen national level powerlifters (25±6 yrs, 15 men) were randomly assigned to either a BFRRE group (n=9) performing two blocks (week 1 and 3) of five BFRRE front squat sessions within a 6.5-week training period, or a conventional training group (Con; n=8) performing front squats at ~70% of 1RM. The BFRRE consisted of four sets (first and last set to voluntary failure) at ~30% of 1RM. Muscle biopsies were obtained from VL and analyzed for MFA, myonuclei, satellite cells and capillaries. Cross-sectional areas (CSA) of VL and m. rectus femoris (RF) were measured by ultrasonography. Strength was evaluated by maximal voluntary isokinetic torque (dynMVC) in knee-extension and 1RM in front squat. RESULTS: With the first block of BFRRE in Study I (paper I), satellite cell number increased in both fiber types (70-80%, p<0.05), while type I and II MFA decreased by 6±7% and 15±11% (p<0.05), respectively. No significant changes were observed in number of myonuclei or strength during the first block of training. With the second block of training, muscle size increased by 6-8%, while the number of satellite cell (type I: 80±63%, type II 147±95%), myonuclei (type I: 30±24%, type II: 31±28%) and MFA (type I: 19±19%, type II: 11±19%) peaked 10 days after the second block of BFRRE. Strength peaked after 20 days of detraining (6±6%, p<0.05). Pax7- and p21 mRNA expression were elevated during the intervention, while myostatin, IGF1R, MyoD, myogenin, cyclinD1 and -D2 mRNA did not change until 3-10 days post intervention. In paper II of Study I, αB-crystallin was reported to translocate from the cytosolic to the cytoskeletal fraction after Acute1 and Acute2 (p<0.05), and immunostaining revealed larger responses in type 1 than type 2 fibers (Acute1, 225±184% vs. 92±81%, respectively, p=0.001). HSP70 was increased in the cytoskeletal fraction at Day4 and Post3, and immunostaining intensities were more elevated in type 1 than in type 2 fibers (Day4, 206±84% vs. 72±112%, respectively, p<0.001). Glycogen content was reduced in both fiber types; but most pronounced in type 1, which did not recover until the Rest Week (-15-29%, p≤0.001). Intramuscular macrophage numbers were increased by ~65% postintervention, but no changes were observed in muscle neutrophils. Both protocols in Study II increased myonuclear numbers in type-1 (12- 17%) and type-2 fibers (20-23%), and satellite cells in type-1 (92-134%) and type-2 fibers (23-48%) at Post10 (p<0.05). RF and VL size increased by 7-10% and 5-6% in both legs at Post10 to Post24, whereas the MFA of type-1 fibers in Failure was decreased at Post10 (-10±16%; p=0.02). Echo intensity increased by ~20% in both legs during Block1 (p<0.001) and was ~8-11% below baseline at Post24 (p=0.001-0.002). IsomMVC decreased by 8-10% in both legs and 1RM by 5% in the failure leg after Block1 (p=0.01-0.02). IsomMVC and 1RM were increased in both legs by 6-7% and 9-11% at Post24, respectively (p<0.05). In Study III, BFRRE in powerlifters induced selective type I fiber increases in MFA (BFRRE: 12% vs. Con: 0%, p<0.01) and myonuclear number (BFRRE: 17% vs. Con: 0%, p=0.02). Type II MFA was unaltered in both groups. BFRRE induced greater changes in VL CSA than control (7.7% vs. 0.5%, p=0.04), and the VL CSA changes correlated with the increases in MFA of type I fibers (r=0.81, p=0.02). No significant group differences were observed in SC and strength changes. CONCLUSIONS: High-frequency low-load BFRRE in Study I and II induced pronounced responses in satellite cell proliferation, delayed myonuclear addition and increases in muscle size, concomitantly with delayed increases in strength in untrained and recreationally trained individuals. While the gains in satellite cell and myonuclear numbers as well as muscle size and strength were similar between non-failure and failure BFRRE protocols in Study II, perceptions of exertion, pain and muscle soreness were lower in the non-failure leg. Hence, nonfailure BFRRE may be a more feasible and safe approach. However, we report that short-term strenuous high-frequency BFRRE can induce elevations in multiple markers of cellular stress and damage in non-strength trained individuals. We showed that low-load BFRRE stressed both fiber types, but the fiber type-specific HSP-responses and prolonged glycogen depletion strongly indicated that type 1 fibers were more stressed than type 2 fibers. It appears that the first block of unaccustomed BFRRE exceeded the capacity for recovery in both Study I and II, and may have induced muscle damage in some of our participants. In accordance with our hypothesis, our participants seemed to recover during the rest week and to respond well to the second block of BFRRE. It is intriguing that BFRRE induced preferential type I hypertrophy after the second block of training in Study I. This indicates that although the initial stress may be too high (and cause damage), adaptive responses will occur and later the same exercise stress will be the important stimuli for adaptation. Our findings from Study I and II may provide insights into some of the physiological mechanisms underpinning overreaching and subsequent recovery and supercompensation after periods of very strenuous exercise. Finally, in Study III, two one-week blocks with high-frequency low-load BFRRE implemented during six weeks of periodized strength training induced a significant increase in muscle size and myonuclear addition in elite powerlifters. Preferential hypertrophy and myonuclear addition of type I fibers appears to explain most of the overall muscle growth. Intriguingly, these responses are in contrast to heavy-load strength training, that typically induces a greater type II fiber hypertrophy. Consequently, BFRRE appears to have complementary effects to heavyresistance training and the combination of these two methods may optimize adaptations of both fiber types in highly strength-trained individuals. However, despite the increases in muscle size, we could not observe any group differences in maximal strength.

The cold truth: the role of cryotherapy in the treatment of injury and recovery from exercise

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021
EUR J APPL PHYSIOL

Cryotherapy is utilized as a physical intervention in the treatment of injury and exercise recovery. Traditionally, ice is used in the treatment of musculoskeletal injury while cold water immersion or whole-body cryotherapy is used for recovery from exercise. In humans, the primary benefit of traditional cryotherapy is reduced pain following injury or soreness following exercise. Cryotherapy-induced reductions in metabolism, inflammation, and tissue damage have been demonstrated in animal models of muscle injury; however, comparable evidence in humans is lacking. This absence is likely due to the inadequate duration of application of traditional cryotherapy modalities. Traditional cryotherapy application must be repeated to overcome this limitation. Recently, the novel application of cooling with 15 °C phase change material (PCM), has been administered for 3-6 h with success following exercise. Although evidence suggests that chronic use of cryotherapy during resistance training blunts the anabolic training effect, recovery using PCM does not compromise acute adaptation. Therefore, following exercise, cryotherapy is indicated when rapid recovery is required between exercise bouts, as opposed to after routine training. Ultimately, the effectiveness of cryotherapy as a recovery modality is dependent upon its ability to maintain a reduction in muscle temperature and on the timing of treatment with respect to when the injury occurred, or the exercise ceased. Therefore, to limit the proliferation of secondary tissue damage that occurs in the hours after an injury or a strenuous exercise bout, it is imperative that cryotherapy be applied in abundance within the first few hours of structural damage.

Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on resistance training-induced gains in muscular strength: a meta-analysis

Article

Jan 2022
EUR J SPORT SCI

Jozo Grgic

The aim of this review was to perform a meta-analysis examining the effects of CWI coupled with resistance training on gains in muscular strength. Four databases were searched to find relevant studies. Their methodological quality and risk of bias were evaluated using the PEDro checklist. The effects of CWI vs. control on muscular strength were examined in a random-effects meta-analysis. Ten studies (n = 170; 92% males), with 11 comparisons across 22 groups, were included in the analysis. Studies were classified as of good or fair methodological quality. The main meta-analysis found that CWI attenuated muscular strength gains (effect size [ES]: –0.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]: –0.45, –0.01; p = 0.041). In the analysis of data from studies applying CWI only to the trained limbs, CWI attenuated muscular strength gains (ES: –0.31; 95% CI: –0.61, –0.01; p = 0.041). In the analysis of data from studies using whole-body CWI, there was no significant difference in muscular strength gains between CWI and control (ES: –0.08; 95% CI: –0.53, 0.38; p = 0.743). In summary, this meta-analysis found that the use of CWI following resistance exercise sessions attenuates muscular strength gains in males. However, when CWI was applied to the whole body, there was no significant difference between CWI and control for muscular strength. Due to the attenuated gains in muscular strength found with single limb CWI, the use and/or timing of CWI in resistance training should be carefully considered and individualized.

Compression Garments for Recovery from Muscle Damage: Evidence and Implications of Dose Responses

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022
Curr Sports Med Rep

The use of compression garments (CG) has been associated with improved recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage. The mechanisms responsible are not well established, and no consensus exists regarding the effects of compression pressure (i.e., the “dose”), which until recently was seldom reported. With the increasing prevalence of studies reporting directly measured pressures, the present review aims to consolidate current evidence on optimal pressures for recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage. In addition, recent findings suggesting that custom-fitted garments provide greater precision and experimental control are discussed. Finally, biochemical data from human trials are presented to support a theoretical mechanism by which CG enhance recovery, with recommendations for future research. The effects of compression on adaptation remain unexplored. More studies are required to investigate the relationship between compression pressure and the recovery of performance and physiological outcomes. Furthermore, improved mechanistic understanding may help elucidate the optimal conditions by which CG enhance recovery.

Cold Water Immersion Offers No Functional or Perceptual Benefit Compared to a Sham Intervention During a Resistance Training Program

Article

Jul 2021
J STRENGTH COND RES

Wilson, LJ, Dimitriou, L, Hills, FA, Gondek, MB, van Wyk, A, Turek, V, Rivkin, T, Villiere, A, Jarvis, P, Miller, S, Turner, A, and Cockburn, E. Cold water immersion offers no functional or perceptual benefit compared to a sham intervention during a resistance training program. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-Cold water immersion (CWI) is regularly used by athletes as a postexercise recovery strategy, but relatively little is understood about potential training adaptations associated with habitual use. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of repeated CWI or a sham intervention on adaptations to a lower body resistance training program. Thirteen men (26 ± 6 years; 83.6 ± 15.7 kg) familiar with resistance training were allocated into a CWI (10 minutes at 10° C) or sham group and completed 2 × 4-week blocks of lower body resistance training. Subjects completed a total of 16 training sessions (2 × session·week-1), with each session immediately followed by their allocated recovery intervention. Measures of perceptual markers, muscle function, and muscle architecture were recorded at baseline, midpoint, and post-training. Data were analyzed using factorial analysis of variances. The training program resulted in significant increases in muscle fibre pennation angle (p = 0.009), isometric peak force (p = 0.018), and 1/4 squat (p < 0.001) with no differences between groups (all p > 0.05). There were no differences in perceptual responses between groups. Despite the popularity of CWI as a postexercise recovery intervention, the findings from the present study demonstrated no functional or perceptual benefit compared with a sham intervention during progressive strength and power training. Furthermore, there was no detrimental impact of CWI on morphological adaptations after 16 exposures. These findings are important for athletes and practitioners wishing to use CWI as an acute recovery strategy after training, without blunting potential training adaptations.

Functional Impact of Post-exercise Cooling and Heating on Recovery and Training Adaptations: Application to Resistance, Endurance, and Sprint Exercise

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

The application of post-exercise cooling (e.g., cold water immersion) and post-exercise heating has become a popular intervention which is assumed to increase functional recovery and may improve chronic training adaptations. However, the effectiveness of such post-exercise temperature manipulations remains uncertain. The aim of this comprehensive review was to analyze the effects of post-exercise cooling and post-exercise heating on neuromuscular function (maximal strength and power), fatigue resistance, exercise performance, and training adaptations. We focused on three exercise types (resistance, endurance and sprint exercises) and included studies investigating (1) the early recovery phase, (2) the late recovery phase, and (3) repeated application of the treatment. We identified that the primary benefit of cooling was in the early recovery phase (< 1 h post-exercise) in improving fatigue resistance in hot ambient conditions following endurance exercise and possibly enhancing the recovery of maximal strength following resistance exercise. The primary negative impact of cooling was with chronic exposure which impaired strength adaptations and decreased fatigue resistance following resistance training intervention (12 weeks and 4–12 weeks, respectively). In the early recovery phase, cooling could also impair sprint performance following sprint exercise and could possibly reduce neuromuscular function immediately after endurance exercise. Generally, no benefits of acute cooling were observed during the 24–72-h recovery period following resistance and endurance exercises, while it could have some benefits on the recovery of neuromuscular function during the 24–48-h recovery period following sprint exercise. Most studies indicated that chronic cooling does not affect endurance training adaptations following 4–6 week training intervention. We identified limited data employing heating as a recovery intervention, but some indications suggest promise in its application to endurance and sprint exercise.

Athlete, coach and practitioner knowledge and perceptions of post-exercise cold-water immersion for recovery: a qualitative and quantitative exploration

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021
Sport Sci Health

This survey sought to establish current use, knowledge and perceptions of cold-water immersion (CWI) when used for recovery. 111 athletes, coaches and support practitioners completed the anonymous online survey, answering questions about their current CWI protocols, perceptions of benefits associated with CWI and knowledge of controlling mechanisms. Respondents were largely involved in elite sport at international, national and club level, with many having used CWI previously (86%) and finding its use beneficial for recovery (78%). Protocols differed, with the duration of immersion one aspect that failed to align with recommendations in the scientific literature. Whilst many respondents were aware of benefits associated with CWI, there remains some confusion. There also seems to be a gap in mechanistic knowledge, where respondents are aware of benefits associated with CWI, but failed to identify the underlying mechanisms. This identifies the need for an improved method of knowledge transfer between scientific and applied practice communities. Moreover, data herein emphasises the important role of the ‘support practitioner’ as respondents in this role tended to favour CWI protocols more aligned to recommendations within the literature. With a significant number of respondents claiming they were made aware of CWI for recovery through a colleague (43%), the importance of knowledge transfer and context being appropriately applied to data is as important as ever. With the firm belief that CWI is useful for recovery in sport, the focus should now be on investigating the psychophysiological interaction and correct use of this methodology.

The Effects of Regular Cold-Water Immersion Use on Training-Induced Changes in Strength and Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021
SPORTS MED

Background: Cold-water immersion (CWI) is one of the main recovery methods used in sports, and is commonly utilized as a means to expedite the recovery of performance during periods of exercise training. In recent decades, there have been indications that regular CWI use is potentially harmful to resistance training adaptations, and, conversely, potentially beneficial to endurance training adaptations. The current meta-analysis was conducted to assess the effects of the regular CWI use during exercise training on resistance (i.e., strength) and endurance (i.e., aerobic exercise) performance alterations. Methods: A computerized literature search was conducted, ending on November 25, 2019. The databases searched were MEDLINE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and SPORTDiscuss. The selected studies investigated the effects of chronic CWI interventions associated with resistance and endurance training sessions on exercise performance improvements. The criteria for inclusion of studies were: (1) being a controlled investigation; (2) conducted with humans; (3) CWI performed at ≤15 °C; (4) being associated with a regular training program; and (5) having performed baseline and post training assessments. Results: Eight articles were included before the review process. A harmful effect of CWI associated with resistance training was verified for one-repetition maximum, maximum isometric strength, and strength endurance performance (overall standardized mean difference [SMD] = − 0.60; Confidence interval of 95% [CI95%] = − 0.87, − 0.33; p < 0.0001), as well as for Ballistic efforts performance (overall SMD = − 0.61; CI95% = − 1.11, − 0.11; p = 0.02). On the other hand, selected studies verified no effect of CWI associated with endurance training on time-trial (mean power), maximal aerobic power in graded exercise test performance (overall SMD = − 0.07; CI95% = − 0.54, 0.53; p = 0.71), or time-trial performance (duration) (overall SMD = 0.00; CI95% = − 0.58, 0.58; p = 1.00). Conclusions: The regular use of CWI associated with exercise programs has a deleterious effect on resistance training adaptations but does not appear to affect aerobic exercise performance. Trial Registration: PROSPERO CRD42018098898.

The Effects of Cold Water Immersion and Active Recovery on Molecular Factors That Regulate Growth and Remodeling of Skeletal Muscle After Resistance Exercise

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

Regular postexercise cooling attenuates muscle hypertrophy, yet its effects on the key molecular factors that regulate muscle growth and remodeling are not well characterized. In the present study, nine men completed two sessions of single-leg resistance exercise on separate days. On 1 day, they sat in cold water (10°C) up to their waist for 10 min after exercise. On the other day, they exercised at a low intensity for 10 min after exercise. Muscle biopsies were collected from the exercised leg before, 2, 24, and 48 h after exercise in both trials. These muscle samples were analyzed to evaluate changes in genes and proteins involved in muscle growth and remodeling. Muscle-specific RING finger 1 mRNA increased at 2 h after both trials (P < 0.05), while insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 Ec, IGF-1 receptor, growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible protein 45, collagen type I alpha chain A, collagen type III alpha chain 1, laminin and tissue inhibitor of metallopeptidase 1 mRNA increased 24−48 h after both trials (P < 0.05). By contrast, atrogin-1 mRNA decreased at all time points after both trials (P < 0.05). Protein expression of tenascin C increased 2 h after the active recovery trial (P < 0.05), whereas FoxO3a protein expression decreased after both trials (P < 0.05). Myostatin mRNA and ubiquitin protein expression did not change after either trial. These responses were not significantly different between the trials. The present findings suggest that regular cold water immersion attenuates muscle hypertrophy independently of changes in factors that regulate myogenesis, proteolysis and extracellular matrix remodeling in muscle after exercise.

MINI REVIEW Adaptations to Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion: Friend, Foe, or Futile?

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

In the last decade, cold water immersion (CWI) has emerged as one of the most popular post-exercise recovery strategies utilized amongst athletes during training and competition. Following earlier research on the effects of CWI on the recovery of exercise performance and associated mechanisms, the recent focus has been on how CWI might influence adaptations to exercise. This line of enquiry stems from classical work demonstrating improved endurance and mitochondrial development in rodents exposed to repeated cold exposures. Moreover, there was strong rationale that CWI might enhance adaptations to exercise, given the discovery, and central role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) in both cold-and exercise-induced oxidative adaptations. Research on adaptations to post-exercise CWI have generally indicated a mode-dependant effect, where resistance training adaptations were diminished, whilst aerobic exercise performance seems unaffected but demonstrates premise for enhancement. However, the general suitability of CWI as a recovery modality has been the focus of considerable debate, primarily given the dampening effect on hypertrophy gains. In this mini-review, we highlight the key mechanisms surrounding CWI and endurance exercise adaptations, reiterating the potential for CWI to enhance endurance performance, with support from classical and contemporary works. This review also discusses the implications and insights (with regards to endurance and strength adaptations) gathered from recent studies examining the longer-term effects of CWI on training performance and recovery. Lastly, a periodized approach to recovery is proposed, where the use of CWI may be incorporated during competition or intensified training, whilst strategically avoiding periods following training focused on improving muscle strength or hypertrophy.

The Effect of Repetitive Whole Body Cryotherapy Treatment on Adaptations to a Strength and Endurance Training Programme in Physically Active Males

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Despite its potential merit in sport and exercise recovery, the implications of repetitive Whole Body Cryotherapy (WBC) during training programmes require further review due to the possibility of repetitive cold interfering with long term adaptations. This study investigated the impact of two weekly 3 min WBC sessions (30 s at −60 • C, 150 s at −120 • C) on adaptations to a 6 week strength and endurance training programme. Sixteen male participants (mean ± SD age 33.4 ± 9.8 years, body mass 82.3 ± 9.8 kg) randomly allocated into WBC (n = 7) and non-cryotherapy control (CON, n=9) groups completed the programme consisting of two weekly strength and plyometric training sessions and two weekly 30 min runs (70% VO 2 max). Participants were assessed for body fat, VO2 max, muscle torque, three repetition maximum barbell squat and countermovement jump height before and after the programme. Resistance and running intensities were progressed after 3 weeks. Participants in both groups significantly improved muscle torque (WBC: 277.1 ± 63.2 Nm vs. 318.1 ± 83.4 Nm, p < 0.01, d = 0.56; CON: 244.6 ± 50.6 Nm vs. 268.0 ± 71.8 Nm, p = 0.05, d = 0.38) and barbell squat (WBC: 86.4 ± 19.5 kg vs. 98.9 ± 15.2 kg, p = 0.03, d = 0.69; CON: 91.1 ± 28.7 kg vs. 106.1 ± 30.0 kg, p<0.01, d=0.51) following the 6 week programme. For the CON group, there was also a significant reduction in body fat percentage (p = 0.01) and significant increase in jump height (p = 0.01). There was no significant increase in VO2 max for either group (both p > 0.2). There was no difference between WBC and CON for responses in muscle torque, 3RM barbell squat and body fat, however WBC participants did not increase their jump height (p = 0.23). Repetitive WBC does not appear to blunt adaptations to a concurrent training programme, although there may be an interference effect in the development of explosive power. Sports practitioners can cautiously apply repetitive WBC to support recovery post-exercise without undue concern on athletes' fitness gains or long term performance, particularly throughout training phases focused more on general strength development than explosive power.

Contrast With Compression Therapy Enhances Muscle Function Recovery and Attenuates Glycogen Disruption After Exercise

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Background: Exercise-associated muscle damage (EAMD) temporally impairs muscle function and intramuscular glycogen storage. Contrast with compression (CwC) therapy provides localized EAMD treatment with minimal changes in core/tissue temperature that can impair glycogen resynthesis. Hypothesis: CwC will enhance the recovery of strength, power, and joint mobility, reduce markers of EAMD, and attenuate the disruption of glycogen storage observed after damaging exercise. Study design: Randomized controlled trial with crossover design. Level of evidence: Level 2. Methods: Ten men completed 2 bouts of eccentric elbow flexor exercise, separated by 1 week, using contralateral arms. After each bout, participants received either CwC therapy (at 0, 24, and 48 h postexercise) or no therapy with intervention order and limb randomly assigned. Prior to (pre-exercise) and 1, 24, 48, and 72 h after each exercise bout, muscular strength, muscular power, intramuscular glycogen, creatine kinase, muscle thickness, muscle soreness, pressure pain threshold, active elbow flexion, passive elbow extension, and dietary intake were assessed. Comparisons were made between conditions over time (interaction effects) using separate repeated-measures analyses of variance/multivariate analyses of variance and effect sizes (Cohen d) to describe treatment effect at each time point. Results: Significant interaction effects were observed for muscular strength (d = 0.67-1.12), muscular power (d = 0.20-0.65), intramuscular glycogen (d = 0.29-0.81), creatine kinase (d = 0.01-0.96), muscle thickness (d = 0.35-0.70), muscle soreness (d = 0.18-0.85), and active elbow flexion (d = 0.65-1.17) indicating a beneficial effect of CwC over time (P ≤ 0.05). In contrast, no significant interaction effect was observed for pressure pain threshold or passive elbow extension (P > 0.05). Conclusion: These results support the use of CwC for the recovery of muscle function after damaging exercise in male patients and indicate that CwC attenuates, but does not remove, the disruption of intramuscular glycogen stores observed after intense eccentric exercise. Clinical relevance: Glycolysis-dependent athletes may benefit from CwC therapy after training/competition that causes EAMD.

Muscle Strength and Power: Primary Outcome Measures to Assess Cold Water Immersion Efficacy After Exercise With a Strong Strength or Power Component

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Phototherapy Improves Muscle Recovery and Does Not Impair Repeated Bout Effect in Plyometric Exercise

Article

Dec 2020

Padoin, S, Zeffa, AC, Molina Corrêa, JC, de Angelis, TR, Moreira, TB, Barazetti, LK, and de Paula Ramos, S. Phototherapy improves muscle recovery and does not impair repeated bout effect in plyometric exercise. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-The effects of photobiomodulation with red (630 nm) and near-infrared (940 nm) light wavelengths were investigated on the inhibition of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) and adaptation to the repeated bout effect (RBE). Twenty-eight healthy men were randomized to receive light-emitting diode therapy (LEDT) at 630 nm (4.6 J·cm, 97 J energy), LEDT at 940 nm (4.6 J·cm, 114 J), or placebo. After LEDT or placebo treatment, subjects performed 100 drop-jumps (5 sets of 20 repetitions). Creatine kinase, delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), countermovement jump (CMJ), and squat jump (SJ) were assessed before, immediately after, and 24, 48, and 72 hours after the bout. After 14 days, the subjects were submitted to the same plyometric exercise, without LEDT, and were evaluated again. Creatine kinase levels increased significantly 72 hours after the first bout in the placebo group in relation to the LEDT 940-nm group (P < 0.01). The LEDT 630-nm group showed a significant increase in SJ at 24 hours (P < 0.05), whereas, at 48 hours, the LEDT 940 nm showed a significant increase compared with the placebo group (P < 0.05). The 2-way analysis of variance revealed an effect for treatment in the SJ (F = 7.12; P = 0.001). No differences were found between groups for DOMS and CMJ after the first bout. After the second bout of exercise, there was no effect of treatment. The results suggest that treatment with LEDT 630 nm and LEDT 940 nm before eccentric exercise attenuates EIMD without impairing RBE.

Evidence‐Based Recovery in Soccer – Low‐Effort Approaches for Practitioners

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022
J HUM KINET

Strategies to improve recovery are widely used among soccer players at both amateur and professional levels. Sometimes, however, recovery strategies are ineffective, improperly timed or even harmful to players. This highlights the need to educate practitioners and athletes about the scientific evidence of recovery strategies as well as to provide practical approaches to address this issue. Therefore, recent surveys among soccer athletes and practitioners were reviewed to identify the recovery modalities currently in use. Each strategy was then outlined with its rationale, its physiological mechanisms and the scientific evidence followed by practical approaches to implement the modality. For each intervention, practical and particularly low-effort strategies are provided to ensure that practitioners at all levels are able to implement them. We identified numerous interventions regularly used in soccer, i.e., sleep, rehydration, nutrition, psychological recovery, active recovery, foam-rolling/massage, stretching, cold-water immersion, and compression garments. Nutrition and rehydration were classified with the best evidence, while cold-water immersion, compression garments, foam-rolling/massage and sleep were rated with moderate evidence to enhance recovery. The remaining strategies (active recovery, psychological recovery, stretching) should be applied on an individual basis due to weak evidence observed. Finally, a guide is provided, helping practitioners to decide which intervention to implement. Here, practitioners should rely on the evidence, but also on their own experience and preference of the players.

Multiple Cryotherapy Attenuates Oxi-Inflammatory Response Following Skeletal Muscle Injury

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2020
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

The oxi-inflammatory response is part of the natural process mobilizing leukocytes and satellite cells that contribute to clearance and regeneration of damaged muscle tissue. In sports medicine, a number of post-injury recovery strategies, such as whole-body cryotherapy (WBC), are used to improve skeletal muscle regeneration often without scientific evidence of their benefits. The study was designed to assess the impact of WBC on circulating mediators of skeletal muscle regeneration. Twenty elite athletes were randomized to WBC group (3-min exposure to −120 °C, twice a day for 7 days) and control group. Blood samples were collected before the first WBC session and 1 day after the last cryotherapy exposure. WBC did not affect the indirect markers of muscle damage but significantly reduced the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (H2O2 and NO) as well as the concentrations of serum interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and C-reactive protein (CRP). The changes in circulating growth factors, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGFBB), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), were also reduced by WBC exposure. The study demonstrated that WBC attenuates the cascade of injury–repair–regeneration of skeletal muscles whereby it may delay skeletal muscle regeneration.

Rekreačné otužovanie studenou vodou

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2021

David Kasko

Monografia je zameraná na otužovanie prostredníctvom vodného prostredia s fokusáciou na rekreačne otužujúcich jedincov. V publikácii opisujeme jednotlivé štruktúry a procesy v ľudskom tele, ktoré sú v interakcií s vodným prostredím (ako toleruje organizmus rôzne tepoty prostredia, tvorba a transport tepla v ľudskom organizme, tukové tkanivo, biorytmus a iné). Taktiež rekcie a spôsoby adaptácií ľudského tela na chladové podnety. Pre začínajúcich otužilcov uvádzame odporúčané metodiky ako začínať s otužovaním vodou. Záver publikácie ja zameraný na účinky chladovej expozície a jej rôzne variácie s ich účinkom pri využití v športovej aktivite.

INVITED REVIEW Cold for centuries: a brief history of cryotherapies to improve health, injury and post-exercise recovery

Article

Full-text available

May 2022
EUR J APPL PHYSIOL

For centuries, cold temperatures have been used by humans for therapeutic, health and sporting recovery purposes. This application of cold for therapeutic purposes is regularly referred to as cryotherapy. Cryotherapies including ice, cold-water and cold air have been popularised by an ability to remove heat, reduce core and tissue temperatures, and alter blood flow in humans. The resulting downstream effects upon human physiologies providing benefits that include a reduced perception of pain, or analgesia, and an improved sensation of well-being. Ultimately, such benefits have been translated into therapies that may assist in improving post-exercise recovery, with further investigations assessing the role that cryotherapies can play in attenuating the ensuing post-exercise inflammatory response. Whilst considerable progress has been made in our understanding of the mechanistic changes associated with adopting cryotherapies, research focus tends to look towards the future rather than to the past. It has been suggested that this might be due to the notion of progress being defined as change over time from lower to higher states of knowledge. However, a historical perspective, studying a subject in light of its earliest phase and subsequent evolution, could help sharpen one's vision of the present; helping to generate new research questions as well as look at old questions in new ways. Therefore, the aim of this brief historical perspective is to highlight the origins of the many arms of this popular recovery and treatment technique, whilst further assessing the changing face of cryotherapy. We conclude by discussing what lies ahead in the future for cold-application techniques.

Regulation of Na + ,K + -ATPase and FXYD1 by training and water immersion

Preprint

Jun 2017

Under Pressure: The Chronic Effects of Lower-Body Compression Garment Use during a 6-Week Military Training Course

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

Background: Previous studies have shown that compression garments may aid recovery in acute settings; however, less is known about the long-term use of compression garments (CG) for recovery. This study aimed to assess the influence of wearing CG on changes in physical performance, subjective soreness, and sleep quality over 6 weeks of military training. Methods: Fifty-five officer-trainees aged 24 ± 6 y from the New Zealand Defence Force participated in the current study. Twenty-seven participants wore CG every evening for 4-6 h, and twenty-eight wore standard military attire (CON) over a 6-week period. Subjective questionnaires (soreness and sleep quality) were completed weekly, and 2.4 km run time-trial, maximum press-ups, and curl-ups were tested before and after the 6 weeks of military training. Results: Repeated measures ANOVA indicated no significant group × time interactions for performance measures (p > 0.05). However, there were small effects in favour of CG over CON for improvements in 2.4 km run times (d = -0.24) and press-ups (d = 0.36), respectively. Subjective soreness also resulted in no significant group × time interaction but displayed small to moderate effects for reduced soreness in favour of CG. Conclusions: Though not statistically significant, CG provided small to moderate benefits to muscle-soreness and small benefits to aspects of physical-performance over a 6-week military training regime.

The Specific Judo Training Program Combined With the Whole Body Cryostimulation Induced an Increase of Serum Concentrations of Growth Factors and Changes in Amino Acid Profile in Professional Judokas

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2021

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a specific training program, supported by 10 sessions of whole body cryostimulation, on growth factors concentrations, amino acids profile and motor abilities in professional judokas. Ultimately, twelve athletes took part in the study. They were randomly assigned to the cryostimulation group (CRY, n = 6) or the control group (CON, n = 6). During 2 weeks of the judo training program, the CRY group performed 10 cryo-sessions (3-min, at a temperature of −110°C) and the CON group rested passively. Anthropometric measurements, a strength test, the Special Judo Efficiency Test (SJET) were assessed 2 days before and after the judo training program. Blood samples were collected at rest, 1 h after the first and the second SJET and 1 h after the first and the last cryo-session to establish growth factors and amino acid concentrations. Lactate level was measured before, immediately after and 1 h after the first and the second SJET. The applied intervention resulted in a significant increase of resting concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (from 10.23 ± 1.61 to 15.13 ± 2.93 ng⋅ml –1 ; p = 0.01) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1; from 174.29 ± 49.34 to 300.50 ± 43.80 pg⋅ml –1 ; p = 0.00) in the CRY group. A different response was registered 1 h directly post SJET in the CRY group (a significant increase of IGF-1, interleukin 15 and irisin: p = 0.01; p = 0.00; p = 0.03). Additionally, the significant drop of proline and leucine concentrations in the CRY group was obtained. Athletes’ performance remained unchanged in both groups. However, subjects perceived positive changes induced by the intervention – not directly after cryostimulation but in response to the specific training workload. The increase of growth factors concentrations and the improvement of amino acid profile (proline and leucine) contributed to maintaining a high level of muscle function.

Histamine H1 and H2 receptors are essential transducers of the integrative exercise training response in humans

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Exercise training is a powerful strategy to prevent and combat cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, although the integrative nature of the training-induced adaptations is not completely understood. We show that chronic blockade of histamine H 1 /H 2 receptors led to marked impairments of microvascular and mitochondrial adaptations to interval training in humans. Consequently, functional adaptations in exercise capacity, whole-body glycemic control, and vascular function were blunted. Furthermore, the sustained elevation of muscle perfusion after acute interval exercise was severely reduced when H 1 /H 2 receptors were pharmaceutically blocked. Our work suggests that histamine H 1 /H 2 receptors are important transducers of the integrative exercise training response in humans, potentially related to regulation of optimal post-exercise muscle perfusion. These findings add to our understanding of how skeletal muscle and the cardiovascular system adapt to exercise training, knowledge that will help us further unravel and develop the exercise-is-medicine concept.

Effects of contemporary cryo-compression on post-training performance in elite academy footballers

Article

Mar 2021
BIOL SPORT

ABSTRACT: Fatigue is a predisposing risk factor for injury commonly investigated in elite football populations. Little evidence advocates the most beneficial recovery strategies including contemporary cooling applications. The aim of the study was to examine immediate effects of the Game Ready® on physiological and biomechanical measures in a population of elite male academy footballers, following a fatiguing training session mid-competitive season. Twenty, elite male footballers took part (180.2 ± 8.7cm, 75.0 ± 11.4kg, 18 ± 0.5years). Following a normal fatiguing training session, players were randomly assigned to receive either cryotherapy (Game Ready®) (20-minutes at medium compression (5–55 mm Hg)) or passive recovery (PAS). Data was collected at matchday+1, immediately post-training and immediately post-intervention. Performance measures included countermovement jump (CMJ), isometric adductor strength (IAS), hamstring flexibility (HF), and skin surface temperature (Tsk). Significant main effects for group for CMJ data following exposure to cooling were displayed (p = < 0.05). Individual group analysis displayed a significant reduction in CMJ performance in the group exposed to cryotherapy (p = < 0.05) immediately post, but not for PAS. No main effects were identified for cryotherapy or PAS group for IAS or HF (p = > 0.05). Tsk reduced significantly (p = < 0.05) in the cryotherapy group, meeting therapeutic Tsk range. Reductions in performance immediately following exposure to pneumatic cryo-compressive devices may negate the justification of this recovery strategy if neuromuscular mechanisms are required in immediate short term. Application of such recovery strategies however are dependent on the type of recovery demand and should be adapted individually to suit the needs of the athlete to optimise readiness to train/play.

The Impact of Recovery Practices Adopted by Professional Tennis Players on Fatigue Markers According to Training Type Clusters

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020

Introduction: Modern tennis players face congested schedules that force the adoption of various recovery strategies. Thus, recovery must be fine-tuned with an accurate quantification of its impacts, especially with regards to training-induced fatigue. The present study aimed to examine the training type clusters and recovery practices adopted by elite tennis players under ecological training conditions. The respective impacts of training type clusters and recovery techniques on subjective variables, which reflect the players' recovery perceptions, were subsequently determined. Methods: During 15 consecutive months, a total of 35 elite tennis players filled out questionnaires to report their daily training load, training session content, adopted recovery modalities after training, and perceived recovery. Results: The hierarchical analysis identified three clusters: “combined tennis and S&C training,” “predominant tennis training” and “predominant S&C training.” Muscle soreness and perceived fatigue were not significantly different among these three clusters (p = 0.07–0.65). Across the 146 recorded training and recovery sessions, players primarily employed a combination of 2 or 3 modalities, with cooling strategies being the most widely used technique (87.6%). Mixed linear models revealed that independent of training clusters, cooling strategies significantly reduced muscle soreness (Δmuscle soreness: β = −1.00, p = 0.02). Among the cooling techniques used, whole-body cryotherapy induced a greater perceived recovery than cold-water immersion (p = 0.02). Conclusion: These results showed that perceived recovery was not sensitive to training clusters or the associated acute training load. However, cooling strategies were relevant for the alleviation of tennis training-induced soreness. This study represents an initial step toward a periodized approach of recovery interventions, based on the interactions between training load, training contents, and perceived recovery.

Post-exercise CWI for intramuscular temperature changes in the m. quadriceps femoris: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Presentation

Apr 2021

Genetic and epigenetic regulation of skeletal muscle ribosome biogenesis with exercise

Article

Apr 2021
J PHYSIOL-LONDON

Key points: Ribosome biogenesis and MYC transcription are associated with acute resistance exercise (RE) and are distinct from endurance exercise (EE) in human skeletal muscle throughout a 24-hour time-course of recovery. A PCR-based method for relative ribosomal DNA (rDNA) copy number estimation was validated by whole genome sequencing and revealed that rDNA dosage is positively correlated with ribosome biogenesis in response to RE. Acute RE modifies rDNA methylation patterns in enhancer, intergenic spacer, and non-canonical MYC-associated regions, but not the promoter. Myonuclear-specific rDNA methylation patterns with acute mechanical overload in mice corroborate and expand on rDNA findings with RE in humans. A genetic predisposition for hypertrophic responsiveness may exist based on rDNA gene dosage. Abstract: Ribosomes are the macromolecular engines of protein synthesis. Skeletal muscle ribosome biogenesis is stimulated by exercise, but the contribution of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) copy number and methylation to exercise-induced rDNA transcription is unclear. To investigate the genetic and epigenetic regulation of ribosome biogenesis with exercise, a time-course of skeletal muscle biopsies was obtained from 30 participants (18 men and 12 women; 31±8 yrs, 25±4 kg/m2 ) at rest and 30 min, 3h, 8h, and 24h after acute endurance (n = 10, 45 min cycling, 70% VO2 max) or resistance exercise (n = 10, 4×7×2 exercises); 10 control participants underwent biopsies without exercise. rDNA transcription and dosage were assessed using qPCR and whole genome sequencing. rDNA promoter methylation was investigated using massARRAY EpiTYPER, and global rDNA CpG methylation was assessed using reduced-representation bisulfite sequencing. Ribosome biogenesis and MYC transcription were associated primarily with resistance but not endurance exercise, indicating preferential upregulation during hypertrophic processes. With resistance exercise, ribosome biogenesis was associated with rDNA gene dosage as well as epigenetic changes in enhancer and non-canonical MYC-associated areas in rDNA, but not the promoter. A mouse model of in vivo metabolic RNA labeling and genetic myonuclear fluorescent labeling validated the effects of an acute hypertrophic stimulus on ribosome biogenesis and Myc transcription, and corroborated rDNA enhancer and Myc-associated methylation alterations specifically in myonuclei. This study provides the first information on skeletal muscle genetic and rDNA gene-wide epigenetic regulation of ribosome biogenesis in response to exercise, revealing novel roles for rDNA dosage and CpG methylation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Recovery From Eccentric Squat Exercise in Resistance-Trained Young and Master Athletes With Similar Maximum Strength: Combining Cold Water Immersion and Compression

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021

The aim of this study was to investigate whether recovery from eccentric squat exercise varies depending on age and to assess whether the use of a mixed-method recovery (MMR) consisting of cold water immersion and compression tights benefits recovery. Sixteen healthy and resistance-trained young (age, 22.1 ± 2.1 years; N = 8) and master male athletes (age, 52.4 ± 3.5 years; N = 8), who had a similar half squat 1-repetition maximum relative to body weight, completed two identical squat exercise training sessions, separated by a 2-week washout period. Training sessions were followed by either MMR or passive recovery (PR). Internal training loads [heart rate and blood lactate concentration (BLa)] were recorded during and after squat sessions. Furthermore, maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) force, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, resting twitch force of the knee extensors, serum concentration of creatine kinase (CK), muscle soreness (MS), and perceived physical performance capability (PPC) were determined before and after training as well as after 24, 48, and 72 h of recovery. A three-way mixed ANOVA revealed a significant time effect of the squat protocol on markers of fatigue and recovery (p < 0.05; decreased MVIC, CMJ, twitch force, and PPC; increased CK and MS). Age-related differences were found for BLa, MS, and PPC (higher post-exercise fatigue in younger athletes). A significant two-way interaction between recovery strategy and time of measurement was found for MS and PPC (p < 0.05; faster recovery after MMR). In three participants (two young and one master athlete), the individual results revealed a consistently positive response to MMR. In conclusion, master athletes neither reach higher fatigue levels nor recover more slowly than the younger athletes. Furthermore, the results indicate that MMR after resistance exercise does not contribute to a faster recovery of Schmidt et al. Recovery in Young and Master Athletes Frontiers in Physiology | www.frontiersin.org 2 September 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 665204 physical performance, neuromuscular function, or muscle damage, but promotes recovery of perceptual measures regardless of age.

Efficacité des techniques de récupération en réponse à la charge induite par le tennis de haut niveau

Thesis

Full-text available

Sep 2020

Mathilde Poignard

L’organisation du circuit professionnel impose actuellement au joueur de tennis de haut niveau une planification annuelle des entraînements et des compétitions très dense. Ainsi, une gestion appropriée et équilibrée de la fatigue et de la récupération apparait primordiale afin de permettre au joueur de tennis élite d’être performant lors des compétitions mais aussi d’éviter la survenue d’épisodes de fatigue sévère, de surmenage, de blessures ou de maladies. Les connaissances issues de la littérature scientifique incitent à adapter et planifier spécifiquement la récupération en fonction du contexte (discipline, période d’entraînement, type de fatigue, statut de l’athlète). Pourtant, les joueurs ont actuellement recours de façon relativement empirique à des stratégies de récupération diverses, incluant l’application de froid. Cependant, peu d’études se sont intéressées aux effets de ces méthodes de récupération sur les réponses à la charge induite par le tennis pratiqué à haut niveau. Il semble nécessaire de déterminer l’efficacité de chaque technique de récupération dans ce contexte afin d’identifier quelles stratégies répondent le mieux à la nécessité de récupérer. La première partie de ces travaux de thèse a donc eu pour objectif de décrire, sur une période de 15 mois et dans un cadre écologique, les contenus et la charge de travail induite par l’entraînement, les pratiques de récupération et leurs impacts sur la fatigue subjective des joueurs de tennis élites. À court terme, il apparait que les contenus d’entraînement, regroupés et leur charge associée n’impactent pas différemment la fatigue perceptive rapportée. Au sein des stratégies de récupération utilisées par les joueurs, les techniques par le froid (cryothérapie corps entier, immersion en eau froide, bain contrasté) sont les plus représentées. Les modèles statistiques utilisés montrent que ces techniques de récupération par le froid sont les seules associées à une diminution significative des sensations de douleurs musculaires 12-16h post-entraînement. Notre seconde étude a comparé l’efficacité de ces différentes techniques de récupération par le froid dans des conditions de fatigue accumulée, simulant celles induites lors de compétitions professionnelles de tennis. Ces travaux montrent que l’enchaînement de trois jours de matchs de tennis d’1h30, induit une fatigue significative mais modérée. En effet, les paramètres de fatigue neuromusculaire (centrale et périphérique), physiologique diminuent significativement lors du premier jour, mais ne sont pas modifiés en réponse aux matchs de tennis des jours suivants. Au cours des quatre jours de protocole, l’immersion en eau froide et de la cryothérapie corps entier permettent de limiter l’augmentation des sensations de douleurs musculaires. Ces résultats valident l’intérêt d’utiliser les techniques de récupération par le froid pour diminuer les sensations de douleurs musculaires de joueurs de tennis élites en période d’entraînement. Dans le cadre précis de compétitions réalisées sur surface dure (hors Grands Chelems), l’utilisation quotidienne des techniques de récupération par le froid seront alors conseillées pour limiter l’accumulation des sensations de douleurs musculaires.

Intramuscular Temperature Changes in the Quadriceps Femoris Muscle After Post-Exercise Cold-Water Immersion (10°C for 10 min): A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

Post-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) is a widely accepted recovery strategy for maintaining physical performance output. However, existing review articles about the effects of CWI commonly pool data from very heterogenous study designs and thus, do rarely differentiate between different muscles, different CWI-protocols (duration, temperature, etc.), different forms of activating the muscles before CWI, and different thickness of the subcutaneous adipose tissue. This systematic review therefore aimed to investigate the effects of one particular post-exercise CWI protocol (10°C for 10 min) on intramuscular temperature changes in the quadriceps femoris muscle while accounting for skinfold thickness. An electronic search was conducted on PubMed, LIVIVO, Cochrane Library, and PEDro databases. Pooled data on intramuscular temperature changes were plotted with respect to intramuscular depth to visualize the influence of skinfold thickness. Spearman's rho (rs) was used to assess a possible linear association between skinfold thickness and intramuscular temperature changes. A meta-analysis was performed to investigate the effect of CWI on pre-post intramuscular temperature for each measurement depth. A total of six articles met the inclusion criteria. Maximum intramuscular temperature reduction was 6.40°C with skinfold thickness of 6.50 mm at a depth of 1 cm, 4.50°C with skinfold thickness of 11.00 mm at a depth of 2 cm, and only 1.61°C with skinfold thickness of 10.79 mm at a depth of 3 cm. However, no significant correlations between skinfold thickness and intramuscular temperature reductions were observed at a depth of 1 cm (rs = 0.0), at 2 cm (rs = −0.8) and at 3 cm (rs = −0.5; all p > 0.05). The CWI protocol resulted in significant temperature reductions in the muscle tissue layers at 1 cm (d = −1.92 [95% CI: −3.01 to −0.83] and 2 cm (d = −1.63 [95% CI: −2.20 to −1.06]) but not at 3 cm (p < 0.05). Skinfold thickness and thus, subcutaneous adipose tissue, seems to influence temperature reductions in the muscle tissue only to a small degree. These findings might be useful for practitioners as they demonstrate different intramuscular temperature reductions after a specific post-exercise CWI protocol (10°C for 10 min) in the quadriceps femoris muscle.

Regenerationsmanagement im Leistungssport - Teil 1: Regenerationsmessung

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Das Regenerationsmanagement im Leistungssport umfasst die Abschätzung von Ermüdungszustand und Regenerationsbedarf (Teil 1 dieser Beitragsreihe) sowie den Einsatz regenerationsfördernder Maßnahmen (Teil 2 dieser Beitragsreihe). Die Erfassung des Regenerationsbedarfs erfolgt durch die Dokumentation der externen Trainings- und Wettkampfbelastung, der damit einhergehenden internen Beanspruchung und der resultierenden Leistungsveränderung. Hierzu sind zahlreiche Surrogat-Parameter verfügbar (z. B. Laborparameter, sportmotorische Tests und psychometrische Verfahren). Diese sollten sensitiv für unterschiedliche Belastungsformen und Dimensionen der Ermüdung, ausreichend reliabel und objektiv, kostengünstig und praktikabel sowie engmaschig durchführbar und demnach nicht zu belastend sein. Für die Beurteilung des Regenerationsbedarfs einzelner Athleten sind neben einer individualisierten Interpretation der Surrogat-Parameter stets auch der vertrauensvolle Diskurs zwischen Athleten und deren Betreuerstab erforderlich.

Inflammatory reaction - A posit to the double-edged sword

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

Chukwuedozie Francis Nwachukwu

Response by inflammation is triggered by arrays of causes, which include disrupted cells, toxins, germs, and others. It underlies a wide variety of pathophysiological changes. Many aspects of inflammation as it relates to the pathology of various inflammations are very much understood. Yet the healthy roles of inflammation are widely unknown. Inflammation has a controversial role in health and its meanings are, a matter of viewpoint. It has critical roles in protecting organisms from pathogens and injurious substances likewise causing a driving variety of disease progression. On this ground the research aimed at prescribing the essential needs for effective regulations of inflammatory responses. Efficient control of the inflammatory process will avert a plethora of diseases. Articles used for this review were obtained using appropriate keywords on six electronic databases including nature, advantage, disadvantage, and immune response regarding inflammation and immunological response. Inflammation is self-perpetuating though no disease is caused by inflammation as it is not self-triggering. Additionally, the research did weigh up the merits alongside the demerit of inflammation to advocate for effective regulation of inflammation. Essentially, inflammation is a required mechanism in healthy and unhealthy status in humans hence there is a need for importunate reconsideration, exploring its therapeutic benefits.

Regenerationsmanagement im Spitzensport. REGman - Ergebnisse und Handlungsempfehlungen.

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2016

Einleitung. Angesichts der großen Wettkampfdichte und hoher Trainingsbelastungen im Spitzensport wird eine schnelle und effektive Regeneration immer wichtiger, um konstant hohe Leistungen zu gewährleisten. Dies sehen auch die Spitzenverbände des deutschen Sports und ihr Dachverband, der Deutsche Olympische Sportbund (DOSB), so. Gleichzeitig besteht ein Defizit an wissenschaftlich fundierten Empfehlungen, nach denen sich Spitzenathletinnen und -athleten richten können. Angesichts des Unterstützungsbedarfes der Sportpraxis und der unzureichenden Befundlage fördert das Bundesinstitut für Sportwissenschaft (BISp) von Oktober 2012 bis Ende 2016 das Verbundprojekt „Optimierung von Training und Wettkampf: Regenerationsmanagement im Spitzensport“ (REGman) (AZ 081901/2012-16). Das interdisziplinär ausgerichtete Projekt ist Bestandteil der Umsetzung des Forschungsprogramms für das Wissenschaftliche Verbundsystem im Leistungssport (WVL). Es wird von der Universität des Saarlandes geführt und von dem Sportmediziner Prof. Tim Meyer (Universität des Saarlandes), den Trainingswissenschaftlern Prof. Alexander Ferrauti (Ruhr-Universität Bochum) und Prof. Mark Pfeiffer (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz) sowie dem Sportpsychologen Prof. Michael Kellmann (Ruhr-Universität Bochum) geleitet. In der vorliegenden Broschüre werden die wesentlichen Ergebnisse der bisherigen Projektarbeit vorgestellt. Sie ist damit wichtiger Bestandteil der umfassenden Transfermaßnahmen von REGman (weitere Informationen zum Projekt unter regman.org). Sie ist damit wichtiger Bestandteil der umfassenden Transfermaßnahmen von REGman und wurde noch vor Ende der Projektlaufzeit auf den Weg gebracht, um der Sportpraxis für die Vorbereitung auf die Olympischen Spiele 2016 in Rio de Janeiro fundierte Informationen zum Regenerationsmanagement zur Verfügung zu stellen.

Exercise Recovery Practices of Wheelchair Court Sports Athletes

Article

Dec 2020

Murphy, CJ, Mason, BS, and Goosey-Tolfrey, VL. Exercise recovery practices of wheelchair court sports athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Research that describes the recovery practices of Para-athletes around training and competition is limited. This study investigated if and why athletes in wheelchair court sports (basketball, rugby, and tennis) use recovery strategies, what type of strategies are used, and whether the period of the season influences the prevalence of use. A cross-sectional questionnaire was developed to acquire data pertaining to individual characteristics, recovery habits, reasons for use/nonuse, the use of specific recovery strategies, and lifestyle habits. One hundred forty-four athletes (92 = international and 52 = national/club) completed the questionnaire online. In total, 85% (n = 122) of athletes reported using at least one type of recovery strategy, yet most specific types of recovery strategies were not popular (<34% of recovery strategy users). The most commonly used type of recovery strategy was stretching (n = 117), whereas both stretching and heat-related recovery were the most highly rated types of recovery strategies (μ = 4.2/5). The 3 most prevalent reasons for use across all strategies were "reduces muscle soreness," "reduces muscle tightness," and "reduces muscle spasms." The prevalence of sleep complaints was apparent with 38% (n = 55) of respondents reporting difficulties sleeping. This study highlights that although the frequent use of well-known recovery practices is positive, the lack of diversity in strategies implemented may have implications due to the specific requirements of exercise recovery. Therefore, strength and conditioning professionals should educate wheelchair athletes further around this area and increase the range of recovery-specific and impairment-specific strategies used.

Acute cellular and molecular responses and chronic adaptations to low-load blood flow restriction and high-load resistance exercise in trained individuals

Article

Sep 2021

Blood flow restriction (BFR) with low-load resistance exercise (RE) is often used as a surrogate to traditional high-load RE to stimulate muscular adaptations, such as hypertrophy and strength. However, it is not clear whether such adaptations are achieved through similar cellular and molecular processes. We compared changes in muscle function, morphology and signaling pathways between these differing training protocols. Twenty-one males and females (mean ± SD: 24.3 ± 3.1 years) experienced with resistance training (4.9 ± 2.6 years) performed nine weeks of resistance training (three times per week) with either high-loads (75-80% 1RM; HL-RT), or low-loads with BFR (30-40% 1RM; LL-BFR). Before and after the training intervention, resting muscle biopsies were collected, and quadricep cross-sectional area (CSA), muscular strength and power were measured. Approximately 5 days following the intervention, the same individuals performed an additional 'acute' exercise session under the same conditions, and serial muscle biopsies were collected to assess hypertrophic- and ribosomal-based signaling stimuli. Quadricep CSA increased with both LL-BFR (7.4±4.3%) and HL-RT (4.6±2.9%), with no significant differences between training groups (p=0.37). Muscular strength also increased in both training groups, but with superior gains in squat 1RM occurring with HL-RT (p<0.01). Acute phosphorylation of several key proteins involved in hypertrophy signaling pathways, and expression of ribosomal RNA transcription factors occurred to a similar degree with LL-BFR and HL-RT (all p>0.05 for between-group comparisons). Together, these findings validate low-load resistance training with continuous BFR as an effective alternative to traditional high-load resistance training for increasing muscle hypertrophy in trained individuals.

Does Cold-Water Immersion After Strength Training Attenuate Training Adaptation?

Article

Nov 2020

Purpose: Cold-water immersion is increasingly used by athletes to support performance recovery. Recently, however, indications have emerged suggesting that the regular use of cold-water immersion might be detrimental to strength training adaptation. Methods: In a randomized crossover design, 11 participants performed two 8-week training periods including 3 leg training sessions per week, separated by an 8-week "wash out" period. After each session, participants performed 10 minutes of either whole-body cold-water immersion (cooling) or passive sitting (control). Leg press 1-repetition maximum and countermovement jump performance were determined before (pre), after (post) and 3 weeks after (follow-up) both training periods. Before and after training periods, leg circumference and muscle thickness (vastus medialis) were measured. Results: No significant effects were found for strength or jump performance. Comparing training adaptations (pre vs post), small and negligible negative effects of cooling were found for 1-repetition maximum (g = 0.42; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.42 to 1.26) and countermovement jump (g = 0.02; 95% CI, -0.82 to 0.86). Comparing pre versus follow-up, moderate negative effects of cooling were found for 1-repetition maximum (g = 0.71; 95% CI, -0.30 to 1.72) and countermovement jump (g = 0.64; 95% CI, -0.36 to 1.64). A significant condition × time effect (P = .01, F = 10.00) and a large negative effect of cooling (g = 1.20; 95% CI, -0.65 to 1.20) were observed for muscle thickness. Conclusions: The present investigation suggests small negative effects of regular cooling on strength training adaptations.

Nanothermometry for Deep Tissues by Using Near-Infrared Fluorophores

Chapter

Dec 2020

Temperature is a fundamental quantity that can regulate various biological phenomena and thus important in clinical biology as well as sport and health sciences. This chapter reviews how the body temperature is regulated in the organisms (mainly in mammals including humans), and how the body temperature of not only the surface but also the deep tissues. As an emerging technique, the luminescence nanothermometry that works in the over-thousand-nanometer (OTN) near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range, which allows us to look the biological tissues transparently, is being developed to visualize and reveal the mechanisms of dynamic time-dependent changes in body temperature distribution in deep tissues. The data and knowledge collected with the new techniques will provide insights in body temperature control in biology and its management in biomedical and engineering fields.

The effects of sex differences on delayed-onset muscle soreness by cold-water immersion following resistance exercise

Article

Apr 2022

Застосування позатренувальних засобів для підвищення фізичної підготовленості у футболі

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2017

Мета. Показати можливості вдосконалення системи відновлення і стимуляції працездатності у футболі на основі вивчення й аналізу сучасної літератури. Методи. Аналіз спеціальної наукової літератури, інформації мережі Інтернет. Висновки. Наведено найефективніші засоби корекції функціонального стану кваліфікованих футболістів у різних періодах підготовки, включаючи передігрову розминку в змагальному періоді. Результати. Визначено дозволені сучасні відновні і стимулюючі засоби, їх роль у реалізації потенціалу працездатності футболістів в умовах наростаючого стомлення для тренувальної і змагальної діяльності. Показано, що представлені впливи, у тому числі в розминці, сприяють зростанню її ефективності й економічності, мобілізація регуляторних функцій обумовлює підвищення спеціальної працездатності футболістів у змагальному періоді підготовки

Influence of post-exercise hot-water therapy on long-term adaptations to training in elite short-track speed skaters

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021
J EXERC SCI FIT

This study aimed to investigate the effects of regular hot water bathing (HWB), undertaken 10 min after the last training session of the day, on chronic adaptations to training in elite athletes. Six short-track (ST) speed skaters completed four weeks of post-training HWB and four weeks of post-training passive recovery (PR) according to a randomized cross-over study. During HWB, participants sat in a jacuzzi (40 °C; 20 min). According to linear mixed models, maximal isometric strength of knee extensor muscles was significantly increased for training with HWB (p < 0.0001; d = 0.41) and a tendency (p = 0.0529) was observed concerning V ˙ O 2 m a x . No significant effect of training with PR or HWB was observed for several variables (p > 0.05), including aerobic peak power output, the decline rate of jump height during 1 min-continuous maximal countermovement jumps (i.e. anaerobic capacity index), and the force-velocity relationship. Regarding specific tasks on ice, a small effect of training was found on both half-lap time and total time during a 1.5-lap all-out exercise (p = 0.0487; d = 0.23 and p = 0.0332; d = 0.21, respectively) but no additional effect of HWB was observed. In summary, the regular HWB protocol used in this study can induce additional effects on maximal isometric strength without compromising aerobic and anaerobic adaptations or field performance in these athletes.

Regenerationsmanagement und Ernährung

Chapter

Aug 2020

Thimo Wiewelhove

Ermüdung und Regeneration sind integrale Bestandteile des Trainingsprozesses. Dabei steht die kontinuierliche Leistungsentwicklung in ständiger Wechselwirkung mit den durch Trainings- und Wettkampfaktivitäten ausgelösten Ermüdungs- und Regenerationsvorgängen. Während die Steigerung der Trainingsqualität seit jeher im Fokus trainingswissenschaftlicher Bemühungen steht, richtet sich das Augenmerk zunehmend auch auf die Erholungsprozesse und deren Optimierung. Das Regenerationsmanagement lässt sich dabei im Wesentlichen in die Messung des Regenerationsbedarfs sowie in die individualisierte Planung und Anwendung von Regenerationsstrategien strukturieren. Hierbei ist die Bedeutung einer angemessenen Ernährung sowie von ausreichend Schlaf unbestritten. Zusätzlich kann in der (leistungs-)sportlichen Praxis aus einer Vielzahl an regenerationsfördernden Maßnahmen ausgewählt werden, deren Wirksamkeitsnachweis jedoch nur selten unter wissenschaftlich kontrollierten Bedingungen überzeugend erfolgt ist. Dies gilt sowohl für „traditionelle“ und bei den Athleten beliebte Maßnahmen wie beispielsweise die Massage als auch für neuartige Regenerationstrends wie Foam-Rolling oder für technologisch unterstützte Interventionsstrategien wie z. B. LED-Bestrahlung oder Kältekammern. Sowohl Ermüdungs- als auch Erholungsprozesse sind äußerst komplexe und multifaktorielle Phänomene, die in Abhängigkeit von den Belastungsmerkmalen sowie adressaten- und umweltspezifischen Besonderheiten auf verschiedenen Funktionsebenen des menschlichen Organismus (u. a. Muskulatur, Bindegewebe, zentrales Nervensystem, autonomes Nervensystem, endokrines System) in unterschiedlichen zeitlichen Dimensionen sowie in unterschiedlicher Geschwindigkeit und Ausprägung stattfinden. Basierend hierauf werden in diesem Kapitel sowohl die Wirkmechanismen und Effekte von Regenerationsinterventionen, die sich in der Sportpraxis großer Beliebtheit erfreuen, diskutiert als auch Grundlagen zum Ernährungsmanagement im Sport besprochen. Unter Berücksichtigung individueller und sportartspezifischer Rahmenbedingungen werden Praxistipps für die Regenerationssteuerung im (Leistungs-)Sport vorgestellt.

The Use of Post-Exercise Cooling as a Recovery Strategy: Unraveling the Controversies

Book

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Short-Term Resistance Training Supported by Whole-Body Cryostimulation Induced a Decrease in Myostatin Concentration and an Increase in Isokinetic Muscle Strength

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2020
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

The study aimed to determine whether combining cryostimulation with resistance training would effectively increase muscle strength, and if so, whether this adaptation would be related to changes in circulating levels of exerkines (i.e., mediators of systemic adaptation to exercise). Twenty-five students completed 12 sessions of resistance training, each followed by either cryostimulation (n = 15, 3 min exposure at −110 °C) or passive recovery (n = 10). Prior to and post this intervention, participants performed two eccentric cycling bouts (before and after training). At these points, serum concentrations of muscle damage marker (myoglobin), exerkines (interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 15 (IL-15), irisin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor), hypertrophy-related factors (myostatin, insulin-like growth factor 1), and muscle strength were measured. The applied procedure reduced the physiological burden of the second eccentric cycling bout and myoglobin concentrations only in the group subject to cryostimulation. The same group also exhibited decreased levels of myostatin (from 4.7 ± 1.7 to 3.8 ± 1.8 ng·mL−1, p < 0.05). A significant and large interaction between the group × time was noted in IL-15 concentration (p = 0.01, ηp2= 0.27). Training and cryostimulation induced a positive and likely significant improvement of isokinetic muscle strength. Altogether, obtained results support the claim that resistance training combined with cold exposure modified muscle strength through modulation of myostatin and IL-15 concentrations.

Combining cooling or heating applications with exercise training to enhance performance and muscle adaptations

Article

Jul 2020

Athletes use cold water immersion, cryotherapy chambers or icing in the belief that these strategies improve postexercise recovery and promote greater adaptations to training. A number of studies have systematically investigated how regular cold water immersion influences long-term performance and muscle adaptations. The effects of regular cold water immersion after endurance or high-intensity interval training on aerobic capacity, lactate threshold, power output and time trial performance are equivocal. Evidence for changes in angiogenesis and mitochondrial biogenesis in muscle in response to regular cold water immersion is also mixed. More consistent evidence is available that regular cold water immersion after strength training attenuates gains in muscle mass and strength. These effects are attributable to reduced activation of satellite cells, ribosomal biogenesis, anabolic signaling and muscle protein synthesis. Athletes use passive heating to warm up before competition or improve postexercise recovery. Emerging evidence indicates that regular exposure to ambient heat, wearing garments perfused with hot water or microwave diathermy can mimic the effects of endurance training by stimulating angiogenesis and mitochondrial biogenesis in muscle. Some passive heating applications may also mitigate muscle atrophy through their effects on mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle fiber hypertrophy. More research is needed to consolidate these findings, however. Future research in this field should focus on (1) the optimal modality, temperature, duration and frequency of cooling and heating to enhance long-term performance and muscle adaptations and (2) whether molecular and morphological changes in muscle in response to cooling and heating applications translate to improvements in exercise performance.

“Cryostimulation for Post-exercise Recovery in Athletes: A Consensus and Position Paper” in the e-book "The Use of Post-Exercise Cooling as a Recovery Strategy: Unraveling the Controversies.” Ihsan, M., Allan, R., Abbiss, C. R., eds. (2022). Lausanne: Frontiers Media SA. doi: 10.3389/978-2-88974-697-2

Chapter

Mar 2022

Acute cold stress induces transient MuRF1 upregulation in the skeletal muscle of zebrafish

Article

Mar 2022
BIOCHEM BIOPH RES CO

Cryotherapy is one of the most common treatments for trauma or fatigue in the field of sports medicine. However, the molecular biological effects of acute cold exposure on skeletal muscle remain unclear. Therefore, we used zebrafish, which have recently been utilized as an animal model for skeletal muscle, to comprehensively investigate and selectively clarify the time-course changes induced by cryotherapy. Zebrafish were exposed intermittently to cold stimulation three times for 15 min each. Thereafter, skeletal muscle samples were collected after 15 min and 1, 2, 4, and 6 h. mRNA sequencing revealed the involvement of trim63a, fbxo32, fbxo30a, and klhl38b in “protein ubiquitination” from the top 10 most upregulated genes. Subsequently, we examined the time-course changes of the four genes by quantitative PCR, and their expression peaked 2 h after cryotherapy and returned to baseline after 6 h. Moreover, the proteins encoded by trim63a and fbxo32 (muscle-specific RING finger protein 1 [MuRF1] and muscle atrophy F-box, respectively), which are known to be major genes encoding E3 ubiquitin ligases, were examined by western blotting, and MuRF1 expression displayed similar temporal changes as trim63a expression. These findings suggest that acute cold exposure transiently upregulates E3 ubiquitin ligases, especially MuRF1; thus, cryotherapy may contribute to the treatment of trauma or fatigue by promoting protein processing.

Chapter 18. Tennis

Chapter

May 2019

Jaime Fernandez-Fernandez

Recovery Profiles of Eccentric Hamstring Strength in Response to Cooling and Compression.

Article

Mar 2021

Introduction The effectiveness of different forms of cryotherapy and combined compression (cryo-compression) commonly used in sport to enhance recovery following exercise are not fully understood. Therefore, the exploration of protocols that use contemporary cryo-compression is warranted. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of using a cryo-compression device to recover hamstrings eccentric strength following a fatiguing exercise. Methods Eighteen healthy male adult footballers were randomly allocated to receive cryo-compression or rest following a lower limb fatiguing protocol. Cryo-compression was applied for 15-minutes, target temperature of 10°C, and high intermittent pressure (5-75 mm Hg) using the Game Ready® device. Rest consisted of 15-minutes in a prone position on a plinth. To induce hamstring fatigue, participants performed the Yo-Yo intermittent fatigue test (IFT). Skin surface temperature (Tsk) and hamstring eccentric strength measures were taken at three time points; pre-IFT, immediately post-fatigue test (IPFT), and immediately post-intervention (IPI) (rest or Game Ready®). Participants returned one week later and performed the Yo-Yo IFT again and were exposed to the opposite intervention and data collection. Results Significant decreases in Tsk over the posterior thigh were reported for all timepoints compared to pre cryo-compression temperatures (p=<0.05). Overall data displayed no significant main effects for timepoint or condition for PT or AvT (p=<0.05). There was no timepoint x condition interaction for PT or AvT (p=<0.05). Collapse of the data by condition (CC / R) demonstrated no significant effect for time for PT or AvT (p=>0.05). Conclusions No significant changes in HES occurred after exposure to cryo-compression or rest applied immediately following the Yo-Yo IFT. Further investigations to maximise beneficial application of contemporary cryo-compression applications in sport are required. Multiple measures of performance over rewarming periods, within competitive training schedules after sport-specific training are required to develop optimal cooling protocols for recovery.

Regular Post-Exercise Cooling Enhances Mitochondrial Biogenesis through AMPK and p38 MAPK in Human Skeletal Muscle

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2015
AM J PHYSIOL-REG I

This study investigated the effect of regular post-exercise cold water immersion (CWI) on muscle aerobic adaptations to endurance training. Eight males performed 3 sessions∙wk-1 of endurance training for 4 weeks. Following each session, subjects immersed one leg in a cold water bath (10°C; COLD) for 15 min while the contra-lateral leg served as control (CON). Muscle biopsies were obtained from vastus lateralis of both CON and COLD legs prior to training and 48 h following the last training session. Samples were analysed for signalling kinases; p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), enzyme activities indicative of mitochondrial biogenesis and protein subunits representative of respiratory chain complexes I-V. Following training, subjects' peak oxygen uptake and running velocity were improved by 5.9% and 6.2%, respectively (p < 0.05). Repeated CWI resulted in higher total AMPK, phosphorylated AMPK, phosphorylated acetyl-CoA carboxylase, β-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA-dehydrogenase and the protein subunits representative of complex-I and III (p < 0.05). Moreover, large effect sizes (Cohen's d > 0.8) were noted with changes in protein content of p38 (d = 1.02, p = 0.064), PGC-1α (d = 0.99, p = 0.079) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (d = 0.93, p = 0.010) in COLD compared with CON. No differences between conditions were observed in the representative protein subunits of respiratory complexes-II, IV, V and in the activities of several mitochondrial enzymes (p > 0.05). These findings indicate that regular CWI enhances p38, AMPK and possibly mitochondrial biogenesis. Copyright © 2015, American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology.

The acute satellite cell response and skeletal muscle hypertrophy following resistance training

Data

Full-text available

Feb 2015

The Acute Satellite Cell Response and Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy following Resistance Training

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2014
PLOS ONE

The extent of skeletal muscle hypertrophy in response to resistance training is highly variable in humans. The main objective of this study was to explain the nature of this variability. More specifically, we focused on the myogenic stem cell population, the satellite cell (SC) as a potential mediator of hypertrophy. Twenty-three males (aged 18-35 yrs) participated in 16 wk of progressive, whole body resistance training, resulting in changes of 7.9±1.6% (range of -1.9-24.7%) and 21.0±4.0% (range of -7.0 to 51.7%) in quadriceps volume and myofibre cross-sectional area (CSA), respectively. The SC response to a single bout of resistance exercise (80% 1RM), analyzed via immunofluorescent staining resulted in an expansion of type II fibre associated SC 72 h following exercise (pre: 11.3±0.9; 72 h: 14.8±1.4 SC/type II fibre; p<0.05). Training resulted in an expansion of the SC pool associated with type I (pre: 10.7±1.1; post: 12.1±1.2 SC/type I fibre; p<0.05) and type II fibres (pre: 11.3±0.9; post: 13.0±1.2 SC/type II fibre; p<0.05). Analysis of individual SC responses revealed a correlation between the relative change in type I associated SC 24 to 72 hours following an acute bout of resistance exercise and the percentage increase in quadriceps lean tissue mass assessed by MRI (r2 = 0.566, p = 0.012) and the relative change in type II associated SC following 16 weeks of resistance training and the percentage increase in quadriceps lean tissue mass assessed by MRI (r2 = 0.493, p = 0.027). Our results suggest that the SC response to resistance exercise is related to the extent of muscular hypertrophy induced by training.

p53 and ATF4 Mediate Distinct and Additive Pathways to Skeletal Muscle Atrophy During Limb Immobilization.

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2014

Immobilization causes skeletal muscle atrophy via complex signaling pathways that are not well understood. To better understand these pathways, we investigated the roles of p53 and ATF4, two transcription factors that mediate adaptations to a variety of cellular stresses. Using mouse models, we demonstrate that three days of muscle immobilization induces muscle atrophy and increases expression of p53 and ATF4. Furthermore, muscle fibers lacking p53 or ATF4 are partially resistant to immobilization-induced muscle atrophy, and forced expression of p53 or ATF4 induces muscle fiber atrophy in the absence of immobilization. Importantly, however, p53 and ATF4 do not require each other to promote atrophy, and co-expression of p53 and ATF4 induces more atrophy than either transcription factor alone. Moreover, muscle fibers lacking both p53 and ATF4 are more resistant to immobilization-induced atrophy than fibers lacking only p53 or ATF4. Interestingly, the independent and additive nature of the p53 and ATF4 pathways allows for combinatorial control of at least one downstream effector, p21. Using genome-wide mRNA expression arrays, we identified p21 mRNA as a skeletal muscle transcript that is highly induced in immobilized muscle via the combined actions of p53 and ATF4. Additionally, in mouse muscle, p21 induces atrophy in a manner that does not require immobilization, p53 or ATF4; and p21 is required for atrophy induced by immobilization, p53 and ATF4. Collectively, these results identify p53 and ATF4 as essential and complementary mediators of immobilization-induced muscle atrophy, and discover p21 as a critical downstream effector of the p53 and ATF4 pathways.

Acute Post-Exercise Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis Is Not Correlated with Resistance Training-Induced Muscle Hypertrophy in Young Men

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2014
PLOS ONE

Muscle hypertrophy following resistance training (RT) involves activation of myofibrillar protein synthesis (MPS) to expand the myofibrillar protein pool. The degree of hypertrophy following RT is, however, highly variable and thus we sought to determine the relationship between the acute activation of MPS and RT-induced hypertrophy. We measured MPS and signalling protein activation after the first session of resistance exercise (RE) in untrained men (n = 23) and then examined the relation between MPS with magnetic resonance image determined hypertrophy. To measure MPS, young men (24±1 yr; body mass index = 26.4±0.9 kg•m(2)) underwent a primed constant infusion of L-[ring-(13)C6] phenylalanine to measure MPS at rest, and acutely following their first bout of RE prior to 16 wk of RT. Rates of MPS were increased 235±38% (P<0.001) above rest 60-180 min post-exercise and 184±28% (P = 0.037) 180-360 min post exercise. Quadriceps volume increased 7.9±1.6% (-1.9-24.7%) (P<0.001) after training. There was no correlation between changes in quadriceps muscle volume and acute rates of MPS measured over 1-3 h (r = 0.02), 3-6 h (r = 0.16) or the aggregate 1-6 h post-exercise period (r = 0.10). Hypertrophy after chronic RT was correlated (r = 0.42, P = 0.05) with phosphorylation of 4E-BP1(Thr37/46) at 1 hour post RE. We conclude that acute measures of MPS following an initial exposure to RE in novices are not correlated with muscle hypertrophy following chronic RT.

Strength Training Adaptations After Cold-Water Immersion

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2014
J STRENGTH COND RES

Several studies analysed the effectiveness of cold water immersion (CWI) to support recovery after strenuous exercise but the overall results seem to be conflicting. Most of these studies analysed only short-term recovery effects, whereas the adaptational aspect has been widely neglected. Therefore, we analysed the effects of repeated cooling following training sessions (CWI) on adaptations to strength training. 17 trained male students volunteered. After a two week familiarization period, a pre-test (T1) of 1-RM and 12-RM was conducted followed by the 5-week strength training period (withinsubject design). After the post-test (T2) and a 2-week detraining period a retention-test (T3) was carried out. Directly after each training session, CWI was applied for one randomly assigned leg. Cooling consisted of three 4-minute intervals with a 30-s rest period. The other leg was not cooled. A significant increase in 1-RM and 12-RM from baseline to T2 and T3 (p < 0.001), respectively, as well as a further significant increase in 12-RM from T2 to T3 (p < 0.05) was observed. In addition, a tendency for a large leg effect with higher values for the "control leg" in both parameters (p = 0.08 each) as well as a moderate time * leg interaction in favor of the control leg was found (1-RM: p = 0.11; 12-RM: p = 0.09). The percentage change differences between both conditions were 1.6% for the increase in 1-RM from T1 to T2 and 2.0% from T1 to T3 in favor of the control leg. Long-term strength training adaptations in trained subjects can be negatively affected by CWI. However, effects were small and the practical relevance relative to possible recovery effects needs to be considered in a sports practical setting.

Does Hydrotherapy Help or Hinder Adaptation to Training in Competitive Cyclists?

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2014

Cold water immersion may be beneficial for acute recovery from exercise, but it may impair long-term performance by attenuating the stimuli responsible for adaptation to training. We compared effects of cold water immersion and passive rest on cycling performance during a simulated cycling grand tour. Thirty-four male endurance-trained competitive cyclists were randomized to cold water immersion (CWI) for four times per week for 15 min at 15°C or control (passive recovery) groups for 7 d of baseline training, 21 d of intensified training, and an 11 d taper. Criteria for completion of training and testing were satisfied by 10 cyclists in the CWI group (maximal aerobic power, 5.13 ± 0.21 W/kg; mean ± SD) and 11 in the control group (5.01 ± 0.41 W/kg). Each week cyclists completed a high intensity interval cycling test and two 4-min bouts separated by 30 min. CWI was performed four times per week for 15 min at 15°C. Between baseline and taper, cyclists in the CWI group had an unclear change in overall 4-min power relative to control (2.7%, ±5.7%), although mean power in the second effort relative to the first was likely higher for the CWI group relative to control (3.0%, ±3.8%). The change in 1-s maximum mean sprint power in the CWI group was likely beneficial compared to control (4.4%, ±4.2%). Differences between groups for the 10-min time trial were unclear (-0.4%, ±4.3%). While some effects of CWI on performance were unclear, data from this study do not support recent speculation that CWI is detrimental to performance following increased training load in competitive cyclists.

Water Immersion Recovery for Athletes: Effect on Exercise Performance and Practical Recommendations

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2013
SPORTS MED

Water immersion is increasingly being used by elite athletes seeking to minimize fatigue and accelerate post-exercise recovery. Accelerated short-term (hours to days) recovery may improve competition performance, allow greater training loads or enhance the effect of a given training load. However, the optimal water immersion protocols to assist short-term recovery of performance still remain unclear. This article will review the water immersion recovery protocols investigated in the literature, their effects on performance recovery, briefly outline the potential mechanisms involved and provide practical recommendations for their use by athletes. For the purposes of this review, water immersion has been divided into four techniques according to water temperature: cold water immersion (CWI; ≤20 °C), hot water immersion (HWI; ≥36 °C), contrast water therapy (CWT; alternating CWI and HWI) and thermoneutral water immersion (TWI; >20 to

Molecular Networks of Human Muscle Adaptation to Exercise and Age

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2013
PLOS GENET

Physical activity and molecular ageing presumably interact to precipitate musculoskeletal decline in humans with age. Herein, we have delineated molecular networks for these two major components of sarcopenic risk using multiple independent clinical cohorts. We generated genome-wide transcript profiles from individuals (n = 44) who then undertook 20 weeks of supervised resistance-exercise training (RET). Expectedly, our subjects exhibited a marked range of hypertrophic responses (3% to +28%), and when applying Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) up-stream analysis to ∼580 genes that co-varied with gain in lean mass, we identified rapamycin (mTOR) signaling associating with growth (P = 1.4×10(-30)). Paradoxically, those displaying most hypertrophy exhibited an inhibited mTOR activation signature, including the striking down-regulation of 70 rRNAs. Differential analysis found networks mimicking developmental processes (activated all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA, Z-score = 4.5; P = 6×10(-13)) and inhibited aryl-hydrocarbon receptor signaling (AhR, Z-score = -2.3; P = 3×10(-7))) with RET. Intriguingly, as ATRA and AhR gene-sets were also a feature of endurance exercise training (EET), they appear to represent "generic" physical activity responsive gene-networks. For age, we found that differential gene-expression methods do not produce consistent molecular differences between young versus old individuals. Instead, utilizing two independent cohorts (n = 45 and n = 52), with a continuum of subject ages (18-78 y), the first reproducible set of age-related transcripts in human muscle was identified. This analysis identified ∼500 genes highly enriched in post-transcriptional processes (P = 1×10(-6)) and with negligible links to the aforementioned generic exercise regulated gene-sets and some overlap with ribosomal genes. The RNA signatures from multiple compounds all targeting serotonin, DNA topoisomerase antagonism, and RXR activation were significantly related to the muscle age-related genes. Finally, a number of specific chromosomal loci, including 1q12 and 13q21, contributed by more than chance to the age-related gene list (P = 0.01-0.005), implying possible epigenetic events. We conclude that human muscle age-related molecular processes appear distinct from the processes regulated by those of physical activity.

Postexercise Cold-Water Immersion Does Not Attenuate Muscle Glycogen Resynthesis

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2012

Purpose: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that postexercise cold-water immersion (CWI, via its associated reductions in skeletal muscle blood flow) attenuates muscle glycogen resynthesis during short-term recovery from exhaustive exercise. Methods: In a repeated-measures design, nine recreationally active men performed an exhaustive glycogen depleting cycling protocol (consisting of intermittent exercise the night before and steady-state exercise on the subsequent morning of the main trial) followed by 10 min of lower-limb CWI (8°C) or remained seated in normal ambient conditions (CONT). Subjects were fed carbohydrate (CHO) at an ingestion rate of 0.6 g·kg body mass at 30 min postexercise and at 1, 2, and 3 h postexercise. Results: Reductions in thigh skin temperature and muscle temperature during postexercise recovery were greater in CWI compared with CONT (P < 0.01). In addition, norepinephrine and blood glucose concentrations were increased and decreased, respectively, during recovery in CWI compared with CONT (P < 0.01). Postexercise muscle glycogen (CONT and CWI postexercise = 76 ± 43 and 77 ± 26 mmol·kg dry weight [dw], respectively; mean ± SD) progressively increased (P < 0.01) during recovery, although rates of resynthesis did not differ (P = 0.719) between conditions (CONT and CWI 4 h postexercise = 160 ± 34 and 157 ± 59 mmol·kg dw, respectively). Total glycogen synthesis during recovery was comparable (CONT and CWI = 83 ± 43 and 79 ± 58 mmol·kg dw, respectively). Conclusions: Postexercise CWI does not attenuate muscle glycogen resynthesis rates during short-term recovery even when CHO availability is considered suboptimal. Athletes who regularly incorporate CWI as a recovery strategy to alleviate symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage should therefore not be concerned with potential negative effects of the associated reductions in muscle blood flow on the restoration of muscle glycogen stores.

NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2012

For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the analysis of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solutions of these two programs, and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.

The effect of strength training volume on satellite cells, myogenic regulatory factors, and growth factors

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2012
SCAND J MED SCI SPOR

The aim of this work was to study the effect of training volume on activation of satellite cells. Healthy untrained men were randomly assigned into two groups. The 3L-1UB group (n = 10) performed three-set leg exercises and single-set upper body exercises, and the 1L-3UB group (n = 11) performed single-set leg exercises and three-set upper body exercises. Both groups performed three sessions (80-90 min) per week for 11 weeks. Biopsies were taken from m. vastus lateralis and m. trapezius. The number of satellite cells, satellite cells positive for myogenin and MyoD, and the number of myonuclei were counted. Homogenized muscle was analyzed for myogenin and MyoD, and extracted ribonucleic acid (RNA) was monitored for selected growth factor transcripts. Knee extensor strength increased more in the 3L-1UB group than in the 1L-3UB group (48 ± 4% vs 29 ± 4%), whereas the strength gain in shoulder press was similar in both training groups. The number of satellite cells in m. vastus lateralis increased more in the 3L-1UB group than in the 1L-3UB group. The number of myonuclei increased similarly in both groups. The messenger RNA expression of growth factors peaked after 2 weeks of training. In conclusion, increasing training volume enhanced satellite cell numbers in the leg muscle, but not in the upper body muscle.

Pharmacological Vasodilation Improves Insulin-Stimulated Muscle Protein Anabolism but Not Glucose Utilization in Older Adults

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2010

Skeletal muscle protein metabolism is resistant to the anabolic action of insulin in healthy, nondiabetic older adults. This defect is associated with impaired insulin-induced vasodilation and mTORC1 signaling. We hypothesized that, in older subjects, pharmacological restoration of insulin-induced capillary recruitment would improve the response of muscle protein synthesis and anabolism to insulin. Twelve healthy, nondiabetic older subjects (71 ± 2 years) were randomized to two groups. Subjects were studied at baseline and during local infusion in one leg of insulin alone (Control) or insulin plus sodium nitroprusside (SNP) at variable rate to double leg blood flow. We measured leg blood flow by dye dilution; muscle microvascular perfusion with contrast enhanced ultrasound; Akt/mTORC1 signaling by Western blotting; and muscle protein synthesis, amino acid, and glucose kinetics using stable isotope methodologies. There were no baseline differences between groups. Blood flow, muscle perfusion, phenylalanine delivery to the leg, and intracellular availability of phenylalanine increased significantly (P < 0.05) in SNP only. Akt phosphorylation increased in both groups but increased more in SNP (P < 0.05). Muscle protein synthesis and net balance (nmol · min(-1) · 100 ml · leg(-1)) increased significantly (P < 0.05) in SNP (synthesis, 43 ± 6 to 129 ± 25; net balance, -16 ± 3 to 26 ± 12) but not in Control (synthesis, 41 ± 10 to 53 ± 8; net balance, -17 ± 3 to -2 ± 3). Pharmacological enhancement of muscle perfusion and amino acid availability during hyperinsulinemia improves the muscle protein anabolic effect of insulin in older adults.

Effect of cold water immersion on repeated cycling performance and limb blood flow

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2010
BRIT J SPORT MED

The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) and active recovery (ACT) on resting limb blood flow, rectal temperature and repeated cycling performance in the heat. Ten subjects completed two testing sessions separated by 1 week; each trial consisted of an initial all-out 35-min exercise bout, one of two 15-min recovery interventions (randomised: CWI or ACT), followed by a 40-min passive recovery period before repeating the 35-min exercise bout. Performance was measured as the change in total work completed during the exercise bouts. Resting limb blood flow, heart rate, rectal temperature and blood lactate were recorded throughout the testing sessions. There was a significant decline in performance after ACT (mean (SD) -1.81% (1.05%)) compared with CWI where performance remained unchanged (0.10% (0.71%)). Rectal temperature was reduced after CWI (36.8°C (1.0°C)) compared with ACT (38.3°C (0.4°C)), as was blood flow to the arms (CWI 3.64 (1.47) ml/100 ml/min; ACT 16.85 (3.57) ml/100 ml/min) and legs (CW 4.83 (2.49) ml/100 ml/min; ACT 4.83 (2.49) ml/100 ml/min). Leg blood flow at the end of the second exercise bout was not different between the active (15.25 (4.33) ml/100 ml/min) and cold trials (14.99 (4.96) ml/100 ml/min), whereas rectal temperature (CWI 38.1°C (0.3°C); ACT 38.8°C (0.2°C)) and arm blood flow (CWI 20.55 (3.78) ml/100 ml/min; ACT 23.83 (5.32) ml/100 ml/min) remained depressed until the end of the cold trial. These findings indicate that CWI is an effective intervention for maintaining repeat cycling performance in the heat and this performance benefit is associated with alterations in core temperature and limb blood flow.

Phosphorylation of p70(S6k) correlates with increased skeletal muscle mass following resistance exercise

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1999
Am J Physiol

High-resistance exercise training results in an increase in muscle wet mass and protein content. To begin to address the acute changes following a single bout of high-resistance exercise, a new model has been developed. Training rats twice a week for 6 wk resulted in 13.9 and 14.4% hypertrophy in the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles, respectively. Polysome profiles after high-resistance lengthening contractions suggest that the rate of initiation is increased. The activity of the 70-kDa S6 protein kinase (p70(S6k)), a regulator of translation initiation, is also increased following high-resistance lengthening contractions (TA, 363 +/- 29%; EDL, 353 +/- 39%). Furthermore, the increase in p70(S6k) activity 6 h after exercise correlates with the percent change in muscle mass after 6 wk of training (r = 0.998). The tight correlation between the activation of p70(S6k) and the long-term increase in muscle mass suggests that p70(S6k) phosphorylation may be a good marker for the phenotypic changes that characterize muscle hypertrophy and may play a role in load-induced skeletal muscle growth.

Response of muscle to acute resistance exercise defined by transcriptional and translational profiling

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002

To further understand molecular mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle hypertrophy, expression profiles of translationally and transcriptionally regulated genes were characterized following an acute bout of maximally activated eccentric contractions. Experiments demonstrated that translational mechanisms contribute to acute gene expression changes following high resistance contractions with two candidate mRNAs, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and elongation factor-1 alpha (EF1alpha), targeted to the heavier polysomal fractions after a bout of contractions. Gene profiling was performed using Affymetrix Rat U34A GeneChips with either total RNA or polysomal RNA at one and six hours following contractions. There were 18 genes that changed expression at one hour and 70 genes that were different (60 genes increased:10 genes decreased)at six hours after contractions. The model from this profiling suggests that following high resistance contractions skeletal muscle shares a common growth profile with proliferating cells exposed to serum. This cluster of genes can be classified as "growth" genes and is commonly associated with progression of the cell cycle. However, a unique aspect was that there was induction of a cluster of tumour suppressor or antigrowth genes. We propose that this cluster of "antigrowth" genes is induced by the stress of contractile activity and may act to maintain skeletal muscle in the differentiated state. From the profiling results, further experiments determined that p53 levels increased in skeletal muscle at 6 h following contractions. This novel finding of p53 induction following exercise also demonstrates the power of expression profiling for identification of novel pathways involved in the response to muscle contraction.

Increase in S6K1 phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle following resistance exercise occurs mainly in type II muscle fibers

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2006

To investigate the in vivo effects of resistance exercise on translational control in human skeletal muscle, we determined the phosphorylation of AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4E-BP1), p70/p85-S6 protein kinase (S6K1), and ribosomal S6 protein (S6). Furthermore, we investigated whether changes in the phosphorylation of S6K1 are muscle fiber type specific. Eight male subjects performed a single high-intensity resistance exercise session. Muscle biopsies were collected before and immediately after exercise and after 30 and 120 min of postexercise recovery. The phosphorylation statuses of AMPK, 4E-BP1, S6K1, and S6 were determined by Western blotting with phospho-specific and pan antibodies. To determine fiber type-specific changes in the phosphorylation status of S6K1, immunofluorescence microscopy was applied. AMPK phosphorylation was increased approximately threefold immediately after resistance exercise, whereas 4E-BP1 phosphorylation was reduced to 27 +/- 6% of preexercise values. Phosphorylation of S6K1 at Thr421/Ser424 was increased 2- to 2.5-fold during recovery but did not induce a significant change in S6 phosphorylation. Phosphorylation of S6K1 was more pronounced in the type II vs. type I muscle fibers. Before exercise, phosphorylated S6K1 was predominantly located in the nuclei. After 2 h of postexercise recovery, phospho-S6K1 was primarily located in the cytosol of type II muscle fibers. We conclude that resistance exercise effectively increases the phosphorylation of S6K1 on Thr421/Ser424, which is not associated with a substantial increase in S6 phosphorylation in a fasted state.

Effect of insulin on human skeletal muscle protein synthesis is modulated by insulin-induced changes in muscle blood flow and amino acid availability

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2006

Insulin promotes muscle anabolism, but it is still unclear whether it stimulates muscle protein synthesis in humans. We hypothesized that insulin can increase muscle protein synthesis only if it increases muscle amino acid availability. We measured muscle protein and amino acid metabolism using stable-isotope methodologies in 19 young healthy subjects at baseline and during insulin infusion in one leg at low (LD, 0.05), intermediate (ID, 0.15), or high (HD, 0.30 mUxmin(-1)x100 ml(-1)) doses. Insulin was infused locally to induce muscle hyperinsulinemia within the physiological range while minimizing the systemic effects. Protein and amino acid kinetics across the leg were assessed using stable isotopes and muscle biopsies. The LD did not affect phenylalanine delivery to the muscle (-9 +/- 18% change over baseline), muscle protein synthesis (16 +/- 26%), breakdown, or net balance. The ID increased (P < 0.05) phenylalanine delivery (+63 +/- 38%), muscle protein synthesis (+157 +/- 54%), and net protein balance, with no change in breakdown. The HD did not change phenylalanine delivery (+12 +/- 11%) or muscle protein synthesis (+9 +/- 19%), and reduced muscle protein breakdown (-17 +/- 15%), thus improving net muscle protein balance but to a lesser degree than the ID. Changes in muscle protein synthesis were strongly associated with changes in muscle blood flow and phenylalanine delivery and availability. In conclusion, physiological hyperinsulinemia promotes muscle protein synthesis as long as it concomitantly increases muscle blood flow, amino acid delivery and availability.

The adaptations to strength training: Morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2007

High-resistance strength training (HRST) is one of the most widely practiced forms of physical activity, which is used to enhance athletic performance, augment musculo-skeletal health and alter body aesthetics. Chronic exposure to this type of activity produces marked increases in muscular strength, which are attributed to a range of neurological and morphological adaptations. This review assesses the evidence for these adaptations, their interplay and contribution to enhanced strength and the methodologies employed. The primary morphological adaptations involve an increase in the cross-sectional area of the whole muscle and individual muscle fibres, which is due to an increase in myofibrillar size and number. Satellite cells are activated in the very early stages of training; their proliferation and later fusion with existing fibres appears to be intimately involved in the hypertrophy response. Other possible morphological adaptations include hyperplasia, changes in fibre type, muscle architecture, myofilament density and the structure of connective tissue and tendons. Indirect evidence for neurological adaptations, which encompasses learning and coordination, comes from the specificity of the training adaptation, transfer of unilateral training to the contralateral limb and imagined contractions. The apparent rise in whole-muscle specific tension has been primarily used as evidence for neurological adaptations; however, morphological factors (e.g. preferential hypertrophy of type 2 fibres, increased angle of fibre pennation, increase in radiological density) are also likely to contribute to this phenomenon. Changes in inter-muscular coordination appear critical. Adaptations in agonist muscle activation, as assessed by electromyography, tetanic stimulation and the twitch interpolation technique, suggest small, but significant increases. Enhanced firing frequency and spinal reflexes most likely explain this improvement, although there is contrary evidence suggesting no change in cortical or corticospinal excitability. The gains in strength with HRST are undoubtedly due to a wide combination of neurological and morphological factors. Whilst the neurological factors may make their greatest contribution during the early stages of a training programme, hypertrophic processes also commence at the onset of training.

Post‐exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long‐term adaptations in muscle to strength training

Abstract

No full-text available