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Inattentive and contented: Relationship commitment and attention to alternatives
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Abstract
Commitment to a relationship is affected by the quality of one's alternatives to that partnership, but one must be aware of those alternatives in order for them to be influential. In a study of the links between attention to one's alternatives and relational outcomes, participants described their relationships, inspected slides of attractive opposite-sex targets, and, 2 months later, reported whether their relationships had ended. Satisfaction with, investment in, commitment to, and adjustment in a dating relationship were negatively correlated with reports of vigilance toward desirable alternatives to that relationship. In the lab, those who had earlier claimed to be attentive to alternatives really did spend more time inspecting pictures of attractive opposite-sex targets. Moreover, there was no better predictor of relationship failure than high attentiveness to alternatives. Inattentiveness may be a maintenance mechanism that helps to preserve and protect desirable relationships. Even if the grass is greener on the other side of the fence, happy gardeners will be less likely to notice.
... Conference Board, 2022). 2 We reasoned that if it is harder to find jobs during recessions and employees are aware of this difficulty, then alternative jobs should be less salient during these times. Indeed, alternatives are typically only salient when they are both desirable and within reach (e.g., Miller, 1997). ...
... Salience of alternatives. Salience of alternatives was measured using Miller's (1997) 6-item Attention to Alternatives Index. Since the original scale was designed to assess the salience of alternative romantic partners, we adapted the scale to measure the salience of other possible jobs. ...
... Salience of Alternatives (Adapted from Miller, 1997) 1) I often think about other job opportunities 2) I think about interviewing for other jobs without telling my current employer 3) I'm interested in exploring other job opportunities 4) I plan to talk to other employers without telling my current employer 5) I rarely think about other job opportunities (reverse scored) ...
While recessions have many adverse consequences for individuals and organizations, we propose that they may have positive implications for job satisfaction. We argue that during bad economic times, alternative jobs will be less salient, and people will evaluate their own jobs more positively. We test these predictions across three studies. Study 1 (N = 23,335) utilizes a large cross-sectional survey of working American adults collected over four decades and finds that worse economic times are associated with higher job satisfaction. Study 2 (N = 12,859) replicates this result using a large longitudinal survey of British adults and finds that even within the same individuals, job satisfaction rises and falls with the economy. Finally, Study 3 (N = 568) utilizes an experimental design and finds that bad economic conditions reduce the salience of alternative jobs, which mediates the relationship between economic conditions and job satisfaction. While past work has shown that job satisfaction is influenced by situational features within the workplace, the current findings suggest that contextual conditions outside the workplace can also affect how people affectively evaluate their jobs.
... In Study 3, we tested this hypothesis and examined whether the predictive power of UIA on wanting to interact with the target is associated with perceived similarity and perceived attractiveness to the same extent. Because research has shown that individual differences in the attentiveness to others are associated with greater interest in wanting to meet them (Miller, 1997), in this study we further controlled for the impact of this variable in our analyses. ...
... Fourth, as a control measure, participants were asked to indicate their attentiveness to other people (six items; a ¼ .81; sample item: "I am distracted by other people that I find attractive", 1 ¼ Rarely, 7 ¼ Frequently; Miller, 1997). ...
... There is also evidence that gay men are more sexually unrestricted than lesbian women (Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007), and that gay men have greater variability in their mating strategies than heterosexual men (Howard & Perilloux, 2016). In Study 3, we also showed that our results were independent of the general attentiveness to others, a variable also associated with mating strategies (Miller, 1997). It is important to note that in our studies we asked participants to examine the photo of a target, without giving them specific mating goals. ...
Although perceived attractiveness has consistently been shown to influence interpersonal attraction, perceiving another person as more similar to oneself is also highly important for attraction. We examine how both perceptions impact unilateral initial attraction (UIA), defined as a positive reaction following the perception of an unknown target within minimal information settings. In three studies, we examine this phenomenon in a social networking site scenario, by asking participants to imagine they were browsing such a site. In Study 1, participants reported greater UIA for an attractive target, and this effect was partially mediated by perceived similarity. In Study 2, participants reported greater UIA for a target neutral in attractiveness, after being conceptually primed with similarity. This effect was mediated by perceived attractiveness. In Study 3, both perceived similarity and perceived attractiveness were associated with increases in UIA, which in turn was associated with greater interest to interact with a target neutral in attractiveness. These novel findings show the importance of perceived similarity for UIA and the importance of this phenomenon for online interactions. We conclude by discussing general implications for online social activities, specifically relationship development.
... High attentiveness to alternative partners is an inqjortant predictor of relationship failure. Miller (1997) found that attention to alternatives, in the context of several measures of commitment, was best able to predict relationship termination. Also, altemative monitoring mediated the relationship between different measures of commitment and relationship adjustment and closeness (Miller, 1997). ...
... Miller (1997) found that attention to alternatives, in the context of several measures of commitment, was best able to predict relationship termination. Also, altemative monitoring mediated the relationship between different measures of commitment and relationship adjustment and closeness (Miller, 1997). Moreover, individuals who pay attention to other desirable partners are also more likely to later become emotionally and physically unfaithful to their dating partners (Drigotas et al., 1999). ...
... The hierarchical regression analysis was conducted in two steps. In step 1 (Model 1 in Table 2), the gender of the participants was entered as a control variable, as suggested by previous research (Miller, 1997;Stanley & Markman, 1992). In step 2 (Model 2 in Table 2), the six variables identified in the correlation analyses described above were entered into the regression analysis. ...
This study examined the predictors of alternative monitoring - of potential romantic partners - using a sample of 76 people in committed dating relationships. Results showed that love, trust, satisfaction, dedication commitment, and social-network influences correlated with alternative monitoring, but participants' personality characteristics did not. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that ambivalence about the partner and the relationship, the ease of finding another partner if the current relationship ended, and reported levels of commitment predicted alternative monitoring in the context of relationship satisfaction, social network influence, perceptions of partner's conscientiousness, and gender.
... Another large body of research in the evolutionary tradition has documented that people (especially men) tend to desire and pursue short-term sexual relationships, and both sexes have the potential to be unfaithful when in a committed relationship, particularly if an attractive alternative mate is obtainable (Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Ellis & Symons, 1990; Greiling & Buss, 2000; Kenrick, Sadalla, Groth, & Trost, 1990 ). These findings appear to be at odds with research within the close relationships tradition documenting that people are often motivated to protect their current relationships from the lure of attractive alternative partners, often going to great lengths to maintain their partnerships ( Johnson & Rusbult, 1989; Miller, 1997; Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 1996a, 1996b Rusbult, Van Lange, Wildschut, Yovetich, & Verette, 2000; Simpson, Gangestad, & Lerma, 1990). These contradictory findings may result in part from the biased exploration of the " space " of relationship phenomena associated with each perspective. ...
... These studies used self-report measures to assess individuals' feelings about alternatives, so participants in committed relationships could have been underreporting their actual attraction to desirable alternatives. But other studies have also revealed derogation of alternatives using indirect dependent variables , such as reduced nonconscious mimicry of an alternative partner (Karremans & Verwijmeren, 2008), time spent looking at alternatives (Linardatos & Lydon, 2011; Maner, Gailliot, & Miller, 2009; Maner, Rouby, & Gonzaga, 2008; Plant, Kunstman, & Maner, 2010 ), and the tendency to direct attention away from attractive alternatives (which predicts a lower likelihood of breakups; Miller, 1997). Furthermore, several studies have found that the derogation effect is stronger if the alternative is more physically attractive ( Johnson & Rusbult, 1989; Maner et al., 2008; Plant et al., 2010). ...
... The adaptive workaround perspective primarily highlights how relationship features such as attachment bond strength could moderate the association of cycle phase with affective and behavioral outcomes linked to relationship maintenance (Eastwick, 2009 ). This moderation hypothesis parallels the relationships literature reviewed above, which has emphasized how certain features of the relationship (e.g., commitment , closeness, marital status) moderate the strength of motivational biases that either protect relationships from threat (e.g., attention to alterna- tives; Johnson & Rusbult, 1989; Karremans & Verwijmeren, 2008; Miller, 1997) or maintain positive biases about the current partner that in turn foster relationship growth and well-being (Murray & Holmes, 1993; Murray et al., 1996a Murray et al., , 1996b Rusbult et al., 2000). Indeed, relationship features such as commitment, closeness, trust, and satisfaction, all of which are relationship quality components (see Fletcher, Simpson, & Thomas, 2000b), correlate highly with attachment bond strength and, thus, may also reflect a strong connection between mating partners that promoted adaptive outcomes when partners' interests aligned in ancestral environments. ...
Relationship researchers and evolutionary psychologists have been studying human mating for decades, but research inspired by these two perspectives often yields fundamentally different images of how people mate. Research in the relationship science tradition frequently emphasizes ways in which committed relationship partners are motivated to maintain their relationships (e.g., by cognitively derogating attractive alternatives), whereas research in the evolutionary tradition frequently emphasizes ways in which individuals are motivated to seek out their own reproductive interests at the expense of their partners' (e.g., by surreptitiously having sex with attractive alternatives). Rather than being incompatible, the frameworks that guide each perspective have different assumptions that can generate contrasting predictions and can lead researchers to study the same behavior in different ways. This paper, which represents the first major attempt to bring the two perspectives together in a cross-fertilization of ideas, provides a framework to understand contrasting effects and guide future research. This framework-the conflict-confluence model-characterizes evolutionary and relationship science perspectives as being arranged along a continuum reflecting the extent to which mating partners' interests are misaligned versus aligned. We illustrate the utility of this model by working to integrate relationship science and evolutionary perspectives on the role of ovulatory shifts in women's mating psychology, highlighting the tension between the desire to maintain or strengthen a bond with a current partner versus seek out extra-pair mates. To underscore the generality and generativity of the model, we also illustrate its application to two additional topics: functional perspectives on the role of subjective relationship quality, and "errors" in judgments of mate value. As scholars work to integrate relationship science and evolutionary approaches on additional topics, the promise of a unitary, functional perspective on human mating comes closer to reality.
... Among more comprehensive studies of anthropology and sociology, psychological phenomena were rather regarded as acts of cultural knowledge, without any explicit reference to individual subjectivity. However individual psychological structures and processes, as well as interpersonal relationships are marked by the cultural context (Miller, 1997). The influence and power systems, which are present in a culture, influence and form the matrixes of cultural life (norms, values, beliefs) that adjust the interpersonal relationships by shaping individual behaviors (Miller, 1997). ...
... However individual psychological structures and processes, as well as interpersonal relationships are marked by the cultural context (Miller, 1997). The influence and power systems, which are present in a culture, influence and form the matrixes of cultural life (norms, values, beliefs) that adjust the interpersonal relationships by shaping individual behaviors (Miller, 1997). ...
This exploratory study aims to identify the life problems that the adolescents face with in Romanian post modern society for their better psychological understanding and an efficient counseiling intervention. The results show that the most important life problems identified by the 406 Romanian teenagers investigated in this research are in order: the money, emotional/psychological,
familial, and health problems.
... Indeed, an abundance of research has revealed that committed partners derogate the temptation of attractive alternatives. For example, highly committed partners tend to perceive others as less attractive than they objectively are (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989;Lydon et al., 1999Lydon et al., , 2003Simpson et al., 1990), spend less time looking at (Miller, 1997) and paying attention to (Maner et al., 2008(Maner et al., , 2009 alternatives, suppress thoughts about alternatives , and selectively recall negative qualities more than positive qualities about alternatives (Visserman & Karremans, 2014). These maintenance mechanisms are also reflected in committed partners' subsequent behavior. ...
... Nevertheless, interdependence theory initially conceptualized attractive alternatives as any alternative that is more desirable than the current romantic relationship, including relationships with friends and family or possibly not having a relationship at all (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). Despite this operationalization, most research on attractive alternatives has focused on alternative romantic partners (Lydon et al., 1999(Lydon et al., , 2003Maner et al., 2008Maner et al., , 2009Miller, 1997;Plant et al., 2010), leaving other forms of alternatives unexplored. While this may be a result of the personal and social value placed on romantic relationships (see Clark & Lemay, 2010), other forms of alternatives-specifically, non-relationship alternatives (i.e., staying single)-are growing in importance. ...
Societal changes over recent decades have drastically transformed the frequency and manner in which people are exposed to attractive alternative relationship partners, arguably resulting in such alternatives posing a greater threat to committed relationships now than ever before. Yet despite a growing need for novel research on attractive alternatives, research on this topic has failed to account for such changes and thus is growing stagnant. Specifically, although interdependence perspectives and supporting research have consistently and robustly demonstrated that (a) attractive alternatives threaten committed relationships and (b) committed partners protect their relationships by devaluing such alternatives, research has yet to examine how the changing nature of attractive alternatives might affect these processes. To this end, the present article first reviews foundational theory and research that guided the study of attractive alternatives and then highlights how recent societal changes (e.g., technology that increases access to attractive alternatives, increasingly diverse relationship types, the emerging desire to remain single) diverge from this research and thus warrant new directions. We encourage researchers to expand how they study attractive alternatives and to ultimately reignite research on this increasingly important topic.
... Single individuals might be motivated to have sporadic sexual encounters (e.g., hooking up), to undertake recurrent casual sexual encounters (e.g., one-night stands) or to have repeated sexual encounters (Jonason, 2013). If so, they adopt a short-term mating strategy and tend to value attributes related to immediate rewards such as physical attractiveness (Regan & Berscheid, 1995,1997Regan,Levin,Sprecher,Scott,&Christopher,2000). In these instances, sociosexuality predicts the frequency of casual sex and the total number of partners (greater among unrestricted individuals) (Ostovich & Sabini, 2004;Penke & Asendorpf, 2008). ...
... When faced with a potential threat to the stability of the relationship, commitment promotes the activation of pro-relationship behaviors (Rusbult & Buunk, 1993). Derogation is one of these behaviors, whereby romantically involved individuals feel less attracted (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989;Simpson, Gangestad, & Lerma, 1990) and spendless time attending to attractive others (Miller, 1997). For instance, although arousal sometimes signals sexual or romantic attraction (Foster, Witcher, Campbell, & Green, 1998), this effect occurs especially for single individuals and not for those in a romantic relationship (Meston & Frohlich, 2003). ...
Sociosexuality refers to a personal predisposition to engage in uncommitted sex. Romantically involved individuals are more likely to engage in infidelity when more unrestricted in their sociosexuality and less committed to their current partners. However, commitment reliably predicts relationship maintenance and the activation of pro-relationship behaviors, regardless of sociosexuality levels. In two studies (Study 1: N = 566 heterosexuals; M
age = 21.24, SD = 4.45; Study 2: N = 168 heterosexuals; M
age = 23.28, SD = 5.60), the association between sociosexuality and commitment was examined. Replicating previous findings, men were more sociosexually unrestricted than women, and single individuals were more sociosexually unrestricted than their romantically involved counterparts (Study 1). Results also showed that more committed individuals were more restricted in their sociosexuality (Studies 1 and 2) and that commitment was negatively associated with physical and sexual attraction to an attractive person, regardless of sociosexuality levels (Study 2). Furthermore, commitment, but not sociosexuality, predicted sexual infidelity in the current relationship and this effect emerged even among sociosexually unrestricted individuals (Studies 1 and 2). No additional gender differences were found across studies. These results converge with findings suggesting that individuals shift their mating strategies and restrict their sociosexuality when in a romantic relationship and that commitment prevents relationship threatening behaviors such as sexual attraction or sexual infidelity.
... According to the one line of evidence, coupled and noncoupled individuals differ in their attentiveness to cues of sexual attractiveness; whereas non-coupled individuals are likely to consider sexual attraction strongly when judging others because they are more actively mate-searching, coupled individuals are less likely to be attentive to cues of sexual attractiveness. Romantically involved subjects were found to spend less time observing attractive opposite-sex individuals (Miller, 1997), pay less visual attention to alternative partners (Maner et al., 2008; Koranyi and Rothermund, 2012), show a lower differentiation between attractive and non-attractive individuals in the visual (Karremans et al., 2011) and olfactory domains (Lundström and Jones-Gotman, 2009), and rate attractiveness of opposite-sex strangers lower than controls (Simpson et al., 1986). Koranyi and Rothermund (2012) conclude that reciprocal romantic interest eliminates the automatic attentional bias toward attractive opposite-sex faces. ...
... In contrast, this effect is diminished in coupled individuals, where other factors, such as potential kinship or friendship, may exert greater influence in facial judgments. Other studies have also found an effect of partnership status on perception of opposite-sex individuals, leading to the conclusion that coupled individuals seem to pay less attention to or derogate cues of sexual attractiveness in others compared to singles (Simpson et al., 1986; Miller, 1997; Maner et al., 2008; Lundström and Jones-Gotman, 2009; Karremans et al., 2011; Koranyi and Rothermund, 2012). As a result, coupled participants are likely to pay relatively more attention to cues of kinship or psychological similarity, of which facial self-resemblance might serve as a marker. ...
Self-resemblance has been found to have a context-dependent effect when expressing preferences for faces. Whereas dissimilarity preference during mate choice in animals is often explained as an evolutionary adaptation to increase heterozygosity of offspring, self-resemblance can be also favored in humans, reflecting, e.g., preference for kinship cues. We performed two studies, using transformations of facial photographs to manipulate levels of resemblance with the rater, to examine the influence of self-resemblance in single vs. coupled individuals. Raters assessed facial attractiveness of other-sex and same-sex photographs according to both short-term and long-term relationship contexts. We found a preference for dissimilarity of other-sex and same-sex faces in single individuals, but no effect of self-resemblance in coupled raters. No effect of sex of participant or short-term vs. long-term attractiveness rating was observed. The results support the evolutionary interpretation that dissimilarity of other-sex faces is preferred by uncoupled individuals as an adaptive mechanism to avoid inbreeding. In contrast, lower dissimilarity preference of other-sex faces in coupled individuals may reflect suppressed attention to attractiveness cues in potential alternative partners as a relationship maintenance mechanism, and its substitution by attention to cues of kinship and psychological similarity connected with greater likelihood of prosocial behavior acquisition from such persons.
... These novel findings are also consistent with extant research on exposure to attractive alternatives (e.g. Miller, 1997 ). Exposure to attractive alternatives is known to decrease commitment to relationships (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989 ) and attention to these alternatives can predict relationship dissolution (Miller, 1997). ...
... Miller, 1997 ). Exposure to attractive alternatives is known to decrease commitment to relationships (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989 ) and attention to these alternatives can predict relationship dissolution (Miller, 1997). Our new findings reveal the specific inputs activating relationship satisfaction mechanisms that undergird these attractive alternative effects. ...
We test a novel evolutionary hypothesis predicting that mate value discrepancies, but not mate preference fulfillment, will regulate relationship satisfaction. Across Study 1 (n=259) and Study 2 (n=300), we employed new
Euclidean measures able to capture preference fulfillment and compute estimates of mate value discrepancies.
Relationship satisfaction was not related to how well mates fulfilled their partner's preferences. Mate value discrepancies, in contrast, interacted to predict relationship satisfaction: relationship satisfaction declined for
participants whose mates were less desirable than their alternatives, but only for participants who were higher
in mate value than their mates. Additionally, these satisfaction differences mediated a relationship between mate value discrepancies and mate retention behavior. This mediation pathway is unique to satisfaction; the same pathway was not observed through trust, a functionally distinct relationship affective state. Study 3 (n = 301) addressed a methodological limitation of Studies 1 and 2.We replicated the mate value discrepancy interaction to predict relationship satisfaction, but found an effect of ideal preference fulfillment on relationship satisfaction. These results provide evidence that mate preferences have important, functionally specific effects on within relationship processes through contributing to two independent discrepancy variables: partner–self and partner-potential mate value discrepancies. They also largely contravene the hypothesis that mate preference fulfillment is the key to relationship satisfaction.
... One key behavior is paying attention to alternatives, or to those who could be a potential partner if the present relationship dissolved (Rusbult, 1983 ). A person in a committed relationship should devalue alternatives (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989) and should pay less attention to available alternatives (Miller, 1997). In the context of self-expansion, those who experience insuffi cient self-expansion should have greater motivation to seek out self-expansion opportunities and, consequently , should pay more attention to alternative partners. ...
... is supports the notion that those with less self-expanding relationships failed to devalue the alternative, and instead rated the alternative more favorably. In a follow-up study (VanderDrift et al., 2011, Study 2), undergraduates rated their current self-expansion and their attention to alternative partners (Miller, 1997). Participants also believed they had a chance to volunteer for a follow-up study that involved a " get to know you " activity with an opposite-sex partner who was currently single . ...
... Particularly diagnostic of a well-functioning relationship is how partners respond when self-interested impulses may not be compatible with the interest of the partner or the relationship. For example, a self-interested need may arise that is not compatible with the partner's needs (Van Lange et al., 1997), retaliatory impulses may arise during conflict or in the aftermath of conflict (Paleari, Regalia, & Fincham, 2005; Rusbult, Verette, Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991), or a partner may be tempted by an attractive alternative (Miller, 1997; Simpson, Gangestad, & Lerma, 1990). Relationship satisfaction and stability for an important part hinges on partners' willingness and ability to transform such immediate self-interested impulses into a response that is based on broader concerns, such as the interest of the partner and the relationship—a process referred to as a transformation of motivation (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978; Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003). ...
... In addition to the role of awareness and executive control, a plausible hypothesis is that mindfulness affects prorelationship responding through an increase in empathy and closeness. As noted, mindfulness has been associated with empathy and partner closeness, and these factors are central in promoting a transformation of motivation (Finkel, Rusbult, Kumashiro, & Hannon, 2002; Miller, 1997; Rusbult et al., 1991; Van Lange et al., 1997). Thus, through any of the processes described in the previous paragraphs, mindfulness may promote prorelationship responses. ...
Research on mindfulness, defined as paying conscious and non-judgmental attention to present-moment experiences, has increased rapidly in the past decade but has focused almost entirely on the benefits of mindfulness for individual well-being. This article considers the role of mindfulness in romantic relationships. Although strong claims have been made about the potentially powerful role of mindfulness in creating better relationships, it is less clear whether, when, and how this may occur. This article integrates the literatures on mindfulness and romantic relationship science, and sketches a theory-driven model and future research agenda to test possible pathways of when and how mindfulness may affect romantic relationship functioning. We review some initial direct and indirect evidence relevant to the proposed model. Finally, we discuss the implications of how studying mindfulness may further our understanding of romantic relationship (dys)functioning, and how mindfulness may be a promising and effective tool in couple interventions.
... (38) Este concepto implica una adaptación emocional ante cambios e interacciones en las relaciones, (39,40) involucrando el dar y recibir amor, valor y respeto. (41,42) Se caracteriza por ser común, fuerte y duradera, (43) influenciando la satisfacción y dependencia, sujetas a las vivencias individuales. (44) Adaptación del Sistema Familiar: se define como la cohesión familiar percibida por cada miembro de la familia mayor de 18 años y que viven en el mismo hogar con características de sentimientos positivos de sí mismo, se percibe exitoso, competente, activo, enérgico con sus intereses, se relaciona bien con los demás y se siente satisfecho con su vida, la disfruta y no se abruma con los problemas, todo esto teniendo a un miembro de la familia con diabetes tipo 1 diagnosticada. ...
Introducción. El diagnóstico de Diabetes tipo 1 (DT1) en un hijo impacta en la dinámica familiar, por ello se necesita comprender el fenómeno desde la adaptación eficaz, razón esencial para contar con una teoría de rango medio que permita analizar la adaptación familiar en el cuidado de hijos con DT1. Objetivo. Desarrollar la teoría de rango medio “Adaptación familiar en el cuidado de hijos con diabetes tipo 1” Métodos. La teoría se desarrolló a partir de la propuesta metodológica de Fawcett en la cual se identificaron conceptos de interés, se clasificaron los conceptos y proposiciones de acuerdo al fenómeno, se organizaron jerárquicamente las proposiciones y, por último, se construyó el diagrama que aborda el fenómeno. Resultados. Se propone la teoría de rango medio “Adaptación familiar en el cuidado de hijos con diabetes tipo 1” que permite comprender y abordar de manera efectiva los desafíos que enfrentan las familias en el cuidado de sus hijos con cáncer; lo que ayuda a validar y refinar las proposiciones, lo que a su vez contribuirá al crecimiento y avance del conocimiento en este campo. Conclusiones. La Teoía de Rango Medio “Adaptación familiar en el cuidado de hijos con DT1” (AFDT1), permite comprender el funcionamiento familiar ante el diagnóstico y convivencia con la DT1 por su integración teórica con el conocimiento empírico. Se sugiere probar la teoría mediante estudios cuasiexperimentales o experimentales.
... These increases in investment level, in turn, strengthen commitment. As partners become increasingly committed through mutual investment, they engage in motivated cognitions and derogate relationship alternatives (e.g., other partners or singlehood) to promote quality and persistence (McNulty et al., 2018;Miller, 1997). ...
Ample research examines the importance of one’s commitment level to their romantic relationship; however, individuals’ desire for progressive levels of commitment has received less attention in the literature. In the current studies, we introduce the novel concept of commitment amplification (i.e., the desire to become more committed in one’s romantic relationship) by developing and validating a new scale (the Commitment Amplification Scale). Additionally, we investigate the conceptual uniqueness of commitment amplification and examine associations with relationship-oriented thoughts (Study 1 and 2) and behaviors (Study 3). Results support the establishment of commitment amplification as a distinct and predictive construct. Furthermore, commitment amplification predicts relationship constructs above and beyond existing measures of commitment and commitment readiness.
... Men who are satisfied in their romantic relationships tend to show less attentional adhesion to attractive women (Miller 1997;Maner et al. 2008). By contrast, men who are less satisfied and men with a stronger short-term mating orientation demonstrate more attentional adhesion to attractive women (Maner et al. 2007). ...
... Furthermore, relationship quality did not predict feelings of regret after affairs in our sample, nor positive perceptions of alternative partners. Prior studies have pointed to factors such as commitment and interdependence are linked with motivations to derogate or devaluate potential alternatives (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989;Lydon et al., 2003;Miller, 1997). But our participants' responses to items assessing their perceptions of alternatives (e.g., "Others on the site didn't seem like my type") were not associated with measures of their marital/relationship quality. ...
Past research on extradyadic relationship experiences (including infidelity) often suffers from restricted sampling and retrospective accounts, which may have given researchers a distorted image of what it is like for people to have affairs. In this research, we shed light on the experiences people have during their affairs with a sample of registered users on Ashley Madison, a website geared toward facilitating infidelity. Our participants completed questionnaires about their primary (e.g., spousal) relationships, as well as personality traits, motivations to seek affairs, and outcomes. Findings from this study challenge widely held notions about infidelity experiences. Analyses revealed that participants were highly satisfied with their affairs and expressed little moral regret. A small subset of participants reported having consensually open relationships with their partners, who knew about their activity on Ashley Madison. In contrast to previous findings, we did not observe low relationship quality (i.e., satisfaction, love, commitment) to be a major driver of affairs and the affairs did not predict decreases in these relationship quality variables over time. That is, among a sample of individuals who proactively sought affairs, their affairs were not primarily motivated by poor dyadic/marital relationships, their affairs did not seem to have a strong negative impact on their relationships, and personal ethics did not play a strong role in people’s feelings about their affairs.
... Further, people who pay greater attention to alternative partners tend to be less committed to their existing partners (Miller, 1997), while low commitment is associated with greater risk of relationship dissolution (Drigotas & Rusbult, 1992). Thus, another reason that people may switch mates is because they identify a high-value alternative that seems worth the cost of a breakup. ...
Evolutionary social science is having a renaissance. This volume showcases the empirical and theoretical advancements produced by the evolutionary study of romantic relationships. The editors assembled an international collection of contributors to trace how evolved psychological mechanisms shape strategic computation and behavior across the life span of a romantic partnership. Each chapter provides an overview of historic and contemporary research on the psychological mechanisms and processes underlying the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of romantic relationships. Contributors discuss popular and cutting-edge methods for data analysis and theory development, critically analyze the state of evolutionary relationship science, and provide discerning recommendations for future research. The handbook integrates a broad range of topics (e.g., partner preference and selection, competition and conflict, jealousy and mate guarding, parenting, partner loss and divorce, and post-relationship affiliation) that are discussed alongside major sources of strategic variation in mating behavior, such as sex and gender diversity, developmental life history, neuroendocrine processes, technological advancement, and culture. Its content promises to enrich students’ and established researchers’ views on the current state of the discipline and should challenge a diverse cross-section of relationship scholars and clinicians to incorporate evolutionary theorizing into their professional work.
... Focusing on consonant cognitions and avoiding dissonant cognitions then aids in effective goal pursuit behavior (task performance). Another study revealed that for individuals in committed romantic relationships, attention to attractive alternative possible romantic partners predicts failure of the romantic relationship (Miller, 1997). In dissonance theory terms, attention to dissonant cognitions (the attractive alternative partner) predicts the less effective behavior of maintaining the original committed romantic relationship. ...
... In dissonance theory terms, these committed individuals were more likely to focus on consonant cognitions (committed goal) and ignore dissonant cognitions (alternative goal), and these cognitive processes were associated with more effective behavior (task performance). In addition, within committed romantic relationships, attention to attractive alternatives predicts relationship failure [21]. In this example, attention to dissonant cognitions (the attractive alternative) predicts less effective behavior with regard to the romantic relationship. ...
Introduction
The present research was designed to test predictions derived from the action-based model of cognitive dissonance theory. These predictions were that dissonance arousal would be negatively related to effective behavior, and that dissonance reduction would be positively related to effective behavior.
Method
Dissonance arousal and reduction were measured using an individual differences questionnaire. Effective behavior was measured as amount of physical exercise obtained from an exercise app that measures exercise using GPS (cycling kilometers over one year; Study 1) and from self-reports (number of days during the previous week; Study 2–3).
Results
Results suggested that individual differences in dissonance arousal relate to less exercise and that individual differences in dissonance reduction relate to more exercise. Statistically controlling for trait approach and avoidance motivation as well as satisfaction with life revealed that dissonance processes predicted exercise behavior over these traits. This pattern of results was generally consistent across the three studies. Moreover, results from Studies 2–3 suggested possible statistical mediators from the exercise commitment literature of the relationship between trait dissonance arousal/reduction and exercise behavior.
Discussion and conclusion
These results highlight the importance of considering dissonance processes as adaptive ones, and they suggest possible ways of increasing exercise behavior.
... Commitment also helps people to avert the allure of attractive alternatives. Indeed, commitment reduces the attention given to potential attractive alternatives (Miller, 1997;Zhang et al., 2017), increases the derogation of attractive alternatives, and increases the effort to enhance one's own relationship (Lee & O'Sullivan, 2019;Lydon, 2010). Consistently, commitment is a motivational force that reduces unrestricted sociosexuality (i.e., the preference for a multitude of diverse casual sex partners; Rodrigues & Lopes, 2017) and decreases the chances that people engage in online infidelity (Liu & Zheng, 2019). ...
In the past 20 years, greater attention has been devoted to the study of self‐regulation in an interpersonal context. This review summarize this work and presents findings on how self‐regulation processes influence close relationship outcomes. The review is organized around the four ingredients of self‐regulation (i.e., standards, monitoring, self‐regulatory capacity, and motivation). For each ingredient, we discuss their influence on relationship processes and dynamics. In the standards section, we discuss the literature on approach/avoidance, promotion/prevention, goal conflicts between partners, and interpersonal goal support. In the monitoring section, we describe how partners' monitoring of each other's goal progress affects relationships. We also highlight that research on this topic is scant. In the self‐regulatory capacity section, we discuss findings on how self‐regulatory capacity is associated with relationship maintenance behaviors. In the motivation section, we review the literature on commitment and its impact on relationship dynamics. Finally, for each ingredient, we address an important avenue for future research.
... Participants also rated the interviewer's sexual desirability and their commitment to their current relationship. The latter measure was included because we wished to rule out the possibility that reduced commitment (rather than diminished desire for the current partner) explained the effect of exposure to adultery norms on efforts made to see the interviewer in the future, as eroded commitment was found to be a significant positive predictor of high attentiveness to alternatives (e.g., Miller, 1997). We predicted a mediation effect, in which exposure to infidelity norms would increase the desire for the interviewer, which, in turn, would be associated with greater efforts invested in interacting with the interviewer in the future. ...
Research exploring the determinants of infidelity has mainly focused on individual and relationship characteristics that render relationships vulnerable, paying less attention to the external circumstances that increase the likelihood of straying. The present research examined whether online exposure to norms of adultery would affect expressions of desire for alternative mates. In three studies, romantically involved participants were exposed to others’ cheating behavior and then thought of or encountered attractive strangers. Their relationship perceptions and reactions during these experiences (fantasmatic themes, expressed interest in alternative partners, and overt flirtation with them in Studies 1–3, respectively) were recorded. Results showed that following exposure to others’ cheating behavior, participants were less likely to devalue the attractiveness of alternative partners and to be committed to their relationship. These findings suggest that exposure to adultery norms decreases the awareness of long-term priorities of relationship maintenance, lessening the resistance to the temptation of attractive alternatives.
... Men may also possess automatic attentional biases that serve to direct attention away from attractive others, especially those of higher mate value (Maner, Gailliot, & Miller, 2009), which, coupled with biases that devalue the attractiveness of those alternatives, help to minimize the likelihood of infidelity (McNulty, Meltzer, Makhanova, & Maner, 2018). In support of this, researchers have shown that those who reported attending more to sexual alternatives and who visually did so in a laboratory task were less satisfied in their current relationships and were more likely to have dissolved the relationship at twomonth follow-up (Miller, 1997). Disengaging attention from alternatives appears to be motivated by the desire to maintain the existing relationship (Maner, Rouby, & Gonzaga, 2008). ...
Despite a tendency to form socially monogamous pair-bonds that carry expectations of sexual exclusivity, infidelity has been a recurrent feature of human mating across societies. The attitudes, social cognition, affect, and behavior associated with infidelity vary in patterned ways between women and men. In the current chapter, we use an evolutionary perspective to make sense of the historical and cross-cultural ubiquity of extradyadic behavior, as well the adaptive costs and benefits of men’s infidelity. Specifically, we review theory and research pertaining to men’s extra-pair mating and consider salient individual differences, romantic relationship dynamics, and social–ecological factors that influence mating strategies and extradyadic involvement. Following other scholars, we argue that men have evolved adaptations for short-term mating that facilitate opportunistic extra-pair behavior in a “quantity-over-quality” reproductive strategy. Consequently, on average, men are predicted to express a stronger desire to engage in sexual infidelity and to have more permissive attitudes toward extradyadic involvement than women. However, only particular men appear to execute a mixed mating strategy involving a long-term mate and an extra-pair partner, such as those with greater mate value. Satisfaction with and commitment to the relationship appear to be crucial in preventing men’s infidelity, and socio-ecological factors, including cultural dynamics (e.g., norms surrounding infidelity) and sex ratios that create conditions of mate scarcity, are inextricably tied to men’s extra-pair mating.
... One of the key behaviors is the paying of attention to alternatives, i.e., potential partners, in case of failure of the current relationship (Rusbult 1983). A person in a committed relationship should reduce their alternatives or pay less attention to them (Johnson & Rusbult 1989;Miller 1997). Contrary to that, a person feeling a lack of self-expansion, should have higher motivation to seek alternative partners, which has been confirmed (Vanderdrift, Lewandovsky & Agnew 2011). ...
This paper examines whether people with different affective temperament (depressive, cyclothymic, hyperthymic, irritable, anxiety-cognitive, anxiety-somatic and mixed) differ in terms of perceived social support. The sample is a convenience one, uniform by gender, consisting of 200 people under the age of 35. The instruments used in the research are: the Serbian version of the TEMPS-A scale, which assesses five affective temperaments, and the Serbian version of the Social Support Scale of the Study of Medical Outcomes (MOS-SSS). The results show that the depressive temperament perceives social support to a lesser extent than the cyclothymic (p <.05), hyperthymic (p <.01), anxiety-cognitive (p <.05) and mixed temperament (p <.05). On the other hand, the hyperthymic temperament is more prone to perceiving social support than the cyclothymic (p <.05) and anxiety-somatic temperaments are (p <.05). The main conclusion of this research is that hyperthymic temperament, which is characterized by most desirable traits such as optimism, sociability, self-confidence and eloquence, perceives its social environment to be more supportive than other temperaments, which is a consequence of its characteristics and the adequate communication of its own needs.
... Similarly, economic theories (Lynn, 1991;Rosato, 2016;Schwartz & Ward, 2004) and supporting research (Haynes, 2009;Iyengar & Lepper, 2000) on scarcity suggest that people tend to desire scarce or limited options more than highly available options, and often struggle to select an option when choices are too plentiful. Finally, theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978;Rusbult & Buunk, 1993) and research (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989;Miller, 1997) on interdependence suggest that people in established relationships become less committed to their partners to the extent that they perceive there are more desirable alternative partners. Although these bodies of research are broadly consistent with our predictions, research has yet to directly test the idea that idiosyncratic perceptions of available partners affect singles' readiness to initiate a committed relationship. ...
People often consider how ready they feel for a committed romantic relationship before initiating one. Although research has only begun to identify the antecedents of commitment readiness, several theoretical perspectives suggest that it should be shaped by the perceived frequency of available partners. We conducted five studies (one correlational, four experimental) that tested this idea among single people. A Pilot Study assessed participants' perceptions of available romantic partners and their commitment readiness. In the subsequent four experiments, participants read articles (Studies 1a and 1b) or created dating profiles and were presented with false feedback (Studies 2 and 3) that influenced perceptions of available partners and reported their commitment readiness. Results suggested that people were less ready to commit to a romantic relationship to the extent that they perceived they had many partners available to them. These results further understanding of factors that promote the decision to initiate a committed relationship.
... Consumers' attachment to a feature influences the interactivity with that feature, which can lead to a favorable attitude (Ilicic & Webster, 2011;Thomson et al., 2009) and strong commitment to behavioral intention (Miller, 1997;Thomson et al., 2005). Yoo and Lee (2009) discuss the positive relationship between attachment and the purchase intention for counterfeit and original luxury fashion brands. ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) platforms with interactive assistants allow consumers to avail information and help direct their choices, thus changing the ways in which companies interact with their customers. This study aims to explore the concept of human likeness, attachment, and perceived interactivity in the context of AI speakers and examine the effects of human likeness and attachment on their perceived interactivity with AI speakers. A survey was used to investigate whether consumers’ perception of human likeness, attachment and their perceived interactivity with AI speakers eventually influence their purchase intention, and how attachment and the perceived interactivity mediate the effects of human likeness and purchase intention. The participants were 311 AI speaker users from South Korea. The results demonstrate how the direct effect and mediating effect of human likeness, attachment, and perceived interactivity on AI speakers boost purchase intention, thus providing meaningful implications for AI-driven marketing academics and practitioners.
... " In the present study, we labeled this scale Relational Passion to clearly distinguish it from the Sexual Passion Scale. Alpha was .90. Miller, 1997). This scale, composed of six items, assesses the extent to which participants are alert to other potential partners. ...
Sexual passion has always been conceptualized as a one-dimensional phenomenon that emerges from interactions with partners. Drawing from the literature on passionate activities, sexual passion was defined in terms of its intrapersonal motivational and cognitive components and examined from a dualistic perspective. More specifically, in 5 studies, we investigated how 2 types of sexual passion, harmonious and obsessive, can lead to clearly distinct subjective, relational, and cognitive outcomes. Study 1 validated a scale measuring harmonious and obsessive sexual passion, and showed that each type of sexual passion leads to common, but also distinct, subjective consequences during sexual activity engagement for both singles and romantically engaged individuals. Studies 2 and 3 differentiated the constructs of harmonious and obsessive sexual passion from competing constructs existing in the literature and provided evidence for its predictive validity regarding various relational outcomes, including relationship sustainability over time. Finally, Studies 4 and 5 investigated the cognitive consequences of each type of sexual passion by showing how they reflect distinct levels of integration of sexual and relational representations, and how they can lead to biased processing of sexual information (Study 4) and conflict with ongoing sex-unrelated goals (Studies 5a and 5b). Overall, the present series of studies provides a new look at sexual passion from a motivational and cognitive intrapersonal perspective that is not restricted to interpersonal ramifications with partners. (PsycINFO Database Record
... After seeing an extremely attractive person of the same sex people themselves feel much uglier than when looking at the average person (Brown, Novick, Lord, & Richards, 1992). The more is one in love with a person of the opposite sex, the better the person seems to look, whilst other persons of the opposite sex are perceived as less attractive (Miller, 1997). Interestingly, three photos of exchange students from Netherland were in the stimuli photo and no participants seem to have noticed they were foreigners, which was found in later query, although their face according to our subjective assessment was very uncharacteristic for this area. ...
This research aimed at testing multiple fitness hypothesis of attraction, investigating relationship between male facial characteristic and female students' reported readiness to engage in various social relations. A total of 27 male photos were evaluated on five dimensions on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from -3 to 3, by convenient sample of 90 female students of University of Sarajevo. The dimensions were: desirable to date – not desirable to date; desirable to marry – not desirable to marry; desirable to have sex with – not desirable to have sex with; desirable to be a friend – not desirable to be a friend; attractive - not attractive. Facial metric measurements of facial features such as distance between the eyes, smile width and height were performed using AutoCad. The results indicate that only smile width positively correlates with desirability of establishing friendship, whilst none of the other characteristics correlates with any of the other dimensions. This leads to the conclusion that motivation to establish various social relations cannot be reduced to mere physical appearance, mainly facial features, but many other variables yet to be investigated.
... Further, brand attachment played a mediating role in the relationship between brand experience and brand loyalty. Individuals who are strongly attached to a person or an object are generally committed to that person or object and to preserving their relationship with it (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989; Miller, 1997; as cited in Thomson et al., 2005). Additionally, numerous researchers find positive effects of emotional attachment related to the actual purchase of brands (Godey et al., 2013; Park et al., 2010; Park & Lee, 2013), to paying a premium price (Thomson et al., 2005), and to brand loyalty (Fournier & Yao, 1997; Lee & Workman, 2015; Park et al., 2010; So et al., 2013; Thomson et al., 2005). ...
... Further, brand attachment played a mediating role in the relationship between brand experience and brand loyalty. Individuals who are strongly attached to a person or an object are generally committed to that person or object and to preserving their relationship with it (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989; Miller, 1997; as cited in Thomson et al., 2005). Additionally, numerous researchers find positive effects of emotional attachment related to the actual purchase of brands (Godey et al., 2013; Park et al., 2010; Park & Lee, 2013), to paying a premium price (Thomson et al., 2005), and to brand loyalty (Fournier & Yao, 1997; Lee & Workman, 2015; Park et al., 2010; So et al., 2013; Thomson et al., 2005). ...
This study unveils how affluent US consumers process, connect to, and invest various resources regarding luxury brands. The study examines relationships of brand–self congruity, emotional brand attachment, perceived level of investment, and repurchase intentions of a luxury brand. A nationwide, representative online survey was used and 476 adult consumers provided usable responses in the US. Findings from path analyses indicate that consumers’ luxury brand–self congruity positively and significantly predicted both emotional attachment to luxury brands and the perceived level of investment made toward the luxury brand. The perceived level of investment made toward the luxury brand positively impacted the consumers’ repurchase intention toward the brand and mediated interrelationships among the research constructs. Findings of the current study offer a conceptual framework for luxury retailers and marketers to enhance their brand strategies as well as the consumers’ experiences with the luxury brand. Managerial and theoretical implications are provided.本研究旨在揭示美国富裕的消费者的认知过程, 情感连接，以及奢侈品牌的各种投资资源, 以上种种如何影响对奢侈品如服装, 手袋, 鞋子和配件的重复购买意向. 基于Holbrook 的认知-情感-行为模型和先前文献, 研究人员实证研究品牌自我一只行, 感性的品牌依恋, 投资关于感知层面的联系, 以及对于奢侈品重复购买意图.研究人员采取了全国性, 代表性的采样技术来收集数据. 网络调查问卷是根据先前的研究进一步开发而来。第三方市场调查公司发布的网上调查, 美国具有代表性, 拥有奢侈品且税前家庭年收入达到150,000 至$299,999之间.路径分析结果表明, 出一个假设外其他都获得统计支持. 结果表明, 消费者对奢侈品牌的自我一致性积极而显著预测奢侈品情感依恋和奢侈品投资的预期水平. 对奢侈品投资的预期水平积极影响着消费者重复购买动机和研究结构模型内部调解关系. 意外地, 奢侈品牌的情感依恋并没有积极地直接, 而是间接地影响奢侈品重复购买意图.目前的研究结果向奢侈品零售商和营销人员提供了概念框架和重点外卖, 以提升其品牌战略和消费者对于奢侈品牌的体验. 当奢侈品牌形象更贴近消费者自我形象时, 他/她表现出对品牌更高水平的情感依恋, 反过来, 促成更多的对奢侈品牌金融, 情绪, 行为, 认知和时间的投资. 因此, 建议品牌经理和/或零售商精心打造一个利基市场和品牌形象反映目标客户的人口统计和生活方式, 因此消费者可能涉及到更多奢侈品牌, 并发展出更强的情感依恋.
... According to Principle 7, environments containing high-value substitutes should present challenges for relationship maintenance. Indeed, people report lower relationship quality when their attention is directed toward attractive alternative partners (Kenrick, Neuberg, Zierk, & Krones, 1994; Miller, 1997). To prevent alternative means from pulling resources from a focal means, people shield the focal means by inhibiting alternative means (Principle 8). ...
Goal pursuit is almost always conducted in concert with helpful others. People serve as instrumental means to goals, and evaluations of people are shaped by their perceived instrumentality. Assistance from another person may elicit feelings of relationship satisfaction and commitment. Assisting others in their goal pursuit is also gratifying. We present a novel goal-systemic perspective on close relationships. Our analysis suggests that satisfying relationships are achieved when partners experience mutual perceived instrumentality—when each partner feels instrumental to his or her partner’s important goals and perceives the partner as instrumental to his or her important goals. Considering relationship partners as means to goals has important implications for relationship processes including attraction, relationship maintenance, and relationship dissolution.
... stimuli that might interfere with one's goals are processed less positively. In the domain of interpersonal relations, for example, individuals who are committed to an ongoing romantic relationship derogate the attractiveness of potential alternative partners, pay less attention to them, and also implicitly represent these potential mates as less attractive, thereby protecting their current commitment (Karremans, Dotsch, & Corneille, 2011; Maner, Gailliot, & Miller, 2009; Meyer, Berkman, Karremans, & Lieberman, 2011; Miller, 1997; Ritter, Karremans, & van Schie, 2010). However, while these processes may occur nonconsciously, they nonetheless require cognitive resources, as they only occur when enough resources are available or when individuals are high in executive control (Meyer et al., 2011; Pronk, Karremans, & Wigboldus, 2011; Ritter et al., 2010; see also Bélanger et al., 2011). ...
... Situation selection describes movement from one situation to another, bringing partners to a new situation that differs in terms of behavioral options or outcomes. For example, Mary may seek situations entailing lesser interdependence, or John may confront the juncture between a present relationship and an alternative relationship by derogating tempting alternatives (e.g., Collins & Feeney, 2004; Miller, 1997). Temporally extended situations afford the expression of self-control and the inclination to 'stick with it' – dependability versus unreliability, as well as loyalty versus disloyalty (seeFigure 1). ...
The exceptional sociability of human life colors nearly every phenomenon in the social and behavioral sciences. However, most psychological theories continue to adopt a within-person perspective, analyzing human behavior by reference to individual-level biological processes, personal dispositions, or cognitive experiences. Interdependence theory is an important antidote to this actor-focused bias. Interdependence theory identifies the most important characteristics of interpersonal situations via a comprehensive analysis of situation structure and describes the implications of structure for understanding intrapersonal and interpersonal processes. Situation structure matters because it is the interpersonal reality within which motives are activated, toward which cognition is oriented and around which interaction unfolds. This paper describes key principles of interdependence structure and processes, and illustrates the utility of an interdependence theoretic analysis via a review of four phenomena – regulatory fit, persistence in the face of dissatisfaction, tit-for-tat versus generosity, and the origins and consequences of trust.
... Recent studies indicate that when a consumer identifies with a company, she is likely to engage in extra-role behaviours including positive word-of-mouth, recruiting of other customers, and offering suggestions for improving products or services (Ahearne et al., 2005;Brown et al., 2005). In very close relationships where identification is high, subjects may form negative cognitions about potential alternative targets, even when those targets are attractive (Johnson and Rusbult, 1989;Miller, 1997), an example of the transformation of motivation from self-interested to pro-relationship. Relevant to stakeholder theory, it is important to note that this transformation does not always require significant deliberation on the part of an actor and may instead arise because of repeated interactions that follow a particular pattern (Rusbult and Van Lange, 2003). ...
Scholars and managers continue to seek a better explanation for the behaviours displayed by various stakeholders. An enhanced understanding of the drivers of these behaviours ought to improve an organization's ability to appropriately manage relationships with stakeholders, thereby improving firm performance. This paper provides a detailed look at the concept of a relationship, from the perspective of the stakeholder, by focusing on the perceived psychological bonds that drive a stakeholder to decide whether to continue a relationship with the firm and, if the relationship does continue, how much pro-relationship behaviour to exert. Our analysis works out how the strength of the perceived psychological bond is measured and establishes the conditions under which bonds will be broken. We also develop conditions that either promote or quash stakeholders' pro-relationship behaviour. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd and Society for the Advancement of Management Studies.
... Thus, to prevent relationship deterioration, a transformation of motivation is required when confronted with the lure of an attractive alternative partner. Not surprisingly, doing so indeed is associated with romantic relationship stability in the long run (e.g., Miller, 1997). The transformation of motivation leading to these relationship-beneficial processes is, to some extent, determined by a partner's level of commitment. ...
Why do romantic partners sometimes act in ways that potentially threaten relationship satisfaction and stability, even when strongly committed to the relationship? This article discusses research that has addressed this question by examining the role of executive control. We argue that executive control plays a particularly important role in relationship functioning when partners are faced with dilemmas between acting on self‐interest and acting on partner or relationship interest. We review the key findings in this domain, demonstrating that individual differences in executive control are positively associated with sacrifice, forgiveness, and the ability to resist the temptation of attractive alternatives. We conclude with proposing a theoretical model that integrates the role of motivation and capacity factors in promoting pro‐relationship responses and discuss promising areas for future research.
The study aimed to examine the psychometric properties and factorial structure of the Arabic version of the Relational Self-Change Scale (Mattingly et al, 2014). The sample consisted of 262 male and female participants, aged between 18 and 65 years, with a mean age of 37.21 and a standard deviation of 9.59. The scale was administered through an electronic form that included demographic data and the Relational Self-Change Scale, comprising 12 items distributed across four dimensions: self-expansion, self-contraction, self-refinement, and self-distortion. The results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) revealed high goodness-of-fit indices. The reliability of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha, McDonald’s Omega, and Spearman-Brown’s split-half reliability, demonstrating high validity and reliability. The findings support the scale’s strong psychometric properties in the Saudi context, affirming its suitability for use. The study recommended that the Relational Self-Change Scale is an effective tool for understanding the impact of personal relationships on self-concept and suggested broadening the sample to include diverse cultures from Saudi society and linking the results to other variables.
Keywords: Psychometric properties, Relational Self-Change, Jeddah, Confirmatory Factor Analysis.
Presented paper captures the issue of close relationships from the perspective of behaviorism, that is the philosophy of science on which behavior analysis is based. Therefore, it is a theoretical interpretation of the functioning and evolution of intimate relationships rather than a direct extrapolation of results from scientific research. The issues discussed relate to basic learning laws that govern human behavior and what results from them for close romantic relationships. The author makes a critical reinterpretation of the main theories explaining the genesis and functioning of romantic relationships, indicating that the core of dynamically occurring changes in the relationship, partner selection, as well as feelings and emotions occurring in close relationships are simple learning mechanisms that occur over time cumulatively.
Research on close relationships has tended to focus on the dyad (e.g., friends, romantic partners, rivals). Less attention has been paid to the myriad third parties who impact our social lives through their own relationships with our dyadic partners. What drives our feelings toward such third parties? A classic formalist theory, Balance Theory, suggests we like third parties who share our feelings toward our existing partners (and dislike those who do not) because of affective balance. Here, we propose a new embedded dyad framework which foregrounds the substantive indirect effects that third parties can have on our outcomes through their relationships with our partners. Consistent with the embedded dyad framework, we find that people like third parties who share our hatred for our rivals and our love for our friends (as predicted by both views); but we dislike those who share our love for our spouses (countering Balance Theory). Further supporting predictions uniquely derived from an embedded dyad framework, (a) greater perceived exclusivity in positive dyadic relationships (e.g., friendships) drives dislike toward third parties who share our love for our positive partners; (b) greater perceived welfare suppression by our negative partners (e.g., rivals) drives liking toward third parties who share our hatred of our negative partners. This framework thus critically extends cognitive consistency views by emphasizing the real costs and benefits of navigating dyadic relationships within larger social networks.
What do couples’ activities and behaviors on Instagram reveal about the quality of their relationships? To answer this question, we surveyed couples (N = 178) about their perceptions of their relationships and analyzed 3,270 of their recent Instagram posts. Actor and partner effects were found between relational quality and engagement with the relationship on Instagram (i.e., the number of couple pictures and partner-initiated likes and comments). There were also actor effects of attention to Instagram alternatives on the perceived quality and actual pursuit of alternative partners, as well as a partner effect on alternative quality. The findings contribute to extending the investment model to the digital age and have methodological implications for understanding relationship dynamics on visual social network sites.
This study aimed to test empirically the impact of factors that affect brand community commitment and brand attachment by examing and comparing relational features(e.g., ideal self-congruity and actual self-congruity) and community features(e.g., member support, freedom of expression, compensation to activity, and perceived community value)
between consumer and brand.
The main findings of this study are as follows; it was hypothesized that the brand community features and relational factors would have a positive impact on brand community commitment while relational factors would have a positive impact on brand attachment. The authors also proposed a hypothesis that ideal self-congruity may have a bigger impact on brand attachment than actual self-congruity while brand community commitment would have a positive impact on brand attachment. As for the influence of relational characteristics on brand attachment, we hypothesized that it may differ according to the types of communities.
As a result of empirical test, it was found that the relationship between community features and brand community commitment have a positive impact except member support and freedom of expression, including the pairs such as relational factors-brand community commitment, relational characteristics-brand attachment, and brand
community commitment-brand attachment. When it comes to actual self-congruity, the impact of brand attachment differed depending on the types of brand communities while not so in the case of ideal self-congruity.
When individuals are highly committed to their romantic relationship, they are more likely to engage in pro-relationship maintenance mechanisms. The present research expanded on the notion that commitment redirects self-oriented goals to consider broader relational goals and examined whether commitment interacts with a promotion and prevention focus to activate derogation of attractive alternatives. Three studies used cross-sectional and experimental approaches. Study 1 showed that romantically involved individuals predominantly focused on promotion, but not prevention, reported less initial attraction to an attractive target than single individuals, especially when highly committed to their relationship. Study 2 showed that romantically involved individuals induced in a promotion focus, compared to those in prevention focus, reported less initial attraction, but only when more committed to their relationship. Regardless of regulatory focus manipulation, more committed individuals were also less likely to perceive quality among alternative scenarios and to be attentive to alternative others in general. Finally, Study 3 showed that romantically involved individuals induced in promotion focus and primed with high commitment reported less initial attraction, than those primed with low commitment, or than those induced in prevention focus. Once again, for these latter no differences occurred according to commitment prime. Together, the findings suggest that highly committed promotion focused individuals consider broader relationship goals and activate relationship maintenance behaviors such as derogation of attractive alternatives to promote their relationship.
This study examined how exclusivity of a romantic relationship influences the selection of coping behaviors in interpersonal conflict with the romantic partner. We predicted that high exclusivity in romantic relationships suppresses selection of adaptive coping behaviors conducive to the well-being of participants. Respondents were 108 young adults who have a romantic partner or a spouse. They completed a questionnaire that consisted of scales of perceived social support from their partners and nine other support sources, as well as coping behaviors in interpersonal conflict with their partners. Analyses revealed that, consistently with predictions, respondents with low exclusivity, that is, those who received emotional support from not only their partners but also other support sources, selected more constructive coping behavior, if duration of their relation was long. In contrast, respondents with high exclusivity selected less constructive coping behaviors, even if duration of their relation was long. From these results, we argue that exclusivity of romantic relationships can be maladaptative.
Social psychological findings and methods can provide valuable tools for evolutionary theorists. Social psychologists have developed useful methods for understanding ongoing motivational and cognitive processes, as well as useful ways of thinking about and studying organism environment interactions. Social and cognitive psychologists have focused predominantly on the flaws and limitations of human information processing. Evolutionary psychologists presume that many errors and biases ultimately manifest underlying decision rules that, on average, were adaptive throughout much of human evolutionary history. This chapter discusses six key domains of social life, including coalition formation, status, self-protection, mate choice, mate retention, and parental care. A truly comprehensive model of behavior must include insights from evolutionary psychology along with the insights of dynamical systems theory. An integration of evolutionary and dynamic models may be key to understanding the emergence of cultural norms.
Drawing on the power of evolutionary theory to explain behavior across cultures and species, particularly in the domains of sex and reproduction, evolutionary psychology has now emerged as a major perspective in the study of intimate relationships. This chapter applies this perspective to the study of love, commitment, and mate retention. It presents an overview of the evolutionary basis of long-term mating and high parental investment in humans. The chapter discusses two emotional-motivational systems, love and anger-upset, that play major roles in regulating relationship feelings and behavior. It highlights recent evolutionary research on the love system and its links to relationship ideals, investment, and dependence. Finally, the chapter reviews the anger-upset system and its links to jealousy, mate-retention strategies, and relationship violence.
Relationship science is a theory-rich discipline, but there have been no attempts to articulate the broader themes or principles that cut across the theories themselves. We have sought to fill that void by reviewing the psychological literature on close relationships, particularly romantic relationships, to extract its core principles. This review reveals 14 principles, which collectively address four central questions: (a) What is a relationship? (b) How do relationships operate? (c) What tendencies do people bring to their relationships? (d) How does the context affect relationships? The 14 principles paint a cohesive and unified picture of romantic relationships that reflects a strong and maturing discipline. However, the principles afford few of the sorts of conflicting predictions that can be especially helpful in fostering novel theory development. We conclude that relationship science is likely to benefit from simultaneous pushes toward both greater integration across theories (to reduce redundancy) and greater emphasis on the circumstances under which existing (or not-yet-developed) principles conflict with one another. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology Volume 68 is January 03, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Mate poaching refers to efforts to attract people who are already involved in committed relationships. The current dyadic, 5-week prospective study examined mate poaching behaviors in the context of opposite-sex friendships. Actors’ mate poaching behaviors predicted decreases in their friend’s commitment to their romantic partners, increases in their friend’s perceptions of actors’ mate value, and increases in their friend’s romantic desire for actors over time. These results are the first to suggest an interpersonal process in which mate poaching behaviors elicit psychological changes in targets that facilitate actors’ mate poaching goals. Furthermore, these results are the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of mate poaching tactics in friendships.
A newer version of the Polish text which has been published (in somewhat shortened form) as two English-language papers: "Facial attractiveness: General patterns of facial preferences" and "Facial attractiveness: Variation, adaptiveness and consequences of facial preferences".
A long-term romantic relationship can offer many benefits to committed individuals. Thus, humans possess relationship maintenance mechanisms to protect against threats from those who serve as attractive alternatives or intrasexual rivals. Many studies have indicated that romantic love can act as a commitment device to activate these mechanisms. To examine the attentional bias associated with relationship maintenance among 108 college students (49 single and 59 committed females) in China, we used a semantic priming procedure to activate mental representations associated with romantic love and then asked participants to complete a dot-probe task for the purpose of making a distinction between the engage and disengage components of attention. No significant engaging effects toward attractive faces were observed among committed females, but the following significant disengaging effects were found: when primed with romantic love, single females showed increased attention toward and difficulty in disenga
This study examined the relationships between sensation seeking or sensation seeking similarity and relationship satisfaction in college couples. Fifty-eight couples were tested with the Sensation Seeking Scale form V and the Loving and Liking Scales, and each couple was observed for eye gaze behavior. Eye gaze was found to be unrelated to the questionnaire measures of relationship involvement and a low but significant negative relationship was found between the female partner's love rating and mutual gaze and focus. As in previous research, couples' sensation seeking scores were significantly correlated, indicating tendencies toward assortative mating. However, only the women's relationship satisfaction scores were related to discrepancies in the couples' SSS scores. Individual sensation seeking scores correlated negatively with relationship satisfaction for both sexes. The latter effect was explained in terms of the high sensation seeker having a variety of interests outside of their primary relationships, and stronger tendencies for boredom and independence.