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Survey of microbial contamination of Iranian currency papers

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M. Dehghani
M. Dehghani
M. Dehghani
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Vahed Dehghani at University of Tehran
Vahed Dehghani
Jasem Estakhr at Shahid Beheshti University
Jasem Estakhr
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Abstract

Microbial contaminations of Iranian currency have been subjected to very poor attention. In the present study in order to evaluate the degree of contamination of Iranian currency 30 old paper notes and 15 fresh paper notes, with five representatives of each denomination, were collected, in sterile condition, from artisans and bank treasury respectively. Using broth wash and appropriate culturing pathogenic and non- pathogenic microbes were isolated and characterized, and then the medically important and well- isolated colonies were identified. It has been shown that old paper notes bear much more microbe colonies and gram positive colonies are much higher in number than those of gram negative ones on the Iranian currency. But there is not any relationship between the degree of contaminations and denominations which probably result from the same constructional substance of the paper notes. The following pathogenic and potentially pathogenic bacteria were isolated from Iranian paper notes: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Streptococcus, Serratia, Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, Shigella, Listeria, Entrobacter and Micrococcus. The only two fungal genera found on Iranian paper notes investigated here were Apergilus spp and Penicillium spp. Moreover the estimated number of microbes on each paper note is also given. The Iranian paper notes are extremely contaminated with pathogenic or potentially pathogenic microbes and public awareness and raising conciseness seem to be necessary.
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ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 242
Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical
Sciences
Survey of Microbial Contamination of Iranian Currency Papers
Mehdi Dehghani1, Vahed Dehghani 2, Jasem Estakhr1.
1Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran.
2Department of Environmental Management and Planning, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran,
Iran.
ABSTRACT
Microbial contaminations of Iranian currency have been subjected to very poor attention. In the present
study in order to evaluate the degree of contamination of Iranian currency 30 old paper notes and 15 fresh paper
notes, with five representatives of each denomination, were collected, in sterile condition, from artisans and bank
treasury respectively. Using broth wash and appropriate culturing pathogenic and non- pathogenic microbes were
isolated and characterized, and then the medically important and well- isolated colonies were identified. It has
been shown that old paper notes bear much more microbe colonies and gram positive colonies are much higher in
number than those of gram negative ones on the Iranian currency. But there is not any relationship between the
degree of contaminations and denominations which probably result from the same constructional substance of the
paper notes. The following pathogenic and potentially pathogenic bacteria were isolated from Iranian paper notes:
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Streptococcus, Serratia, Salmonella, Pseudomonas,
Citrobacter, Shigella, Listeria, Entrobacter and Micrococcus. The only two fungal genera found on Iranian paper
notes investigated here were Apergilus spp and Penicillium spp. Moreover the estimated number of microbes on
each paper note is also given. The Iranian paper notes are extremely contaminated with pathogenic or potentially
pathogenic microbes and public awareness and raising conciseness seem to be necessary.
Key words: Microbial Contamination, Iranian currency, Public health.
*Corresponding author
ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 243
INTRODUCTION
Comprising a large number of organisms, Microbes are found everywhere including on
paper notes frequently exchanged among different people of different social classes and
occupations; even among children. Therefore contaminated paper notes can result in spreading
dangerous diseases caused by pathogens. people with different skins, sweat PHs, skin
secretions, activities and diseases (skin, digestive and respiratory tract diseases) bear too many
different and probably disease causing microbes which can be transferred efficiently via
handling money so that some microbes are removed and some others are added to the paper
note during each exchange of paper note.
This supposition that currency notes might act as vehicles for microbe transmission was
suggested in 1970s [1] for the first time. In 1999 [7] proved that coins could serve as potential
vehicles for transmitting both E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella.
There are several studies on the microbial contamination of currency worldwide
[1,2,4,6,8,11,13,14,16,17] and many pathogens have been identified including
Staphylocococcus, Escherichia, Klebsiella, Shigella, Salmonella, Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Diphtroids, Citrobacter and so on.
The degree to which paper notes are contaminated is incredible, for example,
pathogenic or potentially pathogenic organisms were isolated from 94% of one- dollar bills
examined [13]. Then currency notes can be considered as efficient vehicles for microbe
transmission, and can cause food- related diseases. However, the degrees of contamination and
types of microbes may be area- dependence because of the texture of paper notes, sanity
condition and microbe endemism.
This study focused on the amount of fungal and bacterial contaminations on intact and
in circulation Iranian currency, and raising health carefulness in people during currency
handling.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample collection:
A total of 30 readily available old paper notes (paper notes in circulation) and 15 intact
fresh paper notes (paper notes newly minted and were not entered in currency system) in Iran
were used in this study. The notes selected for the study comprised nine series of 5- notes
each. Three of which included R 20000 (units of currency in Iran is Rial) fresh notes and the rest
included old notes of R 500, R 1000, R 2000, R 5000, R 10000 and R 20000 (table 1). Samples
were collected wearing sterile gloves from different occupation groups such as supermarkets,
ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 244
bakeries, butcheries, taxi drivers and so on and about fresh paper notes from bank treasury.
Each paper note was kept in separate sterile nylon bag until the preparations took place.
Table 1. Numbers of old and fresh paper notes examined for each denomination
R500
0
R1000
0
R2000
0
R5000
0
R1000
00
R200000
(1)
R200000
(2)
R200000
(3)
New
notes
0
0
0
0
0
5b
5b
5b
Old
notes
5a
5a
5a
5a
5a
0
0
0
a Paper notes collected in sterile condition from artisans
b Paper notes collected in sterile condition from bank treasury
Microbe isolation, culturing and characterization:
For microbe isolations each paper note was treated by 100 cc broth wash. Using a
sampler 0.1 cc of the microbe bearing liquid cultivated on appropriate media [1,4,8,12]. The
number of colonies were counted after incubation for 72 hours in 37º C and pure colonies on
mac cankey agar, blood agar and chocolate agar and potato dextrose agar (for fungal growth)
were characterized and well isolated colonies were identified using macroscopic and
microscopic features and biochemical tests in selective and differential media.
Finally by multiplying in 1000 total number of colonies on each paper note was calculated
(tables 2 and 3).
RESULTS
The number of microbial colonies, the total number of organisms on each paper note
and the types of colonies were given in tables 2 and 3, and medically hazardous well- isolated
colonies were identified. Not only old paper notes showed microbial contamination but intact
fresh paper notes also had degrees of dirtiness. As expected the data showed that microbial
contamination degree of old paper notes was much higher than that of the fresh ones.
However, the gram positive colonies were larger in both quantity and variety on Iranian
currency than the gram negative colonies. The contamination of fresh paper notes, which
probably come from the place where the printing and the production of notes takes place, was
negligible or absent. Selective and differential cultivations showed that these medically
important bacteria were present on the Iranian currency: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus
aureus, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Streptococcus, Serratia, Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Citrobacter,
Shigella, Listeria, Entrobacter, Micrococcus. The only two genera of fungi found on paper notes
studied were Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp.
ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 245
Table 2. Data acquired on old paper notes: the number of colonies on each paper note, the types of gram
positive and gram negative bacteria and the number of fungal colonies.
R 1000
R 500
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
fungi
g-
g+
NOC
0
0
10 (nsp) bacilli
2 (sp)bacilli
9 cocci
21×103
1
5 pen
1 cocus
2 bacilli
1 cocus
9×103
1
23 Pen
30 Asp
1 bacillus
4 bacilli
58×103
2
2 Asp
0
2 bacilli
1 cocus
5×103
2
0
0
4 (sp) bacilli
4×103
3
1 pen
2 bacilli
4 (sp) bacilli
5 (nsp) bacilli
2 cocous
14×103
3
0
2 bacilli
1 cocous
26 (sp) bacilli
3 cocci
32×103
4
2 pen
1 bacillus
3 (sp) bacilli
1 cocus
7×103
4
0
0
2 (sp) bacilli
3 cocci
5×103
5
0
5 bacilli
3 cocci
8×103
5
R 5000
R 2000
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
1 Pen
0
28 cocci
29×103
1
0
6 cocci
1 bacilus
32 clustered cocci
6 tetrad form cocci
45×103
1
3 Pen
2 Asp
8 bacili
10 coccii
23×103
2
0
1 bacilus
1 bacillus
2 cocci
3×103
2
0
0
12 (sp) bacilli
3 cocci
15×103
3
0
0
3 clustered cocci
3×103
3
0
0
1 bacilus
1 coccus
1 cocubacillus
3×103
4
2 Pen
1 cocubacillus
4 bacilli
15 clustered cocci
6 tetrad form cocci
28×103
4
0
0
28 bacilli
1
cocubacillus
29×103
5
0
0
34 (sp) bacilli
1 (nsp) bacillus
2 cocci
37×103
5
R 20000
R 10000
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
1 Pen
1 coccus
3 bacilli
1 cocus
6×103
1
0
0
1 (sp) bacillus
3 cocci
4×103
1
0
0
1 bacillus
103
2
0
0
5 bacilli
5×103
2
0
0
1 cocus
103
3
0
0
10 (sp) bacilli
10×103
3
0
0
1 cocus
103
4
0
1 cocus
1 cocubacillus
2×103
4
0
0
2 bacilli
12 cocci
14×103
5
1 Pen
0
1 cocus
2×103
5
NOC: number of colonies on each paper notes.
(sp.): spore producing.
(nsp): non spore producing.
pen: Penicillium.
asp: Aspergillus.
ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 246
Table 3. Data acquired on fresh paper notes: the number of colonies on each paper note, the types of gram
positive and gram negative bacteria and the number of fungal colonies.
New R20000 (2)
New R20000 (1)
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
No.
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
No.
1 Pen
2 Asp
0
0
3×103
1
1 Asp
0
0
103
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
1 Pen
1 Asp
0
1 bacillus
3×103
3
0
0
0
4
0
0
1 cocubacillus
1 cocus
2×103
4
1 Asp
0
0
103
5
2 Asp
0
0
2×103
5
New R20000 (3)
Fungi
g-
g+
NOC
No.
2 Pen
1 Asp
0
0
3×103
1
2 Pen
0
0
2×103
2
2 Pen
0
0
2×103
3
3 Pen
0
0
3×103
4
2 Pen
1 Asp
0
0
3×103
5
NOC: number of colonies on each paper notes.
(sp.): spore producing.
(nsp): non spore producing.
pen: Penicillium.
asp: Aspergillus.
DISCUSSION
Adverting the significant frequency of bacteria on old paper notes and their negligible
frequency on the fresh ones, their sources should be the places where paper notes are come
into contact including skin, respiratory system, digestive system and also other places where
notes are deposited or come into occasional contact such as earth, mud and so on.
Owing to their constructional substance (which is pure cotton), the Iranian paper notes
cannot be suitable media for microbe dwelling, growth, and reproduction or nourishment. So
notes may play a major role as a vehicle and a surface area for microbe transferring. It means
that frequency and duration of presence of a special microbe should not be expected to prevail
the others. Naturally, microbes found on paper notes come from the sources with which they
come into contact.
Since Paper notes are commonly contaminated with frequently high pathogenic or
potentially pathogenic microbes, they may cause different disease even if they are normally
ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 247
saprophytes. As reported earlier , there is no strong relationship between demonstrations and
degrees of contamination, probably because of the same substance (pure cotton). However,
use of polymer paper notes may decrease contamination to a large extent
It has been well shown that currency provides a surface area for microbe establishment
and functions as a strong vehicle in transmitting microbes as well , so that depending on where
the money has been passed through its microbial flora will change. For example the highest
intestinal pathogen contamination was reported in butcheries and the lowest isolates were
observed on paper notes obtained from office workers. As a result, the poorer the sanity
condition is, the more currency contamination will be seen. The matter of great importance is
that not only children and foods are susceptible to microbial infections, but also vulnerable
people and patients of weakened immune system as well as healthy people are prone to
serious dangers, due to presence of different and abundant pathogens on paper notes.
The pathogenic or potentially pathogenic bacteria found on these Iranian paper notes,
namely Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Streptococcus, Serratia,
Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, Shigella, Listeria, Entrobacter, and Micrococcus (which
are similar to previous studies in different countries) may cause a wide variety of diseases from
food poisoning, wound and skin infections, respiratory and gastrointestinal problems to life
threatening diseases such as meningitis, septicemia and the like. The pathogenic genus
Aspergilus, reported earlier on the Nigerian currency , was found frequently on the paper notes
investigated in this study even on the intact newly minted ones. The inhalation of its spores
may lead to sever pulmonary aspergillosis. Moreover the pennicillium spp. are occasional
causes of infection in man, the resulting disease is called penicilliosis.
The above mentioned diseases and many others threaten Iranian Children, hospital
hosts, immunocompromised patients and even healthy people who are in contact with paper
notes. The following recommendations and suggestions have been given to reduce currency
contamination and improve public health: 1- enhancement of public awareness of currency
contamination through media in order to keep currency clean, out of children reach and away
from foods and more care be taken while handling money 2- Use of washable polymer paper
notes 3- disinfection of paper notes in banks by ultra violate light, supersonic and chemicals
(Singh et al. 2002), and 4- off course electronically transaction replace the traditional methods
of trading in which paper notes play a key role. The later can greatly decrease wasting national
resources on replacing tattered paper notes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The laboratory equipment of this paper was partly supplied by university of Zabol, we
thank Mr. Rajabe at university of Zabol who kindly edited the English manuscript.
ISSN: 0975-8585
July – September 2011 RJPBCS Volume 2 Issue 3 Page No. 248
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Full-text available
  • May 2018
Background: Paper currencies are largely exchanged and as of the high incidence varying from place to place, could help as ways for communication of multi-resistant bacterial pathogens. The purpose is to found out bacterial contaminations of Iraqi currencies collected from numerous communities and their susceptibility to antibiotics at Duhok city, Iraq. Subject and Methods: A total of 302 currencies were collected from 8 community residents and examined by culturing on Blood, Mannitol salt, MacConkey and Chocolate agar. Identification of the growing isolates were done by regular conventional bacteriological approaches. Results of susceptibility testing to fourteen antibiotics were carried out as per Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines. Results: Out of 302 collected samples, 96% revealed bacterial contamination that 16 % had mixed bacterial isolates. An overall of 9 different bacterial species were isolated from six Iraqi currencies. Of them, (24.2%) was Bacillus subtitles followed by Escherichia coli (14.6%), Staphylococcus aureus (13.4%), Micrococcus (13.0%), Staphylococcu salbus (10.6%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (10.2%), Klebsiella (9.9%), Proteus (2.5%) and Enterobacter (1.6%); general isolates were displayed high resistance to Vancomycin, Erythromycin, Ampicillin and Cefixime; lacking or slight resistance to Amikacin, Gentamicin, Ciprofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Azithromycin, Ceftriaxone and Rifampin. Conclusions: Study revealed that Iraqi currencies that circulating in Duhok city was contaminated with diverse and likely pathogenic bacteria comprising multi antibiotic resistant strains. Therefore the need to progress health awareness among people while handling currency is a crucial matter. Duhok Med J 2018; 12 (1): 63-72
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... This latter observation goes with. 8,15,17,20 Furthermore, the description of isolates didn't comprise molecular methods forcreating a link between isolates from currency and those of clinical origin to determine the role of currency in transmission of pathogens. Despite these restrictions, the current study produced valuable data to be used for immediate involvement besides helping as a baseline for additional studies. ...
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... Survey of microbial contamination of Iranian currency papers (Dehghani, et al., 2011). ...
Microbial Contamination on different Paper Currency in, Jhunjhunu,Rajasthan, India: A Review
Research
Full-text available
  • Oct 2018
Microbial Contamination on different Paper Currency in, Jhunjhunu,Rajasthan, India: A Review
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Contamination of Coliforms in Different Paper Currency Notes of Bangladesh
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2006
To determine the degree of contamination of taka notes, samples of the notes circulating in different local markets and people of different professions in Khulna region of Bangladesh were collected. Coliforms, the indicator organisms in taka notes were determined by multiple tube method and identified with differential media and data were analyzed. About 80±5% of old two-taka notes were contaminated with total coliforms and 16±4% of notes were found contaminated with fecal coliforms. But comparatively newer two-taka notes showed that 43±3% were contaminated with total coliforms and 5±2% were with fecal coliforms, suggesting the notion that more handled taka notes were contaminated more intensely even by fecal coliforms. Ten taka notes also represented the same pattern of results as two-taka notes, indicating that taka notes may carry enteric pathogens. This study also revealed that porsaline paper notes were easily vulnerable to coliforms contamination whereas polymer paper notes were almost free from coliforms suggesting that polymer paper notes are safer to use than porsaline paper notes.
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Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Enteritidis on Currency
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 1999
The fate of foodborne pathogens Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Enteritidis on coin surfaces was determined at room temperature (25 degrees C). A five-strain mixture of E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella Enteritidis of approximately 5 x 10(4) CFU was applied to the surfaces of sterile U.S. coins (pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters) and to the surfaces of two control substrata (Teflon and glass coverslips). During storage at room temperature, E. coli O157:H7 survived for 7, 9, and 11 days on the surfaces of pennies, nickels, and dimes and quarters, respectively. However, the pathogen died off within 4 to 7 days on both the Teflon and glass surfaces. Salmonella Enteritidis survived for 1, 2, 4, and 9 days on the surfaces of pennies, nickels, quarters, and dimes, respectively. Unlike E. coli O157:H7, survival of Salmonella Enteritidis was greatest on both Teflon and glass coverslips, with more than 100 cells per substratum detected at the 17th day of storage. Results indicate that coins could serve as potential vehicles for transmitting both E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Enteritidis.
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A preliminary bacterial study of Egyptian paper money
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2005
The objective of this study was to investigate the extent of contamination of some of the most used paper denominations of the Egyptian currency (25 PT). Sixty-nine bills in circulation were collected from November 2003 through January 2004. A swab from each bill was cultured on nutrient agar and incubated at 37 degrees C for 48 h. Results showed that over 65% of these bills had a bacterial count above 5.0 cm2. A preliminary identification of organisms present on these paper notes was done using selected Petri dishes with well-defined colonies.
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Dirty money? a bacteriologie investigation of us currency
Article
  • Jan 1997
A previous study of US currency found it to be quite contaminated with potential bacterial pathogens. The current study suggests that American money may now be in better hands.
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Bacteriological examination of paper money
Article
  • Nov 1992
  • MIKROBIYOL BUL
Bacteriological survey of one hundred twenty currency notes was done. Aerobic spore-forming bacilli (91%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (63.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (4.2%), Enterococcus (24.1%), alpha-hem. streptococcus (4.1%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (1.7%), Corynebacterium (7.5%), Lactobacilli (10.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (31.7%), Enterobacter (19.2%), E. coli (17.5%), Proteus (1.7%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (0.8%), Shigella flexneri (0.8%) were isolated from paper money samples. Currency notes in general were bacteriologically contaminated especially with enteric pathogens and potentially pathogens, it was thought that some measures have to be taken to reduce these ill effects.
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Contamination of currency notes with enteric bacterial pathogens
Article
  • Sep 1989
  • J Diarrhoeal Dis Res
To determine the degree of faecal contamination of currency notes, samples of the notes that were in circulation in a local market in Rangoon were collected and examined bacteriologically to count the number of the total bacteria and faecal coliforms (TC, FC) using standard methods. TC and FC ranged from 0 to 2.9 X 10(7)/sq cm of currency notes and the isolation rates of pathogens increased during the hot wet season. Enteric pathogens, such as enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Vibrio, and Salmonella were isolated from paper-money samples obtained from butchers and fish mongers. The study suggests that currency notes may carry enteric pathogens.
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Cutaneous aspergillosis
Article
  • Feb 1996
  • DERMATOL CLIN
Aspergillosis comprises a spectrum of diseases caused by species of a ubiquitous saprophytic mold, Aspergillus, that usually live on decaying vegetation. Aspergillus organisms rarely behave as pathogens in an immunocompetent host. In the presence of immunosuppression, however, aspergillus may be invasive and take a fulminant course. Aspergillosis is the second most frequent opportunistic fungal infection surpassed only by candidiasis; therefore, early detection and treatment are essential to minimize morbidity and mortality. This article reviews the historical aspects, etiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathology, and treatment of this disease and focuses on the cutaneous aspects of species of Aspergillus known to infect humans.
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Bacterial Contamination of Paper Currency
Article
  • Jan 2003
One-dollar bills were collected from the general community in western Ohio to survey for bacterial contamination. Pathogenic or potentially pathogenic organisms were isolated from 94% of the bills. These results suggest a high rate of bacterial contamination of one-dollar bills.
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Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) identification of the culturable bacterial flora on monetary coinage from 17 currencies
Article
  • Apr 2005
  • J ENVIRON HEALTH
The aim of the investigation reported in this paper was to identify the bacterial microflora on monetary coinage from 17 countries by employment of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) sequenced-based molecular identification of rDNA from bacterial cultures. Silver, bronze, and other alloy coins (approximately 300 g) from 17 currencies were enriched individually by aerobic culturing in tryptone soya broth for 72 hours at 30 degrees C. Next, 20 microL of broth was inoculated onto Columbia blood agar supplemented with 5 percent volume-pervolume (v/v) defibrinated horse blood for 72 hours at 30 degrees C, and resulting colonies were purified by further subculture, as detailed above, for a further 72 hours. All colonies were identified by initial PCR amplification of a partial region of the 16S rDNA gene locus, which was then sequenced, and the sequence was aligned according to the BLASTn algorithm. Twenty-five isolates were obtained from the coinage; of these, 25 (100 percent) were Gram positive, and the most prevalent genus observed was Bacillus (B. megaterium, B. lentus, B. litoralis, B. subtilis, B. circulans and other Bacillus spp.), which accounted for 10 of 25 isolates (40 percent) and was isolated from 10 of 17 countries (58.8 percent). It was followed in prevalence by Staphylococcus spp. (Staph. aureus, Staph. epidermidis, Staph. hominis, Staph. schleiferi), which accounted for 7 of 25 isolates (28 percent) and were isolated from 7 of 17 countries (41.2 percent). Given the organisms identified in this study, it is not believed that monetary coinage presents any particular risk to public health. The authors support the principles of basic hygiene, however, in terms of proper handwashing and the avoidance of handling money when working with food or dressing wounds and skin lesions, In conclusion, the study demonstrated that money from 17 countries was contaminated by environmental Gram-positive flora, in particular Bacillus spp., and that the universal 16S rDNA-PCR approach coupled with automated direct sequencing provides a rapid means of identifying the contaminant organisms present.
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