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Incorporating a gender role strain perspective in assessing and treating men's cognitive distortions
Abstract
Psychologists will be better prepared to intervene effectively with male clients if they can assess how their male clients' experiences as men in society have contributed to their presenting problems. In this article, the author reviews how masculine gender role strain contributes to men's cognitive distortions and leads to, for example, aggressiveness, an overemphasis on achievement, and relational and emotional disconnection. Eight areas of salient gender role messages for men are examined to facilitate clinicians' assessments of men's gender related cognitive distortions. In the final section of the article, issues salient to treating men who endorse these gender related cognitive distortions are discussed. By focusing on the influence of men's gender role socialization on presenting problems, it is hoped that clinicians may be empathic to the social context that contributes to men's cognitive distortions and clinicians can reduce the effects of gender role strain in male clients.
... In accordance with Feminist Theory and em- pirical findings with sexual minority women, we hypothesized that gender role conflict would lead to more IH, which in turn would lead to less self-esteem, less social support, and more avoidant coping, which in turn would lead to more psychological distress among gay and bisexual men (See Figure 1). Given theoretical and empir- ical links between gender role conflict and self- esteem (Blazina, 2001;Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995;Mahalik, 1999;Sharpe & Heppner, 1991) and between self-esteem and social support and avoidant coping (Lefkowitz, 2003;Nicholson & Long, 1990;Nyamathi, Wayment, & DunkelSchetter, 1993), we also tested an alternative model in which IH would partially mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and self-esteem, and social support and avoidant coping would partially mediate the relationship between self-esteem and psychological distress (see Figure 2). That is, many men learn to evaluate their adequacy on the basis of their ability to regulate their behavior in accordance with their learned masculine gender role sche- mas. ...
... That is, many men learn to evaluate their adequacy on the basis of their ability to regulate their behavior in accordance with their learned masculine gender role sche- mas. Given that these stereotyped societal norms about masculinity are often contradictory and unattainable, many men will have reduced self-esteem as a result of not being able to live up to these unrealistic gender role norms of masculinity (Mahalik, 1999). Thus, how one feels as a man and how one feels as a sexual minority are likely to affect how one feels about the self. ...
... In accordance with Feminist Theory and empirical findings with sexual minority women, we hypothesized that gender role conflict would lead to more IH, which in turn would lead to less self-esteem, less social support, and more avoidant coping, which in turn would lead to more psychological distress among gay and bisexual men (SeeFigure 1 ). Given theoretical and empirical links between gender role conflict and selfesteem (Blazina, 2001; Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Mahalik, 1999; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991) and between self-esteem and social support and avoidant coping (Lefkowitz, 2003; Nicholson & Long, 1990; Nyamathi, Wayment, & DunkelSchetter, 1993), we also tested an alternative model in which IH would partially mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and self-esteem, and social support and avoidant coping would partially mediate the relationship between self-esteem and psychological distress (seeFigure 2). That is, many men learn to evaluate their adequacy on the basis of their ability to regulate their behavior in accordance with their learned masculine gender role schemas . ...
Many gay and bisexual men struggle with unique issues related to being both a man and a sexual minority person. The purpose of this study was to use feminist theory to test two mediation models examining the roles of both gender role conflict and internalized heterosexism (IH) in gay and bisexual men's psychological distress. Findings from the best fitting model revealed that gender role conflict was both directly and indirectly (through IH) related to self-esteem, and self-esteem was directly and indirectly (through avoidant coping) related to psychological distress. Research and practice implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... The first step in constructing the measure was to identify masculinity norms in the dominant culture. To do so, we reviewed the literature on traditional masculine norms in the United States (i.e., David & Brannon, 1976;Eisler, 1995;Eisler & Skidmore, 1987;Harris, 1995;Lazur & Majors, 1995;Levant et al., 1992;Mahalik, 1999a;O'Neil, 1981aO'Neil, , 1981bO'Neil, , 1982O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986;Pleck, 1981Pleck, , 1995Thompson & Pleck, 1995). ...
... The CMNI was developed as a tool for use by clinicians and researchers to examine masculinity issues with individuals by assessing conformity to an array of masculinity norms. As psychologists have advocated increasingly for integrating a gendered perspective into assessment and treatment with clients (e.g., Brown, 1986;Brooks & Good, 2000;Gilbert & Scher, 1999;Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990;Mahalik, 1999aMahalik, , 1999b, once normed, the CMNI may provide such a tool for the assessment of a large number of masculine norms when working with male clients, allowing a richer understanding of the salient aspects of masculinity for a given individual. Although research must be done to determine if interventions that incorporate interpretation of the CMNI with clients is helpful and for what issues, we speculate that it may be useful to explore with male clients how their positions on any of the masculinity norms both benefit them in daily living and contribute stress to their relationships, work, and health. ...
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), and 5 studies that examined its psychometric properties. Factor analysis indicated 11 distinct factors: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking, Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power Over Women, Disdain for Homosexuals, and Pursuit of Status. Results from Studies 2–5 indicated that the CMNI had strong internal consistency estimates and good differential validity comparing men with women and groups of men on health-related questions; all of the CMNI subscales were significantly and positively related to other masculinity-related measures, with several subscales being related significantly and positively to psychological distress, social dominance, aggression, and the desire to be more muscular, and significantly and negatively to attitudes toward psychological help seeking and social desirability; and CMNI scores had high test–retest estimates for a 2–3 week period.
... However, most college-age men tend to overestimate the extent to which their peers approve of gender stereotypes about sexual attitudes and behaviors (Berkowitz, 2003). This perceived norm may influence men's decision not to intervene in a situation in which male peers are behaving in a way that is aggressive toward women, despite discomfort associated with the pressure to conform to this masculine ideal (Berkowitz, 2002; Mahalik, 1999). ...
... However, most college-age men tend to overestimate the extent to which their peers approve of gender stereotypes about sexual attitudes and behaviors (Berkowitz, 2003). This perceived norm may influence men's decision not to intervene in a situation in which male peers are behaving in a way that is aggressive toward women, despite discomfort associated with the pressure to conform to this masculine ideal (Berkowitz, 2002; Mahalik, 1999). By adhering to a rigid masculine stereotype men could contribute to a rape-supportive environment; however, because the majority of sexual perpetrators are not prosecuted it is likely that a relatively small proportion of men commit multiple offenses (Fisher, Daigle, Cullen, & Turner, 2003). ...
The high prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses has led to the implementation of health communication programs to prevent sexual assault. A few novel programs focus on primary prevention by targeting social norms related to gender and masculinity among men through bystander intervention. Guided by the theory of normative social behavior, this study sought to examine the relative effect of campaigns communicating positive versus negative injunctive norms and the interaction between exposure to such campaign messages and perceived descriptive norms and relevant cognitive moderators (e.g., outcome expectations, injunctive norms, group identity, ego involvement) among men. A 2 (high/low descriptive norms) × 2 (high/low moderator) × 3 (public service announcement) independent groups quasi-experimental design (N = 332) was used. Results indicated that messages communicating positive injunctive norms were most effective among men who were least likely to engage in bystander intervention. Furthermore, descriptive norms played a significant role in behavioral intentions, such that those with stronger norms were more likely to report intentions to engage in bystander behaviors in the future. Similarly, the moderators of aspiration, injunctive norms, social approval, and ego involvement had a significant positive effect on behavioral intentions. These findings have important implications for future message design strategy and audience segmentation.
... For instance, the identification and modification of "cognitive biases" (e.g., dichotomous thinking, catastrophization) is an often-used technique (Westbrook et al., 2011). Emslie, Ridge, and Hunt (2006) and Mahalik (1999) have attempted to consolidate masculine-specific cognitive distortions into several thematic areas. These include themes of success (e.g., "I must win against others to be worthwhile"), power (e.g., "I must be powerful or I am worthless"), emotional control (e.g., "I cannot express my feelings because others will see me as weak"), fearlessness (e.g., "People will think I am a wimp if they know I'm scared"), and self-reliance (e.g., "Asking for help is a sign of weakness"). ...
... The role of significant others in the maintenance of depression via cognitive and behavioral mechanisms has also been discussed. For example, Mahalik (1999) has argued that many women internalize some masculinerelated cognitive distortions (e.g., I must be Superwoman). ...
Depression is a significant public health issue and many researchers have suggested that modifications to conventional cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) are required to address infrequent help-seeking in men and counter negative effects of traditional masculinity on therapeutic engagement. This narrative review summarizes recommended alterations to CBT in the areas of therapeutic setting, process, and content. Key themes from this literature include a focus on behavioural interventions, and harmful cognitions that orginate from the traditional male gender stereotype. This literature is marked by limited empirical support for many of the recommended treatment modifications, and several options for future research are outlined.
... Gender role conflict is defined as "a psychological state that stems from negative consequences of masculine role socialization and can be understood as a marker of individual differences in role adherence that result in the process of social gendering" (Magovcevic & Addis, 2005, p.127). Mahalik (1999) defines gender role strain as "societal norms around gender ideals often contradictory, inconsistent, and unattainable ' (p.33). From a cognitive therapy perspective this can be viewed as unrealistic gender roles schema that cause cognitive distortions. ...
... This leads to lower selfesteem, feelings of worthlessness, or hopelessness. Therefore, men try to live up to unrealistic socially constructed expectation, and when violated, they experience negative psychological consequences (Mahalik, 1999). Mahalik and Cournoyer (2000) compared depressed with nondepressed men to examine the difference in how they internalize their emotions and how gender role socialization affects their moods. ...
Understanding of depression among men remains poor. When compared to women, men remain under diagnosed for depression and continue to commit suicide four times the rate of women. This grounded theory study explored the social psychological process that occurred in men who suffered from depression. Nine men participated in the study that ranged in age, educational level, and marital status. The theory that emerged from this study was Navigating Inward and Outward Through Depression. This study uncovered six stages men navigated through: being different, concealing feelings disconnecting, hitting bottom, acknowledging and confronting and healing with others. This study advances our understanding of men and depression by providing meanings to the behaviors men express when depressed. Based on these findings, further research can lead to better screening tools and early diagnosis of depression in men.
... We view these restrictive masculine schemas as one variety of the dysfunctional cognitive schemas that Beck identified (Beck, 1963(Beck, , 1964Beck et al., 1979). Like other dysfunctional cognitive schemas, restrictive masculine schemas contribute to problem feelings, behaviors, and interpersonal relationships (see Mahalik, 1999). For example, if men develop restrictive masculine schemas connected to masculine norms about "winning" and believe that they must win and be competitive to gain status, they may develop schemas such as "I must be successful and beat others to be worthwhile." ...
... We recognize that culture constructs masculine schemas such that different masculine schemas will influence men from various classes, races, ethnic groups, nationalities, sexual orientations, and periods of history (Kimmel, 1996). We also recognize that our list of restrictive masculine schemas is not exhaustive (see Harris, 1995;Levant & Pollack, 1995;Mahalik, 1999;O'Neil, 1982, for a more extensive documentation of masculine gender roles). However, we think it is a useful set of schemas to examine and that each one has clinical relevance for practitioners working with male clients who are fathers. ...
This chapter focuses on cognitive therapy for men. Cognitive therapy is a reality-testing and problem-solving model for psychotherapy in which the cognitive therapist often acts as a teacher or ally against illogical thinking, uses a broad range of directive techniques that modify a client's maladaptive schemata, and promotes a rational-empirical method in everyday life. Although cognitive psychotherapy is equally applicable to both men and women. Scholars note two consequences of masculine socialization that may make cognitive therapy an especially useful way to approach treatment with men. Although emotions are a central part of the work that goes on in cognitive therapy, its focus on the importance of thoughts is likely to feel more congruent for men who conform to traditional gender roles regarding emotional expression. Supportive of this idea is preliminary empirical evidence suggesting that masculine gender role conflict is associated with preference for a cognitive focus in treatment. It is in these two ways that cognitive therapy may be especially congruent with traditional men's socialization toward emotional restriction and the tendency toward action. Specifically, compared with expressive or insight-oriented treatments, cognitive therapy's focus on cognitions and its problem-solving approach may be more congruent with the action skills of traditionally socialized men. A therapist who wants to use a cognitive therapy approach in working with a traditionally socialized man has to decide whether to use this approach as the primary therapeutic intervention in treatment or as a type of bridging technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... In terms of implications for treatment, we agree with those who advocate that gender role analyses be incorporated into psychological assessment (Brooks, 1998;Brown, 1986;Stillson,O'Neil,& Owen, 1991) and encourage therapists to explore the gender-related cognitive distortions that may contribute to clients' psychological distress (Mahalik, 1999). Although such messages and therapeutic issues are not identical in all male clients, anticipating these issues as potential sources of clients' presenting problems may help therapists to be proactive in their work with men. ...
... And they would help their clients conduct personal experiments to gather data about whether their distortions were accurate (e.g., "Let's see whether your thinking is on target about how your wife would react. Try to tell her a little about your feelings of being under pressure and then ask her what she thinks about it"; see Mahalik, 1999, for additional examples of modifying gender-related cognitive distortions). ...
The purpose of the study was to more fully understand how the messages men internalize related to gender role socialization are associated with depression. As a means of identifying specific masculinity messages associated with depression, 27 depressed and 27 nondepressed men, more than 90% of whom were Caucasian, were compared on their endorsement of individual gender role conflict items. Results indicated that the depressed and nondepressed men differed on many items across the 4 factors of masculine gender role conflict. The discussion focuses on identifying internalized messages that may be associated with the gender role conflict items and highlights clinical issues salient to working with depressed male clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Some men, for instance , believe that it is inappropriate to express vulnerable feelings to people they do not know well or to persons of authority and thus suppress the expression of their emotions. In recent years, scholars have argued that it is important for clinicians to attend closely to how gender-role socialization influences male psychotherapy clients' emotional behavior (see, e.g., Brooks, 1998; Mahalik, 1999; Mahalik, Good, & Englar-Carlson, 2003). The process model of emotional expression and nonexpression represents a promising model for understanding the diverse ways in which gender-role socialization influences men's emotional behavior . ...
... Step 4) might profit from cognitive therapy to challenge negative beliefs about expressing their feelings (Mahalik, 1999 ) or psychoeducation on the adaptive value of emotions (Robertson & Freeman, 1995). Some men might be reluctant to express feelings because they believe women are more emotional than men and that to be emotionally expressive is to be like a woman (Robertson & Freeman, 1995 ). ...
Using a tripartite framework focusing on the causes, modes, and consequences of men's emotional expression and nonexpression, this article provides a critical review of the theories and research relevant to men's emotional behavior. It is argued that current conceptualizations of male emotional behavior do not adequately capture its multidimensional nature and would be enriched through integration with theories and research from the science of emotion. Implications for counseling and suggestions for research are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Given the self-deprecatory thinking associated with shyness, it would be particularly important that counseling focus on assisting clients in developing more adaptive self-statements to facilitate expression of their feelings in various situations. In fact, Mahalik (1999) has discussed how traditional masculine role norms, when interpreted literally, may serve as cognitive distortions and how counselors may address such distortions using a cognitivebehavioral counseling perspective. Mahalik (1999) provided examples of traditional gender role related distortions plus illustrations of the underlying logic that can be disputed and personal experiments that can be suggested to clients. ...
... In fact, Mahalik (1999) has discussed how traditional masculine role norms, when interpreted literally, may serve as cognitive distortions and how counselors may address such distortions using a cognitivebehavioral counseling perspective. Mahalik (1999) provided examples of traditional gender role related distortions plus illustrations of the underlying logic that can be disputed and personal experiments that can be suggested to clients. Previous research on men's emotional inexpressiveness (Balswick, 1988) indicates that men do desire to express their feelings and are aware of problems associated with inexpressiveness. ...
The author examined the role of toughness (an aspect of masculine ideology) and shyness in predicting correlates of men's emotional inexpression. Results showed that shyness and toughness had an additive role in predicting men's general difficulties in emotional expression and in expression of affection to other men. Results also showed that toughness moderated the relationship between shyness and some aspects of emotional inexpression. Shy men who adhered to a gender role norm of toughness reported less tendency to facilitate self-disclosure from others and general difficulty in emotional expression. The findings suggest that counseling of shy men includes both a focus on anxiety reduction and gender role reeducation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... The first step in constructing the measure was to identify masculinity norms in the dominant culture. To do so, we reviewed the literature on traditional masculine norms in the United States (i.e., David & Brannon, 1976; Eisler, 1995; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987; Harris, 1995; Lazur & Majors, 1995; Levant et al., 1992; Mahalik, 1999a; O'Neil, 1981a O'Neil, , 1981b O'Neil, , 1982 O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986; Pleck, 1981 Pleck, , 1995 Thompson & Pleck, 1995). Next, two focus groups consisting of both men and women who were master's and doctoral students in counseling psychology (Group 1: 1 Asian American man, 1 European American man, and 2 European American women; Group 2: 2 European American men, 2 European American women, and 1 Haitian Canadian woman) met with James R. Mahalik (a European American man). ...
... The CMNI was developed as a tool for use by clinicians and researchers to examine masculinity issues with individuals by assessing conformity to an array of masculinity norms. As psychologists have advocated increasingly for integrating a gendered perspective into assessment and treatment with clients (e.g., Brown, 1986; Brooks & Good, 2000; Gilbert & Scher, 1999; Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990; Mahalik, 1999a Mahalik, , 1999b), once normed, the CMNI may provide such a tool for the assessment of a large number of masculine norms when working with male clients, allowing a richer understanding of the salient aspects of masculinity for a given individual. Although research must be done to determine if interventions that incorporate interpretation of the CMNI with clients is helpful and for what issues, we speculate that it may be useful to explore with male clients how their positions on any of the masculinity norms both benefit them in daily living and contribute stress to their relationships, work, and health. ...
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), and 5 studies that examined its psychometric properties. Factor analysis indicated 11 distinct factors: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking, Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power Over Women, Disdain for Homosexuals, and Pursuit of Status. Results from Studies 2-5 indicated that the CMNI had strong internal consistency estimates and good differential validity comparing men with women and groups of men on health-related questions; all of the CMNI subscales were significantly and positively related to other masculinity-related measures, with several subscales being related significantly and positively to psychological distress, social dominance, aggression, and the desire to be more muscular, and significantly and negatively to attitudes toward psychological help seeking and social desirability; and CMNI scores had high test-retest estimates for a 2-3 week period. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... We view these restrictive masculine schemas as one variety of the dysfunctional cognitive schemas that Beck identified (Beck, 1963(Beck, , 1964Beck et al., 1979). Like other dysfunctional cognitive schemas, restrictive masculine schemas contribute to problem feelings, behaviors, and interpersonal relationships (see Mahalik, 1999). For example, if men develop restrictive masculine schemas connected to masculine norms about "winning" and believe that they must win and be competitive to gain status, they may develop schemas such as "I must be successful and beat others to be worthwhile." ...
... We recognize that culture constructs masculine schemas such that different masculine schemas will influence men from various classes, races, ethnic groups, nationalities, sexual orientations, and periods of history (Kimmel, 1996). We also recognize that our list of restrictive masculine schemas is not exhaustive (see Harris, 1995;Levant & Pollack, 1995;Mahalik, 1999;O'Neil, 1982, for a more extensive documentation of masculine gender roles). However, we think it is a useful set of schemas to examine and that each one has clinical relevance for practitioners working with male clients who are fathers. ...
Cognitive therapists may be able to help fathers increase their involvement with their children by identifying and changing restrictive masculine schemas that interfere with men's parenting roles. In this paper, we (a) discuss the development of restrictive masculine schemas, (b) explain how these schemas may affect men's involvement in fathering roles, (c) offer a cognitive therapy approach for enhancing father involvement, and (d) illustrate the approach with a case example.
... It also seems that the demands placed on the male sex by the society and, as a result, internalized by it, can be extremely burdensome, especially for those who (according to themselves) are unable to meet them (Mahalik, 1999). This significant discrepancy between the pressures and the possibilities of their completion often becomes a cause of frustration for men and consequently contributes to the development of the ED symptoms. ...
The paper examines the issues of epidemiology, conditions, and treatment of eating disorders in men which are not widely recognised in either Polish and other International research. The aim of this paper is to provide an narrative overview of published research to date on the epidemiology, determinants and treatment of eating disorders in males, to discuss some of the differences reported in studies of self-identified gender disparities, and differences in comparison to the literature on female eating disorders. The prevalence and extent of the issue is underestimated by those affected and by clinicians. Consequently, men suffering from eating disorders (EDs) are less likely to be recognised or to receive appropriated timely help. This paper is based on a narrative review analysis of research reports on EDs. The authors discuss the issue of EDs in the context of gender, indicating how self-identified gender can affect clinical presentation (including somatic self-perception, and the methods employed and motives in striving for a 'perfect' figure) and how these relate. Both the methods used in collecting data on eating disorders and the precision of diagnostic criteria for recognising eating disorders (mainly anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa) (both on the DSM and ICD systems) are based largely on research conducted in female clinical populations. Analysis of the empirical material to date leads us to assume that symptoms of EDs in men are more often (than in the case of women) related to (self)stigmatisation, difficulties in obtaining a correct diagnosis, coexistent body dysmorphic disorders, substance addictions, and greater physical activity.'
... Ellis et al. (2009) noted that LFT is a function of a person's beliefs about his or her own adequacy. Mahalik (1999) emphasized that men are more likely to feel uncomfortable if they (1) do not succeed, (2) are asked to share their authority, (3) demonstrate their feelings, (4) are noticed by others that they are afraid, and (5) get help from others when they get into difficulties. Therefore, the internalized gender role expectations may make it difficult for men to tolerate the difficulties they face, which might lead to the development of depressive symptoms among men. ...
We conduct a cross-sectional study to examine gender differences in the organizational structure of irrational/rational beliefs in the symptoms of depression in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 476). The findings suggest that the psychological distress and health models of REBT are valid for both genders. The demandingness, as the primary irrational belief process, indirectly predicts depressive symptoms through the secondary irrational belief process (awfulizing) for both males and females. However, there are some gender differences. Frustration intolerance has a unique contribution to the symptoms of depressive for males, while global evaluation of self plays a vital role in the relationship between demandingness and depressive symptoms for females. Regarding the psychological health model, findings suggest that the primary rational belief process (preference) predicts the symptoms of depression through secondary rational belief processes (non-awfulizing) for both genders. However, unconditional self-acceptance beliefs play a significant role in this relationship only for women. Furthermore, current findings suggest that the indirect predictive effect of demandingness on the symptoms of depression via global evaluation of self and awfulizing beliefs differs depending on the level of non-awfulizing and unconditional self-acceptance beliefs for women. Non-awfulizing beliefs function as a protective factor against the indirect predictive effect of demandingness on depressive symptoms via awfulizing beliefs for the total sample. We discussed the potential theoretical and clinical implications in detail.
... Nonetheless, while the client's masculinity may be outside the scope of such an intervention, assessing and formulating with the client's gender in mind will help clarify approaches to cognitive restructuring, in a similar way to multicultural factors. Cognitive distortions or biases regarding a man's beliefs around emotional control, power and success are means for exploring overarching withdrawal, avoidance or catastrophizing through self-monitoring and reality testing (Mahalik, 1999). Moreover, in challenging rigid beliefs, the clinician may inadvertently introduce and foster the adaptive exploration of multiple masculinities (Spendelow, 2015). ...
Tailoring psychological treatments to men’s specific needs has been a topic of concern for decades given evidence that many men are reticent to seek professional health care. However, existing literature providing clinical recommendations for engaging men in psychological treatments is diffuse. The aim of this scoping review was to provide a comprehensive summary of recommendations for how to engage men in psychological treatment. Four electronic databases (MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO) were searched for articles published between 2000 and 2017. Titles and abstracts were reviewed; data extracted and synthesized thematically. Of 3,627 citations identified, 46 met the inclusion criteria. Thirty articles (65%) were reviews or commentaries; 23 (50%) provided broad recommendations for working with all men. Findings indicate providing male-appropriate psychological treatment requires clinicians to consider the impact of masculine socialization on their client and themselves, and how gender norms may impact clinical engagement and outcomes. Existing literature also emphasized specific process micro-skills (e.g., self-disclosure, normalizing), language adaption (e.g., male-oriented metaphors) and treatment styles most engaging for men (e.g., collaborative, transparent, action-oriented, goal-focused). Presented are clinical recommendations for how to engage men in psychological treatments including paying attention to tapping the strengths of multiple masculinities coexisting within and across men. Our review suggests more empirically informed tailored interventions are needed, along with formal program evaluations to advance the evidence base.
... Our findings indicate that for veteran men, therapeutic outcomes may be improved when interventions are integrated into PTSD treatments that bring attention to and challenge the operation of traditional male role norms, such as gender role analysis (Mahalik, 1999). These implications are built on prior suggestions that when This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ...
Veteran men have high rates of adherence to traditional masculinity ideology, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and romantic relationship dissatisfaction. However, there is a paucity of studies investigating how these constructs relate to one another in veteran men. We examined the relation between masculinity ideology and relationship satisfaction and the extent to which this relation was mediated by PTSD symptoms. Next, we tested this mediating effect with traditional male role norms hypothesized to inhibit cognitive-emotional processing of traumatic events (i.e., self-reliance, toughness, dominance, restrictive emotionality) and male role norms with no hypothesized relation with cognitive–emotional processing (i.e., avoidance of femininity, importance of sex, negativity toward sexual minorities). Participants were veteran men with a history of military-related trauma who were in a romantic relationship at the time of study participation (N = 76). Veterans completed measures of traditional masculinity ideology endorsement, PTSD symptoms, and relationship satisfaction. Findings indicated that PTSD partially mediated the association between endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and relationship functioning in veterans. These findings can be used to inform PTSD interventions with veteran men and their romantic partners.
... Rodové scenáre typické pre mužov Výsledky z jednotlivých výskumov poukazujú na viacero maskulínnych scenárov, ktoré sú v súlade s tradičnými maskulínnymi ideológiami a zároveň sú prepojené na problémy, ktoré môžu mužom spôsobovať, ak sa ich pridŕžajú. Sú nimi nasledovné scenáre , Mahalik, Cournoyer, DeFranc et al., 1998Mahalik, 1999;Scher, Gilbert, 1999;Mahalik, Good, Englar-Carlson, 2003;Addis, Mahalik, 2003;Mansfield, Addis, Mahalik, 2003;McCarthy, Holliday, 2004): ...
Article deals with gender stereotypes in counseling/psychotherapy setting. It illustrates on personality and developmental theories and research results how they support stereotypical view to men and women, defines basic gender related concepts. Authors explain gender related concepts and suggest their links to counseling/therapy context. Obtained research results (101 Slovak psychotherapists and counselors participated in the research) in its quantitative part showed that most of the respondents disagreed with sexist attitudes, but among them there are also those who have quite strong biases and prejudices both towards to men and women. Qualitative part of the research confirmed presence of stereotypical stance among psychotherapists.
... "If I am not a care-giver, then I am worthless"). Such cultural scripts/gender norms, frequently implicit rather than explicit, are internalised and associated with a wide range of mental health problems including depression and low self-esteem (Mahalik, 1999;Worell & Remer, 2003). They are understood to result from social influence processes, such as acculturation, reinforcement and observational learning, informed by femininity/masculinity ideologies (internalisation of socially constructed cultural belief systems regarding gender roles; Hagan & Donnison, 1999;Levant, 2011). ...
Great strides have been made in understanding the impact of social inequality on the risk of developing psychotic experiences. However, little is known about the influence of intersecting social categories such as gender, race and class on the experience and expression of psychotic phenomena. Intersectionality, a framework recently advanced in psychology, examines the joint impact of multiple forms of marginalisation on well-being. We adopted this approach to develop a codebook and analyse the voice content of 44 women diagnosed with schizophrenia for the ways in which social categories are used to undermine and/or affirm voice-hearers. Over half of the sample included women with ethnic-minority status. The coding system was reliable. Gendered conditions of worth were used by voices to undermine by far the majority (40) of women and racialised conditions of worth over half (14) the ethnic-minority women. We conclude that voice content often reflects social categories and structural inequalities in society and discuss implications for CBT for psychosis when working with women of majority and ethnic-minority statuses.
... But currently, urbanization, rising poverty, increasing unemployment, migration, the erosion of traditional livelihood systems, neo-localism, women's increasing participation in household provisioning, men's emergent incapacity to pay bride wealth, and the rise of marital relationships in which men have diminished control of women, have initiated fundamental changes in gender roles and relations (Meth, 2009;Silberschmidt, 1999Silberschmidt, , 2001Silberschmidt, , 2004Thomas, 2003). These processes have resulted in widespread uncertainties among poor urban Kenyan men about how to "be" men and the meanings of manhood, resulting in gender role tension or "discrepancy strain" (Levant, 1997;Mahalik, 1999;Pleck, 1995;Silberschmidt, 1999Silberschmidt, , 2004. In their work, Amuyunzu-Nyamongo and Francis (2006) argue that the hegemony of provider and breadwinner masculinity in a context of extreme poverty has produced a large number of men subordinated in the hierarchies of masculinity, resulting in the loss of male ego, shaky sense of worth, feelings of gender anxiety, sense of irrelevance and powerlessness as well as growing tendency among men resort to violent and over-compensatory masculine behaviors, including extreme sexism and homophobia. ...
There is limited research on masculinity in relation to community development. Using ethnographic and interview data from two slums in Kenya and building on one of the more well-known definitions of community development, we explore men?s narratives of themselves in relation to community development. We highlight how men’s cognizance of the structural and contextual constraints to the development of their communities intersected with both a feeling that they have helped to hamper community development and an adamant sense of their own criticality and centrality in ensuring it. While repudiating the idea that they have to change in order for their community to progress, men also generally hinged community development on their tenacious pursuit of traditional masculinity scripts. The rejection of mainstream masculinity norms as the basis for community progress will not resonate consistently among men. Social and community development work with men that fails to acknowledge them as gendered people may not succeed.
... The boys experienced that they can receive comments for looking or seeming "gay", and perceived that looking or seeming "gay" was perceived to be negative and something to be avoided. Theories about masculinity contribute to explaining these findings, as men receive a number of messages associated with traditional masculinity from society (Mahalik, 1999). To some extent, men face the message that they should avoid behaviours regarded as feminine (e.g., engaging in appearance practices). ...
The aim of this study was to explore 15-year-old adolescents' experiences of appearance-related cyberbullying. Twenty-seven adolescents participated in four focus groups. The adolescents in this study perceived that it is common to be targeted in appearance-related cyberbullying, especially for girls, and that appearance-related cyberbullying is considered to be a potent strategy when attempting to hurt girls. Girls often received comments about being fat, while among boys, it was common to receive comments about looking or seeming "gay." According to the adolescents, an important reason for engaging in appearance-related cyberbullying was to attain higher social status in the peer group. The girls and boys reacted differently to appearance-related cyberbullying. Boys tended to act out or take no offence, while girls experienced lower self-esteem and feelings of depression. Findings in this study contribute to research on cyberbullying as well as to research on girls' body esteem development.
... One possible interpretation could be that this might be a representation of socialization into traditional gender roles. According to a cognitive theory of the development of gender role schema, both girls and boys receive a number of messages about masculine behavior and feminine behavior from social forces, such as schools, peers, and the media ( Mahalik, 1999). Girls are expected to speak about their thoughts and feelings; whereas boys are socialized to use physical violence in difficult situations ( Adams et al., 1995;Nansel et al., 2001). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the coping strategies that Swedish 10 and 12 year-olds (N = 694) suggested they would use if they were cyberbullied, with a special focus on whether there are differences in these strategies related to age and gender. The most commonly suggested coping strategy was telling someone, especially parents and teachers (70.5%). Surprisingly few of the pupils reported that they would tell a friend (2.6%). Differences in suggested coping strategies were found related to age and gender. Findings are discussed in relation to the Swedish sociocultural context as well as in relation to the implications for prevention strategies against cyberbullying.
... This multidimensional understanding of masculine gender roles might also have applications for vocational counseling where counselors could address vocational exploration and decision making through incorporating a gender role analysis, as has been suggested for psychotherapy (e.g., Brown, 1986;Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990;Mahalik, 1999). Counselors may explore with male clients how their conformity or nonconformity to an array of masculine norms may relate to their interest or noninterest in various jobs and careers. ...
The authors examined how college men’s conformity to an array of masculinity norms varied as a function of their vocational interests to better understand the gendered context of men’s vocational development. Three hundred ten mostly Caucasian and heterosexual college men completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and their answer to the question “What is your ideal job/career after college?” was classified into one of six high point codes reflecting Holland’s RIASEC interests using the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Titles (1996). Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that college men’s conformity to masculinity norms varied as a function of their vocational interests, and univariate analyses indicated that this was true for 9 of the 11 masculinity norms examined. The discussion addresses the implications of a multidimensional conceptualization of masculinity in understanding men’s vocational development.
... Barrowclough et al; Hensley et al., 2004). The aim of these techniques is to change the gender patterns for men and women (Mahalik, 1999) that interfere with health behaviours. This will work on the question of prevention in order to reduce risk behaviours and increase health-promoting behaviors. ...
The objective of this study is to determine whether adaptation to gender norms is related to tobacco and alcohol use in a sample of Romanian people. The results showed that the degree of conformity to gender norms was associated to some of these types of behavior. These conclusions have important implications for action on health, since they show how important masculine/ feminine gender identity is, in regard to health behaviors. (C) 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of PSIWORLD 2012
... Barrowclough et al; Hensley et al., 2004). The aim of these techniques is to change the gender patterns for men and women (Mahalik, 1999;) that interfere with health behaviours. This will work on the question of prevention in order to reduce risk behaviours and increase health-promoting behaviours. ...
Research Group Psychological Styles, Gender and Health (EPSY) is working topics as differences between sexes in ailing and dying and the consequences of this in health practice, quality of life and degree of personal satisfaction, stress and psychological problems suffered by women and men from the gender perspective.
In order to operationalize the gender, the group used femininity and masculinity concepts. Mahalik et al. (2003, 2005) define femininity as the degree of people's conformity (emotional, cognitive and/or behavioral) with a series gender norms that designate what is considered socially appropriate for women. Therefore, we consider that femininity/masculinity is a psychological dimension, which can, moreover, be measured or assessed.
... Barrowclough et al;Hensley et al., 2004). The aim of these techniques is to change the gender patterns for men and women (Mahalik, 1999;) that interfere with health behaviours. This will work on the question of prevention in order to reduce risk behaviours and increase health-promoting behaviours. ...
Today's children are immersed in a virtual world of screens. Video games, mobile phones, laptops, and televisions are ubiquitous in the daily life of the modern child. Technology is blamed for creating an inactive generation of youth whose loafing and snacking are gateways to poor health. Yet new technologies that promote physical activity, nutritious diets, and self-monitoring of health may coutneract negative consequences of too much screen-time. This chapter examines the extensive cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence that links traditional screen-time to pediatric obesity. Intervention studies seeking to reduce screen-time are assessed for clinically meaningful change, and an overview is provided of emerging research on the transformation of screen-time from passive to active and healthful. Directions for future research are presented in context of our ever-evolving technological era.
... Another potentially useful strategy may be to modify men's problematic constructions of masculinity. For example, cognitive therapy-style interventions could aim at modifying men's masculine-related cognitive schemas that interfered with healthy behaviors to promote men's health (see Mahalik, 1999;. Applied to health behaviors related to masculinity such as "I believe a person should not admit being sick to others," several cognitive interventions might be aimed at changing such health beliefs. ...
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 9(1) of
Psychology of Men & Masculinity (see record
2008-00646-005). In this article, the order of authorship was listed incorrectly, during the production of the article. The correct order of authorship follows: James R. Mahalik, Gordon Walker, and Micól Levi-Minzi] Approaching men's health behaviors from a gender socialization framework, the authors hypothesized that Australian men's health behaviors would significantly relate to their conformity to traditional masculine norms. A total of 253 Australian men recruited through university and community settings completed the Health Behavior Inventory (HBI) and the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI). Masculinity scores related to Australian men reporting more health risk behaviors and fewer health promotion behaviors. Follow-up analyses also indicated that Masculinity scores related to specific HBI items and that CMNI subscales significantly predicted the HBI Total scores. The authors discuss the relationship between traditional masculine socialization and harmful health behaviors, potential interventions, limitations to the study, and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... A search did not reveal specific studies demonstrating use of cognitive-behavioral treatment or interpersonal psychotherapy for males with eating disorders. However, Mahalik (1999aMahalik ( , 1999b has adapted cognitive-behavioral treatment and interpersonal psychotherapy for working with men. Mahalik (1999a) provided a framework for using cognitive-behavioral treatment to treat male clients' cognitive distortions in the context of masculine gender role conflict. ...
Mental health professionals may wonder how males with eating disorders differ from females with eating disorders and how best to treat males with eating disorders. The eating disorder literature largely focuses on females. Limited research has examined assessment and treatment of eating disorders in males. This article offers a unique view of eating disorder treatment for males by integrating it with the literature on the psychology of men. Mental health professionals are given practical suggestions to guide eating disorder recovery in males. A case example shows treatment considerations for working with males with disordered eating behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... In response to the need to work more effectively with men and integrate an important part of men's experiences (i.e., their masculine selves) into the therapeutic work, a great deal has been written and discussed recently regarding therapy with men (see Brooks & Good, 2001). This work addresses a broad range of therapeutic concerns, including group therapy with men (Andronico, 2001), working with boys and adolescent males (Horne & Kiselica, 1999), treatment strategies with traditional men (Brooks, 1998), new theoretical models for working with men (Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990), and integrating masculine socialization issues into existing theoretical frameworks (Mahalik, 1999a(Mahalik, , 1999b. ...
Men are a unique population to work with in psychotherapy, but what does research indicate about how masculinity relates to therapeutic issues? Summarizing research on masculinity's relationship to a range of presenting issues, this article organizes and discusses the findings according to masculinity "scripts" that clinicians are likely to recognize when working with male clients. The article then addresses how masculinity is also associated with less help seeking and with negative attitudes toward psychological help seeking. This irony, that traditional masculinity scripts contribute to men's presenting concerns and act as barriers to help seeking, is then addressed through recommendations for training and practice that incorporate a sociocultural context into working with men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Another approach applies a psychodynamic perspective on male psychological development to address commonly encountered issues of unresolved grief in male clients with depression. Mahalik (1999Mahalik ( , 2001 detailed cognitive distortions that are specific to the masculine gender role and suggested ways in which these can be addressed in a cognitive-behavioral approach to treatment with men. The distortions Mahalik proposed (e.g., "I must be successful to be happy and fulfilled" or "If I can't do it myself, people will think I'm inept") relate specifically to men's vulnerability to episodes of depression when certain gender role expectations are not fulfilled. ...
Psychologists increasingly recognize depression as a serious, albeit often undiagnosed, condition in men. In fact, undiagnosed and untreated depression in men may be one reason why many more men than women commit suicide. However, because of cultural conditioning that discourages expression of depressed mood in men, assessment as well as treatment of depression in men are sometimes difficult. Use of gender-sensitive assessment strategies and interventions will assure that more men will be identified and treated for depression. This article integrates scientific findings related to depression in men with specific gender-sensitive assessment and psychotherapeutic intervention strategies designed to enhance psychologists' skills in working with this significant problem in men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Cognitive interventions already have strong empirical support as effective in producing behavior change for an array of clinical concerns (e.g., Barrowclough, King, Colville, Russell, Alistair, & Tarrier, 2001;Hensley, Nadiga, & Uhlenhuth, 2004). In a similar way, cognitive interventions could aim at modifying men's masculine-related cognitive schemas (see Mahalik, 1999;Mahalik & Morrison, 2006) that interfere with healthy behaviors to promote men's health. Such interventions would be a logical extension of our research findings that men's constructions of masculinity significantly related to health behaviors and might be useful to improve the health of men, their families, and their communities. ...
Approaching men's health behaviors from a gender socialization framework, we hypothesized that (a) men's health behaviors would significantly relate to their conformity to traditional masculine norms, (b) these behaviors would significantly differ as a function of their nationality, and (c) masculinity and nationality would significantly interact to predict men's health behaviors. Five hundred forty-six male college students (384 Kenyan men, 162 U.S. men) completed the Health Behavior Inventory and the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. ANCOVA results indicated that 30 of 52 health behaviors were associated with traditional masculinity, nationality, or their interaction. The discussion focuses on masculinity's relationship to harmful health behaviors. In addition, limitations and potential interventions to improve men's health behaviors are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Given the findings about masculinity and problematic alcohol use, prevention efforts might address the most salient masculinity norms identified in this study-in particular Power Over Women, Dominance, Playboy, and Disdain for Homosexuals-along with problematic alcohol use. Cognitive therapy techniques could be used to help men identify and challenge particular masculinity norms (e.g., patriarchal attitudes or devaluing women) that may constrain their own well-being as well as contribute to sexual aggression (see Mahalik, 1999). ...
Male sexual aggression toward women is a serious social problem, particularly on college campuses. In this study, college men's sexually aggressive behavior and rape myth acceptance were examined using conformity to 11 masculine norms and 2 variables previously linked to sexual aggression: problem drinking and athletic involvement. Results indicated that men who use alcohol problematically and conform to specific masculine norms (i.e., having power over women, being a playboy, disdaining gay men, being dominant, being violent, and taking risks) tended to endorse rape myths and report sexually aggressive behavior. Additionally, men who reported higher levels of problematic alcohol use and risk taking were more likely to report sexually aggressive behavior without endorsing rape myths. Implications and recommendations are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... The current results may help address problematic aspects of masculine socialization fostering intergenerational transmission of maladaptive affect regulation strategies for men. Several psychotherapeutic models emphasizing the importance of male gender roles have been developed to address this incongruity (Brooks, 1998;Gilbert & Scher, 1999;Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990;Mahalik, 1999Mahalik, , 2005aMahalik, , 2005b. ...
The authors examined associations among 266 undergraduate men's perceptions of parental bonding, gender role conflict, affect regulation capacity, and adult attachment avoidance. Partial support for the hypothesized mediation effects was found, with results suggesting that emotion regulation suppression and reappraisal helped explain the association between men's memories of maternal bonding care and adult attachment avoidance. Furthermore, results identified potential mechanisms of influence underlying the development of men's avoidance of intimacy. Clinical implications and suggestions for further research are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Testing this could be done in a variety of ways including by examining data on psychological health, identity development, health-related behaviors, quality of relationships, or a host of other variables to determine benefits and costs for the individual and others to conformity or nonconformity to an array of femininity norms. As mental health professionals have advocated increasingly for integrating a gendered perspective into assessment and treatment with clients (e.g., Brooks & Good, 2001; Brown, 1986; Gilbert & Scher, 1999; Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990; Mahalik, 1999a Mahalik, , 1999b), once normed, the CFNI may provide such a tool for the assessment of a large number of feminine norms with female clients, which would allow a richer understanding of the salient aspects of femininity for a given individual. Although research must be done to determine if interventions that incorporate interpretation of the CFNI with clients are helpful and for what issues, consistent with feminist theory (Brown, 1986), we speculate that it may be useful to explore with female clients how their conformity or nonconformity to any of the femininity norms both benefits them in daily living as well as contributes stress to their relationships, work, and health. ...
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory (CFNI), which was designed to assess womens conformity to an array of feminine norms found in the dominant culture in the United States. In addition, we present four studies in which the psychometric properties of the CFNI were examined. In Study 1, factor analysis indicated that the CFNI is comprised of eight distinct factors labeled as Nice in Relationships, Thinness, Modesty, Domestic, Care for Children, Romantic Relationship, Sexual Fidelity, and Invest in Appearance. Results from Study 2 indicated that the CFNI has strong internal consistency estimates and differentiates college women from college men. In addition, Study 2 demonstrated that the CFNI Total score and subscale scores relate to Bem Sex Role Inventory and Feminist Identity Development Scale scores in theoretically consistent patterns. Study 3 indicated that the CFNI Total score and several of the subscales significantly and positively relate to scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory. Finally, Study 4 demonstrated that the CFNI Total score and subscale scores have high test-retest estimates for a 2–3 week period. The discussion focuses on potential uses of the CFNI, limitations to the study, and suggestions for future research.
... Research on individual difference in masculine gender role socialization has consistently identified risk factors for depression in men (Good and Mintz 1990; Good and Wood 1995; Mahalik and Cournoyer 2000; Mahalik et al. 2003; Shepard 2002). Theorists have proposed that when men are socialized to hide their emotional experience and handle problems on their own, they are less able to respond effectively to stressful life events, which ultimately leads to greater rates of psychopathology (Cochran and Rabinowitz 2000; Levant and Pollack 1995; Mahalik 1999; Real 1997). Consistent with this theory, adherence to the norms of emotional control and self-reliance has been associated with increased depressive symptoms and reduced help-seeking (Burns et al. in press; Cournoyer and Mahalik 1995; Fragoso and Kashubeck 2000; Good and Mintz 1990; Good and Wood 1995; Mahalik and Cournoyer 2000; Mahalik et al. 2003; O'Neil 2008; Simonsen et al. 2000; Shepard 2002). ...
We investigated individual differences in adherence to masculine norms (AMN) as predictors of concurrent and prospective depressive
symptoms above and beyond negative attributional style and explanatory flexibility in a community sample of unemployed men.
Sixty-two men from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds were recruited from an unemployment center in a large industrial
city and were followed for 3months. Adherence to the specific masculine norms of emotional control and self-reliance accounted
for variance in concurrent depressive symptoms after statistically controlling for attributional processes. At the 3-month
follow-up, only AMN predicted depressive symptoms after accounting for attributional processes and initial depressive symptoms.
Negative attributional style was negatively associated with the likelihood of reemployment at the 3-month follow-up while
AMN was positively associated with the likelihood reemployment. Results suggested that AMN may be an important sociocultural
factor contributing to depression that is largely independent of attributional processes.
KeywordsDepression-Adherence to masculine norms-Attributional style-Explanatory flexibility-Gender-Unemployment
... O'Neil, 1996). Theories of masculine role socialization have also been applied specifically to the etiology and treatment of depression (Cochran & Rabinowitz, 2000;Mahalik, 1999aMahalik, , 1999bReal, 1997) and body image disturbances (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000). Psychoeducational workshops and courses have also been developed around fathering (Levant, 1996a) and the process of masculine gender socialization itself (J. ...
Research on men's help seeking yields strategies for enhancing men's use of mental and physical health resources. Analysis of the assumptions underlying existing theory and research also provides a context for evaluating the psychology of men and masculinity as an evolving area of social scientific inquiry. The authors identify several theoretical and methodological obstacles that limit understanding of the variable ways that men do or do not seek help from mental and physical health care professionals. A contextual framework is developed by exploring how the socialization and social construction of masculinities transact with social psychological processes common to a variety of potential help-seeking contexts. This approach begins to integrate the psychology of men and masculinity with theory and methodology from other disciplines and suggests innovative ways to facilitate adaptive help seeking.
... These outlets have helped advance our understanding of problems men face and the interaction influence of masculine gender roles with female gender identity and society at large (Brooks & Good, 2001; McCreary, 2003). In addition, a number of psychotherapeutic frameworks have surfaced emphasizing the importance of considering and addressing male gender roles within clinical conceptualizations and treatment plans (Brooks, 1998; Gilbert, 1999; Good, Gilbert, & Scher, 1990; Mahalik, 1999 ). Within this literature, authors have identified the unique challenges that accompany working therapeutically with male clients (or prospective clients). ...
This article introduces the special issue on recent conceptual, practical, and research developments relevant to men and therapy. The paper reviews the considerable shifts that have emerged in our understanding and measurement of masculinity as it pertains to men's health and therapy. In addition, this introduction outlines the primary focus of each article in this special issue and describes the general guidelines offered to the contributors. Collectively, these special-issue articles describe promising paradigms, provide useful examples, and stress the need for further research on men, masculinity, and the therapeutic process.
Masculinity ideology refers to beliefs, constructs, and conceptualizations of the norms and roles of men. This research aimed to find out the level of endorsement of Filipino men to the prevailing masculinity ideology and their level of gender role conflict. Furthermore, this study desired to increase men’s awareness of their roles and work hand in hand with women. A cross-sectional survey research design was utilized for this study. A minimum of 900 questionnaires were purposely distributed to volunteers who were single, working, at least 18 years of age, have finished college, or if not, have at least some college experience to satisfy the requirement for a regression analysis method. Data were subjected to the Pearson R correlation method utilizing SPSS. Results showed the seemingly standing belief that men should be good providers of the family. Individual characteristics defined their roles as being objective, independent, and competitive rather than being physically strong or brave, or attractive to the opposite sex. Among the masculinity ideologies, it is Macho-Guapito (virile -handsome) that is related to all the areas of gender role conflict. Gender role conflict was only slightly experienced by men, with the highest score in the area of success, power, and competition.
Purpose
This study aimed to examine the relationship between interpersonal cognitive distortions and family role performances in spouses during the pandemic process.
Design and Methods
This cross‐sectional study was conducted on 402 married individuals.
Findings
The total score of interpersonal cognitive distortions and task performance scores were higher in males. The individuals who go to the workplace during the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) process have higher unrealistic relationship expectancy score and total score of interpersonal cognitive distortion. Interpersonal cognitive distortions were determined to explain 5% of task and relationship performance in family role performance.
Practice Implications
It was determined that the relationships in the spouses were associated with cognitive distortions and family role performance. Interpersonal cognitive distortions in spouses were found to affect role performance in the family.
Negative ‐self and ‐others core schemas have been implicated in the development and maintenance of psychotic experiences. One component of the self‐system is gender‐role strain (GRS; perceived discrepancy between actual self and gender‐role norms). Although the role of gender in the formation of core schemas has been underscored in social and developmental psychology literatures, GRS has not been investigated in relation to psychosis. We examined whether it might be associated with negative schemas and psychotic experiences in women consistent with the trend toward sex‐ and gender‐based analysis (SGBA) in health research. Forty‐four women with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder diagnosis and 48 female nonclinical participants completed a series of questionnaires measuring GRS, femininity ideology, core schemas, childhood trauma, and implicit femininity stereotypes (The Gender Stereotype Implicit Association Test). Half the total sample comprised women with minority‐ethnic status. Women in the psychosis group reported higher levels of GRS than comparison participants. Differences in endorsement of femininity ideology between the two groups narrowly missed significance with a trend toward greater femininity ideology in the psychosis group and significantly greater endorsement of the sexual purity domain for minority‐ethnic women. There was no difference in implicit femininity stereotypes. Analyses suggested that the relationship between GRS and symptoms was mediated by negative ‐self and ‐others schemas. Childhood sexual trauma, though higher for women with psychosis, was associated with gender‐role strain in the nonclinical sample only. Findings warrant further investigation with larger samples. SGBA has the potential to fill gaps in our current knowledge with regard to psychosis theory, research, and practice.
Relationships of a person are influenced by cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects. Cognitive distortions are affected by both personal history and the social norms. The present study aims to focus on ambivalent sexism and bonding to mother that may affect interpersonal cognitive distortions. Then, the relationship between ambivalent sexism, bonding to mother and interpersonal cognitive distortions are investigated. Method: Study group was consisted of 349 university students. The results showed that there was a positive significant relationship between interpersonal cognitive distortions and ambivalent sexism. Also, a negative significant relationship between cognitive distortions and bonding to mother was observed. Regression analysis showed that hostile sexism, bonding to the mother- over protective sub-dimension, benevolent sexism and bonding to the mother- care/control sub-dimension predicted interpersonal cognitive distortions. The results indicate that interpersonal cognitive distortion is affected by bonding to the mother as a significant variable in person’s history and sexism as an imposed social norm. As a result, in order to decrease interpersonal cognitive distortions, preventive studies on sexism may be crucial in the education process and mental health services.
In December 2014, the Jesuit pope, Francis made comments that suggested that animals have souls and would be welcomed in heaven. This single comment activated a 150-year-old debate in Vatican on whether animals have souls like humans and has significant implications for theology and anyone bonded to a pet. If animals have souls and human beings bond with them, then the animal bond has significant spiritual–religious dimensions. In this way, animals become not only agents of psychological growth and soothing for people (Blazina et al. 2013) but spiritual partners like human beings. In this context, the animal–human bond becomes more than fringe topic but a critical one that needs to be more vigorously studied.
Through the process of gender-role socialization, men are likely to perceive sharing emotions and expressing tender emotions as negative because such feelings may imply weakness and vulnerability. Based on the traditional cultural expectations and socialization of the masculine gender role, we postulated that Chinese men would be more likely to be discouraged from sharing and expressing tender emotions. However, the relationship between endorsing the masculinity norms of controlling emotions and psychological well-being and their mechanisms among Chinese men remains unclear in the literature. This study hypothesized that a stronger endorsement of the masculinity norm of controlling emotions was associated with poorer psychological well-being among Chinese men in Hong Kong, and that this relationship was mediated by stress appraisal for expressing tender emotions. Results from structural equation modeling supported our hypotheses, with satisfactory model-fit indices. The relationship between the endorsement of the “emotional-control masculine norm” and psychological well-being was partially mediated by stress appraisal for expressing tender emotions. Specifically, the emotional-control masculine norm was associated with higher stress appraisal for expressing tender emotions, which, in turn, was associated with a lower level of psychological well-being. Findings shed light on understanding the potential correlates of Chinese men’s well-being through their endorsement of masculine norms and stress-management approaches.
The World Health Organization has identified gender as a “critical determinant of mental health and mental illness.” In the schizophrenia field, however, while there has been an increased focus on sex differences, little is known about how gender impacts the risk of psychosis, its expression (e.g., content of hallucinations), coping, or recovery. In this chapter, I argue for a sex-and gender-based analysis (SBGA). I outline the literatures on gender and mental health, describe SGBA, related constructs and corresponding scales, and delineate some of the barriers to conducting SGBA, equipping the interested reader with the tools to conduct SGBA in psychosis research.
Suicide is one of the leading causes of male mortality. In nearly every country in the world, more males than females end their life by suicide. Previous research indicates male-specific risk factors include social factors such as being unmarried, low income, and unemployment. An analytic model of male suicide is developed, proposing that the traditional male gender role creates a culturally-conditioned narrowing of perceived options and cognitive rigidity when under stress that increases male suicide risk. Suicide prevention and intervention require recognition of the role of high traditional masculinity, situating individual explanations within a broader social context. Based on this theory and the few existing empirical studies, testable hypotheses are proposed.
The mediating effects of risky behaviours on the linkage between childhood attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) symptoms and adolescent sexual victimisation in college women were examined using structural equation modelling (n=374). The moderating effects of timing onset of risky behaviours were also examined. General risky behaviour was not a significant mediator. Rather, findings supported a specificity hypothesis suggesting risky sexual behaviour is a better explanation of the ADHD symptoms–sexual victimisation association than is general risky behaviour. Early onset of alcohol or marijuana use, consensual sexual activity and staying out all night interacted with childhood ADHD symptoms to increase general risky behaviour and sexual risk-taking. We conclude that to understand the risk for sexual victimisation in adolescent females with childhood ADHD symptoms it would be advisable to focus specifically on sexual risk-taking.
This article reviews 232 empirical studies that used the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) over the past 25 years (1982-2007). The article introduces the gender role conflict (GRC) construct using past definitions and theoretical models. The research findings for diverse men are summarized and studies related to men's intrapersonal, interpersonal, and therapeutic lives are analyzed. The empirical support, criticism, and challenges to the gender role conflict research program are reviewed. A contextual research paradigm with seven domains is presented and 18 research questions and two research models are discussed to foster more moderation and mediation studies on men's GRC. A new diagnostic schema to assess men's GRC in therapy and during psychoeducational interventions is discussed. The research review concludes that GRC is significantly related to men's psychological and interpersonal problems and therefore an important construct for psychologists and other helping professionals.
Over 10% of men will meet lifetime criteria for major depressive disorder, yet men often are unwilling to enter treatment, and have more negative attitudes toward therapy than do depressed women. The Men's Stress Workshop was developed as a gender-sensitive group therapy protocol for men that explicitly addresses the role of masculine norms in the treatment of depressive symptoms. In this article we: (a) provide an overview of the model that serves as the conceptual foundation for the workshop; (b) outline the major treatment components and hypothesized change mechanisms for the workshop; and (c) describe the research design and treatment development. Case material is presented to illustrate the treatment content and format.
This review aims to produce a comprehensive, parsimonious, and empirically based model of male psychological distress from the perspective of cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) that may apply in the majority of clinical situations involving men in Britain and possibly elsewhere.
This paper reviews studies that pertain to male psychological distress. Studies are selected via examination of the literatures around men's psychological health. Criteria for inclusion of studies are direct and indirect relevance to male distress. Studies are examined on the basis of their possible contribution to a comprehensive yet critical model of male functioning, and are grouped according to their neurological, developmental, and cultural origins.
The review suggests that certain factors inform the psychological presentation of males across disorders, and can help predict therapy-interfering behaviours and outcomes. A transdiagnostic model of male distress emerges from existing data and theory containing the hypothesized reflection abandonment mechanism (RAM) that helps account for characteristic male externalizing and therapy-interfering behaviours.
Existing data and theory can be synthesized to produce a cognitive behavioural model of male distress that adds value to case conceptualizations regardless of the disorder involved, and has predictive value regarding men's access to and engagement with psychological services.
Cognitive approaches to social anxiety focus on a person's tendency to make biased judgments for threat-relevant stimuli.
This notion was tested relative to whether men's adherence to a toughness male role norm moderates the relation between social
anxiety and biased judgments for negative interpersonal events. For negative interpersonal events not involving male role
norms, results indicated that only social anxiety was related to probability estimates, while for cost estimates there was
a unique association for social anxiety and a significant social anxiety by toughness interaction such that men who were high
in both made greater cost estimates. For events involving explicit male role norms, social anxiety and toughness evidenced
unique relationships with probability estimates. For cost estimates, in addition to unique associations for social anxiety
and toughness, there was a significant interaction, which showed that men high in both characteristics gave the highest cost
ratings.
The extent to which prejudicial views of both genders influence college students' clinical evaluations was investigated. Primarily White and working-class students listened to 1 of 4 audiotapes of either a male or a female actor with identical major or minor psychological problems. Participants selected 1 of 4 intervention levels (no intervention, workshops/seminars, counselor, or psychiatrist) for the actor and for themselves if they were to experience the actor's problems. The results indicated that both actor gender and participant gender influenced intervention choice. Participants, especially men, tended to select a higher intervention level for the actor than for themselves. These findings are congruent with the self-serving biases exhibited in therapeutic contexts and support the position that gender affects clinical decisions.
Research examining psychosocial functioning in African American prostate cancer survivors has been limited, in spite of documented higher mortality from prostate cancer and worse long-term physical and emotional outcomes from prostate cancer treatment reported by this group of survivors. In addition, the role of masculinity in psychosocial adjustment among prostate cancer survivors is not well understood. In this study, 59 African American prostate cancer survivors completed a questionnaire assessing masculinity beliefs related to self-reliance, emotional control, and dominance, as well as measures of psychosocial functioning (i.e., symptom distress, negative mood, and functional and social well-being). Results of regression analyses indicated that masculinity beliefs predicted negative mood, functional well-being, and social well-being, controlling for age, income, and medical comorbidities. The findings reported here, although preliminary, suggest that masculinity beliefs could be important therapeutic targets for improving the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral interventions for men adjusting to prostate cancer survivorship.
The authors hypothesized that men would report using psychological defenses to the degree they self-reported masculine gender role conflict. One hundred fifteen men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale, the Defense Style Questionnaire, and the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Canonical correlations indicated that men experiencing greater rigidity about being successful, powerful, and competitive; expressing emotions; and expressing affection to other men used more immature psychological defenses and some degree of neurotic defenses. More specifically, these men tended to use defenses of turning against object and projection and tended not to use principalization and reversal. The discussion focuses on the effects of male gender role strain, implications for treatment, limitations, and future research.
Although research on men's gender role conflict reveals that it adversely affects men's psychological health and interpersonal relationships, psychotherapists typically underuse knowledge of masculine gender roles in psychological assessment and treatment. Interpersonal psychotherapy is proposed as a useful framework for working with men whose rigid enactment of traditional male gender roles leads to intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict (i.e., gender role conflict). Thus, this article integrates knowledge of male gender role conflict and interpersonal psychotherapy to examine issues that men who experience gender role conflict bring to their important interpersonal relationships and the therapeutic relationship.
The purpose of the study was to examine men's gender role conflict in relation to self-rated behavior on the Interpersonal Circle. One hundred and one, mostly single and Caucasian, college-aged men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and the Checklist of Interpersonal Transactions-Revised (CLOIT-R). Canonical analyses indicated that two significant roots accounted for 34% of the variance. The first root found success/power/competition to be related to controlling and rigid interpersonal behavior; and the second root found Restrictive Emotionality and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men to be related to hostile and rigid interpersonal behavior. The discussion focuses on implications for interpersonal relationships and psychotherapy for men who rigidly enact stereotypical male gender roles.
Only a small proportion of people who experience psychological distress seek professional psychological help. Treatment fearfulness is one of a number of factors thought to influence people's tendency to seek or avoid mental health treatment. The aim of the present study was to provide additional validity information on the Thoughts About Therapy Survey (TAPS) (Kushner & Sher, 1989), and to determine whether fear of therapy and psychological distress were predictive of help-seeking. A non-clinical student sample completed measures of their treatment fears, expectations, anxiety, psychological distress and help-seeking likelihood. Concurrent and construct validity was confirmed for TAPS. Image Concerns, Stigma Concerns, Coercion Concerns and psychological distress were related to the likelihood that subjects would seek professional psychological help. Results are discussed in relation to educational approaches for reducing treatment fearfulness and the potential for increasing appropriate professional help-seeking.
This study explored relations between young men's masculine role conflicts and perceptions of relationships with their parents. Data on gender role conflict, masculine role stress, parental attachment, and conflict with parents were collected from 195 undergraduate men at 2 state universities. Consistent with contemporary theoretical literature, results of a canonical correlation analysis suggested that, in general, men's perceptions of more secure, positive, and conflict-free relationships with both fathers and mothers were related to a lesser degree of masculine role conflicts and stresses. Conversely, in 1 variate pair, perceptions of more secure, positive, and conflict-free relationships with parents, especially with mothers, were linked to more masculine role concern regarding success and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors hypothesized that men would report using psychological defenses to the degree they self-reported masculine gender role conflict. One hundred fifteen men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale, the Defense Style Questionnaire, and the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Canonical correlations indicated that men experiencing greater rigidity about being successful, powerful, and competitive; expressing emotions; and expressing affection to other men used more immature psychological defenses and some degree of neurotic defenses. More specifically, these men tended to use defenses of turning against object and projection and tended not to use principalization and reversal. The discussion focuses on the effects of male gender role strain, implications for treatment, limitations, and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In an integrative review of the relevant literature, it is proposed that fears and concerns surrounding the seeking and consumption of mental health services can serve as a barrier to obtaining appropriate psychological help. The article gives an overview of potentially fear-evoking aspects of help seeking and consumption, reviews empirical literature that links treatment fears to service-seeking behavior, and provides an examination of person, population, and clinic variables that relate to specific aspects of various treatment fears. Approaches aimed at circumventing or reducing treatment fears in both the community and clinic are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the relationships between attitudes toward the male role, gender role conflict factors, and depression in 401 male undergraduates. All 4 factors of gender role conflict (success, power, and competition; restrictive emotionality; restrictive affectionate behavior between men; and conflicts between work and family relations) were significantly related to depression. For college men, restrictive emotionality may represent a compounded risk: an increased likelihood of depression coupled with a decreased use of psychological services. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined 2 constructs pertaining to the male gender role (gender role and gender-role conflict) in relation to a broad range of indices of psychological well-being. 190 male undergraduates completed 7 instruments assessing the male role constructs and measures of psychological well-being. The scores on the Gender Role Conflict Scale (J. M. O'Neil et al; see record
1987-09215-001) were not related to masculinity scores but were related to femininity scores. In addition, the results revealed that gender-role conflict was negatively related to almost all of the measures of psychological well-being. Finally, a canonical analysis revealed at least 2 independent sources of covariation in the well-being and gender-role constructs: traditional well-being and affiliative well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined gender role conflict in college-aged and middle-aged men. 88 college-aged men and 89 middle-aged men completed 5 measures that assess gender role conflict and psychological well-being. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that, compared with college-aged men, middle-aged men were less conflicted about success, power, and competition, but were more conflicted between work and family responsibilities. Canonical analysis indicated two significant roots between (a) gender role conflict and psychological well-being and (b) age group, gender role conflict, and psychological well-being. The discussion focuses on implications for counseling, limitations, and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two distinct deficits in research on male gender role conflict are addressed: (a) lack of psychometric information and (b) lack of research involving clinical samples. First, using 1,043 men across 3 samples, the psychometric properties of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) were examined through confirmatory factor analyses, internal consistency estimation, and construct validation. Next, using 130 male university counseling center clients across 2 samples, the relation between gender role conflict and psychological distress was examined. The GRCS demonstrated good internal consistency and was best modeled as 4 intercorrelated factors, as originally proposed by J. M. O'Neil, B. Helms, R. Gable, L. David, and L. Wrightsman (1986). Construct validity was supported through correlations with attitudes about masculinity, fear of intimacy, and social desirability in expected directions. However, reservations about the Conflicts Between Work and Family Relations subscale are noted. Male gender role conflict was significantly related to psychological distress, with the Restrictive Emotionality subscale being the best predictor of distress level. Implications for mental health practice and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Gender schema theory proposes that the phenomenon of sex typing derives, in part, from gender-based schematic processing— a generalized readiness to process information on the basis of the sex-linked associations that constitute the gender schema. In particular, the theory proposes that sex typing results from the fact that the self-concept itself is assimilated in the gender schema. Several studies are described, including 2 experiments with 96 male and 96 female undergraduates, that demonstrate that sex-typed individuals do, in fact, have a greater readiness to process information—including information about the self—in terms of the gender schema. It is speculated that such gender-based schematic processing derives, in part, from the society's ubiquitous insistence on the functional importance of the gender dichotomy. The political implications of gender schema theory and its relationship to the concept of androgyny are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The relationship between gender role conflict factors and psychological distress was investigated in a sample of men seeking services from a university counseling center. Ninety-nine men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale and the Brief Symptom Inventory. Structural equation modeling indicated that gender role conflict predicted psychological distress. More specifically, simultaneous multiple regression equations revealed that striving for success, power, and competition was related positively to hostility; restrictive affectionate behavior between men was related positively to social discomfort; and conflict between work and family was related positively to hostility, social discomfort, and obsessive-compulsiveness. Implications for counseling, suggestions for future research, and limitations of the study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Alexithymia involves problems differentiating affective states such as fear, sadness, or anger; difficulty expressing feelings; and a tendency to rely on external cues rather than internal experience for making decisions. This study examined alexithymia as a possible mediator by which dysfunctional family environment in childhood affects adult clients' attachment relationship to their therapist. Clients (
N = 61) completed measures of dysfunctional family structure (Family Structure Survey), alexithymia (Toronto Alexithymia Scale), and their counseling relationship (Client Attachment to Therapist Scale). Findings suggest that fear of separation was associated with both alexithymia and poor client attachment to therapist. Parent–child role reversal was associated with problems in identifying feelings. Role reversal and marital conflict were both associated with problems in client attachment to therapist. Results suggest that alexithymia may be a significant mediator of the relationship between family dysfunction and client attachment to therapist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered a research questionnaire to 3 groups of married couples (19 violent couples, 7 nonviolent couples in marital therapy, and 24 nonviolent couples not in therapy) to identify characteristics of violent couples. Violent Ss were engaged in counseling for wife battery. Results show that alcohol was the most significant factor operating in violent marriages. Violent couples were also found to have significantly more stereotyped sex-role attitudes, more aggressive and passive behaviors, less marital satisfaction, and a greater degree of dissatisfaction with decision making in the family. Violent couples usually witnessed more violence in their childhood homes. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study investigated the attributions and affective responses of high Masculine Gender Role Stress (MGRS) men when their female partner's behavior served as a threat to their masculinity in situations that were MG relevant or irrelevant. College men who scored high or low on the MGRS scale listened to audiotaped vignettes of hypothetical situations involving dating partners. The vignettes depicted MG relevant or irrelevant situations in which the female partner's behavior served to threaten or not threaten the man's masculinity in the relationship. After each vignette, measures were obtained on negative attributions, negative affect, and the endorsement of verbal and physical aggression toward the woman. Results showed that threatening female partner behavior yielded significantly more negative attributions, negative affect, and endorsement of verbal aggression from men in MG relevant situations than irrelevant situations. Relative to low MGRS men, high MGRS men reported more negative attributions and negative affect and endorsed more verbal aggression toward threatening than toward nonthreatening partner behavior. Results suggest a model that relates MG role ideology, stress, and situational variables to the cognitive and affective precursors of abusive male behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
S. L. Bem (see PA, Vol 66:00000) proposes that the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) measures individual differences in a unidimensional construct in addition to 2 independent dimensions, global self-concepts of masculinity and femininity. Evidence suggests that the BSRI measures primarily self-images of instrumental and expressive personality traits and that these trait clusters show little or no relationship to global self-images of masculinity and femininity or to unidimensional constructs such as the tendency to utilize gender schemata. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although research on men's gender role conflict reveals that it adversely affects men's psychological health and interpersonal relationships, psychotherapists typically underuse knowledge of masculine gender roles in psychological assessment and treatment. Interpersonal psychotherapy is proposed as a useful framework for working with men whose rigid enactment of traditional male gender roles leads to intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict (i.e., gender role conflict). Thus, this article integrates knowledge of male gender role conflict and interpersonal psychotherapy to examine issues that men who experience gender role conflict bring to their important interpersonal relationships and the therapeutic relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
we propose that changes in socioemotional distance between the man and his wife can serve as aversive instigators of wife assault
our thesis is that an understanding of the interplay of power dynamics on issues of intimacy can provide an explanatory framework to deepen our understanding of relationship specific assault
power issues / intimacy anxiety
videotape studies / three groups of men were compared (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated stereotypes of counseling center clients and examined how these preconceptions influence social interaction. 136 undergraduates, told they were participating in a study of the acquaintance process in social interactions, were randomly assigned to be perceivers or targets. Ss engaged in a brief getting-acquainted conversation. Targets were randomly assigned to conditions in which perceivers were told that their conversational partner, the target, had been recruited either from among students seeking psychological therapy (clients) or from students in introductory psychology courses (nonclients). As was predicted, perceivers rated clients less favorably than they did nonclients before they interacted. Futhermore, consistent with previous research on the self-fulfilling prophecy, judges' ratings of the interactions revealed that perceivers behaved more negatively toward clients than toward nonclients, and clients came to behave in a less socially desirable manner than did nonclients. It is suggested that fear of rejection that makes people reluctant to seek psychological therapy appears to be justified. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors used structural equation modeling to test a theoretically based, fully mediated model in which masculine gender roles influence vocational interests that, in turn, influence the traditionality of career choice for men. The authors also tested a competing partially mediated model that included an additional direct effect of masculine gender roles on career choice traditionality. Participants were 212 male undergraduate and graduate students representing 51 different majors. Results indicated that the direct relation between masculine gender roles and career choice traditionality was nonsignificant; however, vocational interests mediated the relation between these variables, thus providing support for the fully mediated model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Both informal observation and considerable data confirm that men are less likely to seek psychotherapy than are women. This study examines the possibility that this reluctance to seek help (1) is related to traditional gender role socialization and (2) can be lessened by offering counseling interventions that are more congruent with that socialization. 435 male Ss were recruited from 23 intact classes of 1 university and 2 community college campuses. Predictors of positive attitudes toward traditional counseling included comparatively high social scores on a personality measure. Predictors of negative attitudes toward personal counseling included high scores on various masculinity measures. The study also indicated that men with more highly masculine attitudes preferred alternative helping formats over traditional ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested theory that adherence to the traditional male gender role and help-seeking attitudes and behaviors are related. Ss were 401 undergraduate men who completed measures of help-seeking attitudes and behaviors, attitudes toward the stereotypic male role, and gender role conflict factors (i.e., success/power/competition, restrictive emotionality, and restrictive affectionate behavior between men). Canonical analysis and regression indicated that traditional attitudes about the male role, concern about expressing emotions, and concern about expressing affection toward other men were each significantly related to negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological assistance. Restrictive emotionality also significantly predicted decreased past help-seeking behavior and decreased likelihood of future help seeking. The implications of these results for theory, research, and counseling practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Psychological theories have long emphasized the roles of emotions in healthy functioning and in psychotherapy. However, the masculine socialization process has been hypothesized to encourage men to devalue and restrict much of their emotional experiencing (e.g., Brannon, 1976; Levant, 1992; O'Neil, 1981). This study of 208 men used two operationalizations of traditional masculine gender role socialization and found evidence that men reporting greater gender role conflict also acknowledged greater levels of alexithymia and fear of intimacy, even after controlling for socially desirable responding. Implications for psychotherapy and for future theory and research are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this study, the authors hypothesized that men's own gender role strain and estimates of their fathers' gender role strain, would be associated with less attachment to, and more psychological separation from, their parents. Two hundred four college students completed the Gender-Role Conflict Scale, the Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale, the Parental Attachment Questionnaire, and the Psychological Separation Inventory. Results indicate that (a) men who perceived their fathers as having less gender role conflict and stress, and who viewed themselves with somewhat less gender role conflict, reported closer attachments to both parents and that (b) men who experienced lower levels of gender role conflict and stress, and who perceived their fathers experienced lower levels of gender role stress, reported less psychological separation from both parents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Fear of emotions is hypothesized to be a primary reason for individuals' negative attitudes toward seeking psychological treatment. This study examined the effects of emotional openness and other potential predictors of attitudes toward seeking psychological help in a sample of 311 college students. Results of simultaneous multiple regression analyses indicated that gender (male), perception of stigma, discomfort with emotions, and lower psychological distress accounted for 25% of variance in attitudes toward seeking psychological help. The implications of the findings and recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of public education efforts are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a 4-quadrant model that differentiates between the effects of sex and gender roles on the therapy process. Theory and research findings in this area can be conceptualized in terms of statements regarding the sex or gender role of the client or the counselor. The literature on the sex and gender role pairings of clients and counselors is reviewed from this 4-quadrant perspective. It is concluded that while sex and gender roles exert at least a moderate effect on the therapy process, definitive conclusions on these effects have yet to be reached. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the relationship of male gender role conflict (GRC) to attitudes about feminism and matters of attachment and separation/individuation. The Gender Role Conflict Scale, Attitudes Toward Feminism Scale, Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, and Separation-Individuation Inventory were administered to 172 male college students. On the basis of the correlational results, expected relationships were found between GRC and attitudes toward women, attachment to father and mother, and issues of separation/individuation; on the basis of the canonical results, men who held less stereotypical views about women and who were less emotionally restrictive were found to experience less differentiation and relationship problems. Drawing on psychoanalytic theory, the meaning of the findings are discussed, and some possible therapy implications are considered.
This study examined male therapists' gender role conflict, client sexual orientation, and client emotional expression as they interrelated with clinical judgments about male clients. Using a series of written clinical vignettes to manipulate the client variables of sexual orientation and emotional expression, 196 experienced male therapists completed a measure of male gender role conflict, read a clinical vignette varying the client's sexual orientation and emotional expression, and rated the client on several clinical dimensions. Canonical analysis revealed 2 roots indicating that therapist gender role conflict factors, in combination with client sexual orientation and emotional expression, were associated with therapists' ratings of the male client's prognosis and how much therapists liked, had empathy for, had comfort with, and had willingness to see the male client. Implications for counseling practice, limitations, and future research are discussed.
This study examined gender role conflict in college-aged and middle-aged men. Eighty-eight college-aged men and 89 middle-aged men completed 5 measures that assess gender role conflict and psychological well-being. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that, compared with college-aged men, middle-aged men were less conflicted about success, power, and competition, but were more conflicted between work and family responsibilities. Canonical analysis indicated two significant roots between (a) gender role conflict and psychological well-being and (b) age group, gender role conflict, and psychological well-being. The discussion focuses on implications for counseling, limitations, and future research.
A New Psychology of Men. Ronald F. Levant & William S. Pollack (Eds.). New York: Basic Books. 1995. 402 pp. Hardcover ISBN 0-46508656-X. $40.00. There was a time when male psychology was seen as the model of health, and female psychology was seen as pathological. Assertive, active masculinity was contrasted with passive, dependent femininity. But those days are gone. As Pollack (1995) states, "The monuments built of men, by men, and for men are tumbling.... Even their virtues are suspected as vices." Although the pace of change is slow, men's roles at home and at work are being redefined, and the psychology of men-how they develop and how they function psychologically as adults-is also changing. Perhaps the rate of change in men's roles crossed a threshold in the 1990s, triggering a surge of new interest in men's needs, their responsibilities, and the roles they have entered in post-industrial, post-feminist, post-modern America. For example, the 1995 Million Man March in Washington, DC, brought attention to African American men, along with a public debate about their roles in families, the economy, and the community. Several national conferences have made fatherhood the central focus for the year. National debates have centered on the responsibilities of single and divorced fathers, as well as the rights of gay men. Robert Bly's Men's Movement continues to attract new warriors, despite the attacks by critics. On many fronts, men and women are actively redefining what it means to be male. To understand the changes in men and to become current with some of the most solid research programs aimed at both the old style masculinity and the emerging new psychology of men, Levant and Pollack's edited volume is essential reading. It is a readable collection of theoretical papers on male development and psychological functioning, reviews of research on men, clinical approaches to men's changing roles, as well as analyses of the diverse developmental experiences of minority males. The papers present a refreshing social-scientific approach to men's roles, without the ideological cliches of either radical feminists or neo-masculinists. The chapters document a 15-year program of theory development, research, and applications spawned by Joseph Pleck's (1981) gender rolestrain paradigm. Pleck's theory was one of the earliest attempts to integrate the emerging critical views of traditional male roles, and it laid the groundwork for the social constructionist perspectives on gender roles that emerged in the 1980s. He argued that the traditional ideals of masculinity-which include the demands for achievement, aggressiveness, toughness, sexual prowess, and psychological autonomy-were bad for men's health. First, the standards were inconsistent with human needs and were so unachievable that many men felt they never lived up to them. Second, in trying to live up to the self-destructive standards, many boys and young men went through traumatizing experiences that damaged them psychologically. …
A questionnaire probing experiences with abuse between dating partners, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (1974) were administered to 171 college students. It was hypothesized that more traditionally masculine males (as identified by the Bem Sex Role Inventory) would be more likely to report having abused dating partners than would those males who were less clearly sex-typed. Further, it was hypothesized that those women who were more clearly traditionally feminine would be less likely to report having been abused in a dating relationship than would those women who were less clearly sex-typed. Both hypotheses were supported.
For the past twelve years I've lived with the relational model, watching as Janet Surrey, every other Monday night, went off to her "meeting at Jean's house," and sitting in these lecture halls watching this revolutionary work grow. It takes a long time for this theory to sink in, to grasp what is meant by "the relationship," "relational mutuality," and the "move-ment of relationship." As I began to understand, I had that sense of relief and joy, thinking, "This is true." And in the same way that for women, traditional theories of human development, in the light of women's experience, seemed false and lacking, these same theories started to seem false to much of men's experience as I knew it. Three years ago, Janet and I began to offer workshops — "New Visions of the Female-Male Relationship: Creativity and Empower-ment" — and I began to try to apply a relational approach to male psychological development. This led to my being asked to present my work here tonight. My purpose is not to look at all aspects of men's development, but to look at men's development in relationship, from a relational perspective. This work is based on my own experience — that of a middle-class, white, privileged, heterosexual American male — and has limits intrinsic to this viewpoint. In describing general themes in men's experience, I do not imply them true for all men. I will be using what I have learned in almost twenty years as a psychiatrist, treating men, women, and couples, and using the data from our workshops, as well as from my teaching at medical schools, my writing of novels and plays, and, of course, my relationship with Jean Baker Miller, Irene Stiver, Judy Jordan, and Sandy Kaplan. Those of you familiar with Janet Surrey's work will hear her voice in much of what follows. Jean Baker Miller, in a 1983 working paper titled, "The Construction of Anger in Women and Men," used my first novel, The House of God, the story About the Author Stephen J. Bergman, M.D., Ph.D., is Clinical Instructor in Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and Assistant Attending Psychiatrist at McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts. Under the pen-name of "Samuel Shem," he is the author of the novels, The House of God and Fine, and of several plays. With Janet L. Surrey, Ph.D., he has co-authored Bill W. and Dr. Bob, a historical drama about the founding of Alcoholics Anonymous. Abstract Current theories of male psychological development emphasize the primary importance of the "self" and fail to describe the whole of men's experience in relationship. Men as well as women are motivated by a primary desire for connection, and it is less accurate and useful to think of "self" than "self-in-relation" as a process. As with women, the sources of men's misery are in disconnections, viola-tions, and dominances, and in participating in relationships which are not mutually empowering. However, the specifics of men's development differ in several important ways.
This paper considers the fact that the literature on childrearing has traditionally not dealt with children's emotional processes. Developmental research has moved from a focus on permissive vs. authoritarian parenting attitudes toward a concern with promoting competence and coping skills in children; the prevention literature on effective parenting has been from a behavioral management or communication skills perspective. The argument is presented here that children's emotional expressiveness is a natural coping mechanism which serves a positive function in the prevention of psychopathology and the promotion of mental health, and that mental health professionals need to begin incorporating this information both into the primary prevention literature and training programs in effective parenting.
In 1978 the Division of Counseling Psychology of the American Psychological Association (APA) approved the Principles Concerning the Counseling and Psychotherapy of Women as an official policy statement for the Division. These Principles, subsequently endorsed by Divisions 16,29, and 35, have also served as a general resource document for the APA, and are cited as a resource in the Guidelines for the Provision of Counseling Psychological Services (APA, 1983).
Almost from the inception of the Principles, the Division 17 Committee on Women, which authored them, had anticipated the need for an extensive exposition of each principle, to guide psychologists seeking to implement both their spirit and their content. Thus, the present document, which presents the background and rationale for each principle as well as suggestions for implementation, was born. The result of over 5 years of work, the document has been extensively reviewed, revised, and again reviewed-not only by the committee and its various resource and support persons but also by psychologists from all across the country, both within and without Division 17. The process of cooperation, incorporation, and revision has been both frustrating and inspiring, as we worked to produce a document that could stand as a guide to our science and our profession for at least a decade. The final version was approved by the Division 17 Executive Committee at its 1984 midyear meeting.
This document is the product of literally hundreds of women (and men) who have contributed time, thought, and effort over nearly half a decade to bring this project to fruition, and thus, to contribute to the welfare of women everywhere. Although it bears our names, we are intensely aware that it is truly a cooperative product of the committee, the division, and ultimately, our profession as a whole.
The present study was designed to examine the relationship between husbands' violence and desired and perceived control. Seventy-two married men completed questionnaires assessing self-esteem, desirability of control, and perceived personal and interpersonal control. Logistic regression analyses revealed a significant three-way interaction among desirability of control, perceived personal control, and self-esteem. Further examination indicated two subgroups of men at high risk for engaging in domestic violence: 1) men low on self-esteem, low on desirability of control, and low on perceived personal control; and 2) men high on self-esteem, high on desirability of control, but low on perceived personal control. Treatment implications of the type of abusers are discussed.
It is proposed that masculine gender role socialization affects whether men appraise specific situations as stressful. Behavioral research on stress and coping has remained relatively blind to the possibility of significant gender role differences in appraising events as stressful. Therefore, a new scale was developed to measure masculine gender role stress (MGRS). Data were presented to substantiate hypotheses that MGRS scores (1) significantly distinguish men from women, (2) are unrelated to global measures of sex-typed masculinity, and (3) are significantly associated with at least two measures of self-reported stress (i.e., anger and anxiety). Stressful situations represented on the MGRS scale include cognitive, behavioral, and environmental events associated with the male gender role. Factor analysis demonstrates that these concerns cluster in five particular domains reflecting physical inadequacy, emotional inexpressiveness, subordination to women, intellectual inferiority, and performance failures involving work and sex. The findings are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioral concepts of stress and coping.
To work effectively with male clients, mental health professionals must learn how to reach men and make the therapeutic process meaningful for clients who are, more often than not, stubbornly opposed to therapy.
The New Handbook of Psychotherapy and Counseling with Men is a compilation of information on the most current theories, research, effective treatment programs, techniques, and strategies for working compassionately and successfully with the often resistant or mandated male client. This 2-volume resource is written by an exceptional group of mental health professionals who draw on their real-life experiences of working with men facing problems in a variety of settings and circumstances. It gives clinicians the practical solutions and proven techniques they need for addressing some of men's most common problems, including depression, drug and alcohol abuse and addiction, divorce, male aggression and violence, and sexual dysfunction. It also shows how to counsel boys and men in a wide variety of circumstances and includes techniques for working with school-aged clients, businessmen, court-ordered clients, college students, prisoners, and others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Provides an overview of male gender roles, their implications for men's health, and suggestions for future research and interventions. The authors describe theories and measurement of masculinity-related constructs, then discuss desirable and adverse implications of men's conceptions of masculinity. Influences of masculine gender roles on men's health are formed through cultural messages, such as (1) "Be tough and restrict emotions," (2) "Be competitive and successful," (3) "Be aggressive, fearless, and invulnerable," (4) "Be independent," (5) and "Be a stud." The role of advertising in promoting problematic conceptions of masculinity is also discussed. Developmental issues across the life span are described in terms of health-related psychosocial stressors. Future directions in research include (1) developing healthier conceptions of masculinity, (2) supporting men in examining their attitudes and behaviors affecting their health, (3) increasing awareness of men's health as an important social issue, and (4) increasing positive incentives for good health practices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Integrates the principles of feminist therapy with recent knowledge of both female and male gender from theories and research and suggests a new means for conceptualizing therapy, gender aware therapy (GAT). The roots and principles of GAT are discussed. The stages of GAT (problem conceptualization, therapeutic interventions, and termination) are outlined, along with applications of GAT for women, men, and couples and families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Most men are trained from earliest childhood to suppress emotional distress, avoid the subtle signals of interpersonal conflicts, experience humiliation at the 1st hint of failure, and most of all, resist asking for help. This book presents a therapeutic model for working with men who are resistant to traditional therapy. This model reconsiders the clinician's previous comfort zone of a solid barrier between client and therapist and rethinks ideas about a rigid boundary between therapy and the larger culture.
Intended for both clinician and client, the author discusses the process in which they share the discovery of common problems rooted in cultural expectations. By talking openly about the culture and stresses of masculinity, men come to realize their problems are not unique nor the result of personal failures. They develop connections with other men and enjoy mutual support and a joint commitment toward change. The author shows how to channel this enthusiasm into positive cognitive, behavioral, and relationship changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)