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Does project-based learning enhance Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention?

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Vocabulary knowledge is an integral part of second/foreign language learning. Thus, using teaching methods that can help learners retain and expand their vocabulary knowledge is necessary to facilitate the language learning process. The current research investigated the effectiveness of an interactive classroom method, known as Project-Based Learning (PBL), in helping Iranian EFL learners not just learn but retain new vocabulary knowledge. To this end, an experimental approach using two groups of participants (i.e. experimental and control) was employed. The experimental group was taught using the PBL method while the control group was taught using the conventional method. The findings of the study indicated that learners who were taught using the PBL approach (i.e. the experimental group) had a significant improvement in their vocabulary recall and retention rate. Besides, they even showed better retention of new vocabulary with higher level of difficulty. This supports previous findings on the effectiveness of PBL as a vocabulary teaching method in the EFL context which could contribute to the betterment of the existing teaching methods.
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Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 83
* Corresponding author: School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia
Email address: azadeh.shafaei@gmail.com
© Urmia University Press
Urmia University
Vocabulary knowledge is an integral part of second/foreign language learning. Thus, using teaching
methods that can help learners retain and expand their vocabulary knowledge is necessary to facilitate
the language learning process. The current research investigated the effectiveness of an interactive
classroom method, known as Project-Based Learning (PBL), in helping Iranian EFL learners not just learn
but retain new vocabulary knowledge. To this end, an experimental approach using two groups of
participants (i.e. experimental and control) was employed. The experimental group was taught using
the PBL method while the control group was taught using the conventional method. The findings of the
study indicated that learners who were taught using the PBL approach (i.e. the experimental group) had
a significant improvement in their vocabulary recall and retention rate. Besides, they even showed
better retention of new vocabulary with higher level of difficulty. This supports previous findings on the
effectiveness of PBL as a vocabulary teaching method in the EFL context which could contribute to the
betterment of the existing teaching methods.
Keywords: project-based learning (PBL); vocabulary knowledge; vocabulary recall; vocabulary
retention; collaborative learning
© Urmia University Press
Received: 6 May 2015 Revised version received: 6 June 2015
Accepted: 10 June 2015 Available online: 1 July 2015
Does project-based learning enhance Iranian EFL
learners vocabulary recall and retention?
Azadeh Shafaei a, *, Hajar Abdul Rahim a
a Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
A B S T R A C T
A R T I C L E H I S T O R Y
Content list available at www.urmia.ac.ir/ijltr
Iranian Journal
of
Language Teaching Research
84 Shafaei & Abdul Rahim/Does project-based learning
Introduction
Knowing how a language works may not necessarily enable one to communicate in the language;
however, it is usually possible to communicate if one has the vocabulary of the language (Wallace,
1988). In other words, vocabulary knowledge is “the basic building block of language, the units of
meaning from which larger structures such as sentences, paragraphs and whole texts are formed”
(Read, 2000, p. 1). Vocabulary is an essential part of a speaker’s linguistic competence as it provides
input for other language skills such as speaking and writing (Nation & Waring, 1997). Without the
vocabulary, speakers of a language cannot convey meaning and communicate effectively.
According to Bowen, Madson, and Hilferty (1985), lexical problems, which refer to inappropriate
use of words, would break down communication. Therefore, vocabulary is a pivotal component of
every language. Furthermore, any experienced teacher knows that even when students have more
or less mastered the English grammar, they still face masses of unknown words as they continue
studying (Allen, 1983). Since vocabulary knowledge is an integral part of any language learning
process, it would be impossible to learn a language without vocabulary. Additionally, Rivers (1981,
p. 110) mentioned that vocabulary should be presented, and explained in all kinds of activities to
promote better learning.” This specifically suggests that language teachers play crucial roles in rising
interest and creating excitement on teaching vocabulary to the students. More importantly, they
can help their students by giving ideas on how to learn vocabulary and some guidance on what to
learn.
Since vocabulary is a crucial part of learner’s linguistic repertoire, it is pivotal to consider the
challenges involved in learning and acquiring it. This is essentially because vocabulary knowledge
is measured not just in terms of number of words (i.e. breadth), but also in terms of quality (i.e.
depth). Therefore, vocabulary acquisition involves several different learning processes, and as
research suggests employing effective vocabulary instruction is fundamental to ensure learners
retain new vocabulary knowledge. In other words, the teaching techniques used in the classroom
should ensure that learners not only learn, but also acquire new vocabulary knowledge of the target
language (Dobinson, 2006).
Despite the call for effective vocabulary teaching and learning methods, the employment of
outdated teaching techniques is still a key problem in many non-native English language learning
contexts. As Gu (2003) stated, the traditional approach of lectures and laboratory exercises
provides the necessary foundation of knowledge, but it often limits students’ participation in the
learning process, whereas vocabulary acquisition is a very learner-centred activity which can
promote motivation towards new vocabulary acquisition. Indeed, this is the case in Iran where
English is a foreign language, taught in most schools using a combination of the grammar-
translation method (GTM) and the audio-lingual method (Shafaei, 2008). As these approaches
emphasize content and rote-learning, English vocabulary lessons commonly require teachers to
translate lessons into Persian, the learners’ native language, before providing them with the
meaning of new vocabulary. This one-way learning method essentially means that learners rely
heavily on their teachers and do not have the opportunity to be engaged in active learning (Shafaei,
2008). Such ineffective classroom methods naturally do not promote learners’ vocabulary
development. Outside the classroom, the foreign language context further compounds learners’
problem of poor vocabulary development as there is hardly any opportunity for learners to use the
language for every day interactions. Even with new ways of learning that are available with the
advent of technology as well as the internet, there seems to be little improvement in teaching
methods. In other words, despite the opportunities, vocabulary teaching strategies remain
uninteresting and ineffective, with little focus on context and active learning (Kamyab, 2007).
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 85
The Iranian EFL teaching and learning realities, therefore, indicate that in spite of the progress in
the field with regards to approaches, methods and techniques, the educational system adamantly
adheres to the behaviourist-advocated pedagogic approaches. The problems faced by learners and
teachers strongly suggest that there is a desperate need for a shift in the way English is approached
in the classroom (Talebinezhad & Aliakbari, 2002). With regards to teaching and learning, this
essentially calls for innovative methods that not only help overcome passive learning and engage
learners, but also importantly motivate them, enhance their vocabulary knowledge and improve
learning outcomes. Additionally, learners’ engagement with vocabulary is very crucial to facilitate
vocabulary learning and acquisition. As such, promoting engagement is considered as one of the
most essential tasks of teachers (Schmitt, 2008). In relation to vocabulary, this engagement can be
promoted through interactive classroom activities that involve communicative tasks and teamwork.
These activities not only provide learners with opportunities to harness their spoken skills, but also
to negotiate new knowledge, including vocabulary knowledge, with members of their group
(Nation, 2002).
Thus, it is paramount for students to become aware of their potentials and capabilities in
completing tasks. As Vygotsky (1978) emphasized, language and consciousness are within the same
matrix of social activity, so language is not something isolated. If the students are conscious about
their abilities, they can perform well in learning and also actively participate in social activities of
language which cause language learning. Project-Based Learning (PBL) is one of the modern
teaching methods based on constructivist pedagogy that intends to engage learners in deep learning
process with issues and questions that are rich and relevant to the topic of lesson. It is designed to
be used for complex issues that require learners to investigate in order to understand (Barron et al.,
1998).
This fundamentally means that PBL provides learners with the opportunity to acquire a number of
important skills, such as learning from their peers, being responsible for each other as well as setting
and achieving their learning objectives (Gillies, 2007; Wang, 2012). Learners’ interactive learning
will, in turn, help them in the construction of knowledge through exploration (Jang, 2006; Johnson
& Aragon, 2003; Prince & Felder, 2007). Learners reflect on their ideas through negotiation and
communication with their peers that can enhance their language skills, promote their acquisition
of new knowledge and help them achieve their goals (Diehl, Grobe, Lopez, & Cabral, 1999).
In PBL, context is central and in line with the findings of a study by Webb (2007), context plays a
fundamental role in gaining vocabulary knowledge. This fundamental feature of PBL makes it
suitable for the L2 and EFL classrooms since context is necessary to provide comprehensible input
(Krashen, 1989). In other words, PBL is likely to provide large doses of acquisition activities in the
classroom, with a very minor role of learning that is recommended in the language classroom
(Brown, 2000). Given its potential as a teaching method that promotes collaborative and active
learning, and the gap in the literature on PBL in the vocabulary classroom, the present study aims
to investigate the effectiveness of this method on the acquisition of new vocabulary by EFL
learners. In the following sections, central issues concerning vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary
acquisition and learning, and PBL are discussed.
Vocabulary knowledge and learning
Vocabulary knowledge has been discussed from two main perspectives, namely its breadth and
depth (Nation, 2001). Vocabulary breadth refers to the quantity of vocabulary items known by an
individual. Knowing an item does not only mean knowing its meaning (concepts, referents,
associations), but also its form (spelling, pronunciation, word parts) and use (functions,
86 Shafaei & Abdul Rahim/Does project-based learning
collocations, constraints) (Nation, 2001). Nation and Waring (1997) argued that the breadth of
knowledge is concerned with the question: How much vocabulary does a second language learner need? In
relation to this, Vermeer (2001) suggested that breadth is a reflection of input. More input leads to
greater depth, which essentially refers to the quality of that vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2001).
Nonetheless, both depth and breadth of vocabulary could be the important dimensions of input
to determine learners’ vocabulary knowledge (Richard, 2011).
According to Nation (1990), knowing a word receptively involves being able to distinguish the
word from other similar words, judge whether the word sounds right or looks right, have an
expectation about the word’s grammatical pattern as well as its collocation with other words, and
recall its meaning when it is met. Measuring learners’ vocabulary recall can reveal their learning of
new vocabulary in the target language. Vocabulary acquisition, which involves cognitive search and
evaluation activities, on the other hand, can only be revealed by measuring learners’ vocabulary
retention (Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001).
Learners’ vocabulary recall and retention are influenced by a number of factors such as the role of
teacher, the role of input in vocabulary lessons and the role of classroom interaction in vocabulary
lessons (Dobinson, 2006). While these are crucial, it may be argued that the learning process is
fundamental. In relation to this, the literature shows that researchers draw a distinction between
implicit and explicit vocabulary learning (R. Ellis, 1995). Implicit (or incidental) learning is often
defined in negative terms, e.g. as accidental learning of information without the intention of
remembering that information (Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996). However, Huckin and
Coady (1999) argued that implicit learning cannot be totally incidental because the latter is a
completely “subconscious” process. In implicit learning, at least some attention must be paid to
the input by the learner. However, explicit learning focuses on learners’ application of several
vocabulary learning strategies (Klykova, 2008). In essence, when learners acquire knowledge
naturally, simply and without conscious operation, it is regarded as implicit learning, whereas when
they learn knowledge consciously by searching, testing hypotheses and involving themselves in the
process of learning, it is called explicit learning (N. C. Ellis, 1994).
Research in vocabulary learning in the second and foreign language contexts shows that implicit
learning should be accompanied by explicit learning to promote vocabulary acquisition (Sökmen,
1997). Given this, PBL as an innovative instructional strategy which emphasizes on the role of
context as well as learning by doing can promote both explicit and implicit ways of learning
vocabulary (Liu & Hsiao, 2002). This brings the discussion to the issue of PBL as a learning method
and its application in the vocabulary classroom.
Project-based Learning Method
PBL is essentially a teaching/learning approach which organizes students’ learning activities around
projects and was introduced into the field of second and foreign language education as a way to
reflect the principles of student-centred teaching (Hedge, 1993). The method is commonly
associated with the constructivist theory of learning which states that all individuals are born with
an innate drive to understand the world around them and to make meaning of their experiences
(Caine, Caine, & McClintic, 2002).
A review of early second and foreign language acquisition literature shows that the major goal of
project-based instruction is to provide opportunities for language learners to receive
comprehensible input and produce comprehensible output (Eyring, 1989). In line with this, PBL
shifts the learning focus from “teacher telling” to student-centred “learning by doing” and
emphasizes the employment of real life activities to promote learning (Project Based Learning,
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 87
2007). Besides, Hulstijn and Laufer (2001) highlighted the role of three components involved in
learners’ vocabulary engagement namely; need, search and evaluation which can lead to vocabulary
learning and acquisition. This feature of PBL facilitates students’ vocabulary learning because, as
Dobinson (2006) argued, activities that consider the role of context, research, teacher, classroom interaction
as well as input in vocabulary lessons can lead to the enhancement of students’ vocabulary
knowledge. Indeed, the more processes which are involved in learning a word could result in better
retention and recall (Carter, 1998; Ramachandran & Rahim, 2004).
Consequently, a study was carried out with the objective of investigating the extent to which the
PBL method promotes the acquisition of new vocabulary among Iranian learners of English. To
achieve the objective of the study, the PBL method was compared to the conventional method in
the recall and retention of new vocabulary by Iranian learners of English. The research questions
that the study set out to address are:
1. Do Iranian learners who learn new English vocabulary through the PBL method recall
the meaning of the words learnt more effectively?
2. Do learners who learn new English vocabulary through the PBL method have a better
retention rate?
Method
Guided by the research questions, a semi experimental study, using experimental and control
groups, was carried out. According to Farhady (2006), the powerful nature of experimental method
makes it more appropriate to examine the effectiveness of a new teaching method. As such, the
experimental group was taught using the PBL method, while the control group was taught using
the usual conventional method practised in Iranian classrooms. Two stages were involved in this
study, namely preliminary and main stages. The former involved the administration of a preliminary
test and a pilot study to select the lexical items that were needed for the main study. The latter was
essentially the main experimental study which involved the administration of the pre-test,
treatment, post-test, delayed post-test and delayed delayed-post-test to the two groups of
participants. The study treatment was applied through PBL and conventional methods. Figure 1
illustrates the design of the study.
Figure 1. Research Design
88 Shafaei & Abdul Rahim/Does project-based learning
Participants
The participants of the study included 40 EFL learners aged 16-18, who were attending a private
English language institute in Rasht, Iran at the time of study. They possessed an equal level of
vocabulary knowledge which was determined through the pre-test that was administered prior to
the treatment sessions in the main stage of the research. They were then randomly selected and
divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group (n=20) underwent PBL
method, while the control group (n=20) was taught the conventional way (i.e. the teacher-centred
method used at the institute).
Instruments
The study employed two kinds of instruments, teaching and testing. The teaching instrument
consisted of the stimulus items, and teaching materials used in the treatment stage. In total, 30
lexical items, extracted from the learners’ textbook American Cutting Edge: Level 1 published by
Longman, formed the stimulus items for the study. While both groups were taught the 30 lexical
items, the teaching materials used were different. The control group participants were completely
dependent on their textbook while the experimental group (PBL group) used other materials such
as hand-outs, pictures, posters, interviews, power points, and technology applications such as
computer and the internet.
The testing instruments consisted of two tests, a preliminary test and a vocabulary test. The
preliminary test was administered to 40 elementary learners at the institute who were not involved
in the main study. It was a multiple-choice question (MCQ) test on 100 lexical items extracted
from institute’s final exam papers. The test was administered 2 weeks before the main study by a
group of teachers.
The 100 lexical items were taken from 5 different modules. Items from each module that students
had the least knowledge of (identified through the lower scores) were selected as stimulus items
for the vocabulary test that was needed for the main study. In total, 30 items comprised of nouns
and adjectives were selected as presented in Figure 2. The 30 words formed the stimulus items that
were used in the vocabulary tests (pre-, post-, delayed post- and delayed-delayed-post- tests)
administered in the main study, in the form of Multiple Choice Questions. To ensure the reliability
of the test as well as the treatment that was designed for the main study, a pilot study was conducted
using 10 learners. One module of the lesson was taught to them using the PBL method. The results
of the pilot study were useful in revising the lesson plans for the actual study.
Figure 2. The 30 Stimulus Items
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 89
Main study
As illustrated in Figure 1, the main study consisted of a pre-test, treatment, post-test, delayed post-
test and delayed delayed-post-test. The process took 12 weeks to complete. The pre-test was
administered to both groups two days before the actual treatment. As stated earlier, the pre-test
was administered to gauge the level of vocabulary knowledge of participants in both groups before
the treatment phase. The results of the pre-test show that both groups had the same mean score
of .80 out of a possible score of 30. This means at the point of the treatment, both groups
demonstrated very little knowledge of the stimulus items. Following the pre-test, the learners were
randomly divided into two groups, control and experimental and the treatment phase began. Over
the five weeks of treatment, the participants in both groups were taught the 30 lexical items. In
other words, participants were taught six new items each week. The rationale for teaching only six
vocabulary items to the EFL learners is that according to Wallace (1988) between five to seven new
lexical items per lesson remain in the active vocabulary. To keep in line with the rules of the English
language institute, five lessons were supposed to be taught during one academic term.
Consequently, 30 new vocabulary items from five lessons were taught to the EFL learners during
the treatment sessions. Each treatment session for both groups was 100 minutes, carried out twice
a week.
In the PBL classroom, at the beginning of the first treatment session, the classroom teacher briefed
the participants on the new method and introduced the procedures as well as the integrated projects
options to them. After a brainstorming session, participants were divided into several groups, each
consisting of 4-5 learners. In each treatment session, participants were given a topic for their project
which necessitated the application of the new stimulus items for the respective week. Real-world
projects required the students to identify the topics and carry out their projects by making choices
and decisions and reporting them both orally and in writing. Specifically, learners started sharing
ideas with their group members in order to find the best tools, materials and sources of information
and later on reporting them orally and in writing in the form of a journal, magazine or newspaper,
power point presentation, poster presentation, videos, etc. The learners also reported their progress
during each session and received feedback from the teacher. Each project took two sessions or one
week to be completed and presented in the class and overall 5 modules were taught to the students
during 5 weeks. It is necessary to note here that since the design of the PBL class, duration of
projects and number of students involved in each project is very context-specific (Atkinson, 2001;
Breiter, Fey, & Drechsler, 2005; Glassy, 2006; Janneck & Bleek, 2002; Losoncy, 1996; Reid &
Wilson, 2005), both PBL class requirements as well as the case centre requirements were taken into
consideration in conducting the treatment sessions.
The control group were taught the same 30 lexical items from the five modules using the method
conventionally used at the institute. A treatment session for the control group usually began with
the teacher’s introduction of the topic. Then, the new lexical items were introduced to the students
with their translations provided to them. This means that the interaction was generally one-way.
The activities in the textbook which reinforce learning of new words were then assigned to the
learners to work on individually. Following this, answers were checked by the teacher and
corrections made by the learners. In certain lessons, the teacher provided learners with worksheets
that provided learners with more practice.
After each 200-minute treatment session, a post-test on the six items that learners were taught in
that week was administered. Given that each group had five sessions of treatment, five post-tests
were administered over the five weeks. As they were administered at the end of each treatment
session, the post-tests essentially measured learners’ recall of the words taught. To measure the
retention rate of learned vocabulary, delayed post-tests were administered. The delayed post-tests
were essentially the same set of tests used as the post-tests but administered from weeks 7 to 11.
90 Shafaei & Abdul Rahim/Does project-based learning
Following Kvam (1999) who measured his subjects’ retention rate after a month or more, the
current study administered each delayed post-test five weeks after the post-test. For instance, the
post-test which was administered after treatment in week 1 was administered as a delayed post-test
in week 7. Figure 3 illustrates the schedule of treatment and tests.
Figure 3. Schedule of pre-test, treatment, post-tests and delayed post-tests
To measure both groups’ retention rate of learned vocabulary, in week 12, the “delayed delayed-
post-test” was administered to the participants in both groups. This test, unlike the post-tests and
delayed post-tests, combined all the questions together. In other words, the delayed-delayed post-
test was carried out to measure the participants’ retention of all the 30 lexical items in one session.
Results
To measure the participants’ vocabulary recall rate, the number of words both groups learned was
measured. An independent sample t-test was then performed to compare the results of the pre-test
against the post-test for both groups. Table 1 summarizes the descriptive statistics for pre-test and
post-test for both experimental and control groups.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Pre-test and Post-test
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Pre-test
20
0.80
1.240
20
0.80
1.436
Post-test
20
28.15
1.565
20
25.30
1.895
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 91
The data show that both groups had the same mean score for the pre-test that was administered
before the treatment that is .80. This satisfies the requirement that participants in both groups had
similar vocabulary knowledge prior to the treatment. The results of the post-tests that were carried
out throughout the treatment period show the expected progress for both groups. The
experimental group had a mean of 28.15 while the control group had a mean of 25.30. These results
essentially reflect participants recall rate of the 30 items they were tested on. In order to investigate
whether there is a significant improvement in the vocabulary recall rate of the experimental group;
an independent sample t-test was performed using SPSS 13.0. Table 2 summarizes the results
according to the modules.
Table 2
Comparison of Post-test Mean Scores for both Groups
Levene’s Test for
Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig.(2-tailed)
Module 1
Equal variances assumed
2.786
0.103
4.018
38
0.000
Equal variances not assumed
4.018
34.664
0.000
Module 2
Equal variances assumed
0.003
0.959
3.270
38
0.002
Equal variances not assumed
3.270
36.267
0.002
Module 3
Equal variances assumed
1.841
0.183
0.588
38
0.560
Equal variances not assumed
0.588
35.989
0.560
Module 4
Equal variances assumed
2.039
0.161
3.961
38
0.000
Equal variances not assumed
3.961
33.613
0.000
Module 5
Equal variances assumed
7.581
0.009
1.926
38
0.062
Equal variances not assumed
1.926
32.705
0.063
The t-test reveals that experimental group had a significantly higher post-test score in modules 1,
2 and 4 at a confidence level of 99% while the difference in post-test scores is not significant in
modules 3 and 5. This is perhaps because the stimulus items in modules 3 and 5 comprise more
nouns than adjectives. This may have decreased the level of difficulty of the two tests because as
Sandhofer and Smith (2007) suggest, nouns are easier to learn compared to adjectives. This view is
in keeping with previous researchers claim that nouns dominate and adjectives are rare in
vocabulary acquisition (e.g., Dromi, 1987; Gasser & Smith, 1998; Gentner, 1978; Jackson-
Maldonado, Thal, Marchman, Bates, & Gutiérrez-Clellen, 1993; Mintz & Gleitman, 2002; Nelson,
1973). They also believe that nouns are learned earlier than adjectives and that adjective learning is
dependent on knowledge of nouns. Results of the t-statistics reveal that the experimental group
had a significantly higher total post-test mean score than the control group. This shows that PBL
significantly improved Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary recall rate at %99 level of confidence.
As stated earlier, participants vocabulary retention was measured using delayed post-tests which
were administered to both groups over five weeks after the post-tests (weeks 7-11). Table 3 shows
the mean scores of the post-tests and delayed post-tests for both groups.
92 Shafaei & Abdul Rahim/Does project-based learning
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics of Post-test and Delayed Post-test
Group
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Post-test
Experimental
20
28.15
1.565
Control
20
25.30
1.895
Delayed Post-test
Experimental
20
26.05
1.468
Control
20
21.30
2.003
The results show that the mean score of the delayed post-tests is lower than the mean score of the
post-tests for both groups. However, it is clear that the experimental group scored higher (26.05)
compared to the control group (21.30). To investigate the significance of mean scores and the
difference between the post-tests and the delayed post-tests, an independent sample t-test was
carried out. The results are reported in Table 4.
Table 4
Comparison of Delayed Post-test Mean Scores for both Groups
Levene’s Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig.(2tailed)
Module 1
Equal variances
assumed
0.269
0.607
5.510
38
0.000
Equal variances not
assumed
5.510
36.417
0.000
Module 2
Equal variances
assumed
0.058
0.812
6.631
38
0.000
Equal variances not
assumed
6.631
37.723
0.000
Module 3
Equal variances
assumed
0.728
0.399
1.205
38
0.236
Equal variances not
assumed
1.205
36.556
0.236
Module 4
Equal variances
assumed
2.499
0.122
4.271
38
0.000
Equal variances not
assumed
4.271
31.522
0.000
Module 5
Equal variances
assumed
0.163
0.689
3.760
38
0.001
Equal variances not
assumed
3.760
37.918
0.001
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 93
Results of the t-test reveal that the experimental group had a significantly higher delayed post-test
score in all modules at a confidence level of 99 %, except for module 3 where the difference was
not statistically significant. This could be due to relatively lower level of difficulty for this module
compared to the other modules as explained earlier. As shown in Table 5, the experimental group
had a significantly higher total delayed post-test score than the control group. This shows that PBL
significantly improved participants’ vocabulary retention rate at %99 level of confidence.
Table 5
Comparison of Retention Rates for the Control and Experimental Groups
Levene’s Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Post-test
Equal variances
assumed
1.049
0.312
5.186
38
0.000
Equal variances not
assumed
5.186
36.694
0.000
Delayed post-
test
Equal variances
assumed
2.514
0.121
8.555
38
0.000
Equal variances not
assumed
8.555
34.845
0.000
To verify the retention rate of acquired vocabulary by the participants, the delayed delayed-post-
test was administered to both groups in week 12 (11 weeks after the first post-test). This test was
exactly the same as the pre-test. It comprised of questions on all the 30 stimulus items from all the
modules. Results show that the experimental group with a mean score of 23.80 outperformed the
control group that scored an overall mean of 17.15, on 99% confidence level (Sig. < 0.01).
[
Discussion
The results of the descriptive analysis essentially bring to light some significant information. Firstly,
the post-tests that were administered immediately after every session over the 5 weeks of treatment
show that the experimental group performed better in terms of vocabulary recall. This suggests
that regardless of the difficulty of adjectives (Gasser & Smith, 1998; Jackson-Maldonado et al.,
1993; Mintz & Gleitman, 2002), the experimental group members who were taught the 30 lexical
items using PBL performed consistently better than the control group. In contrast, the control
group’s highest recall rate was for the module with more nouns. Nonetheless, the score was still
lower than that of the experimental group.
Besides having better recall rate, the experimental group also seemed to have better retention rate.
This is evident from the comparison between the post-tests and delayed post-tests results.
Although the scores for the delayed post-tests for both groups dropped, possibly because students
had forgotten what they learned due to the lapse of time between each post-test and delayed post-
test, the experimental group were found to have performed significantly better than the control
group. This is further confirmed with the results of the delayed delayed post-test.
94 Shafaei & Abdul Rahim/Does project-based learning
The results of the study essentially show that PBL is more effective than the conventional method
of teaching vocabulary in the Iranian context for a number of reasons. Firstly, the method provided
the students in the experimental group with an opportunity to investigate topics, learn from their
experiences and apply their gained knowledge, skills and attitudes to real life cases. It may be argued
that one of the reasons why students who learned the stimulus items through the PBL method
outperformed the other group of learners is that they learned the vocabulary items in contexts rich
enough to provide clues to meaning and because they were given multiple exposures to items they
were to learn (Davies & Pears, 2003).
An authentic learning environment, made possible with the PBL method, also seemed to have
enhanced the experimental group learners’ vocabulary recall and retention even for the words with
higher level of difficulty. This is evident from the experimental group’s better retention of items
in the last two modules than the first three modules. According to Chee, Westphal, Goh, Graham,
and Song (2003), low-frequency words are more difficult to be retrieved and retained than high-
frequency words. However, the fact that the PBL group was able to score higher than the control
group proves that an effective teaching method is very crucial to facilitate vocabulary learning and
more importantly, improve aquisition (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). PBL also helped to engage the
experimental group learners’ interest and motivated them to learn from their peers. In other words,
the collaborative nature of the method promoted cooperative learning and emphasised the role of
context in learning new vocabulary (Nastu, 2009). According to Bligh (1972) and Johnston et al.
(2000), cooperative learning produces deep learning, helps students to apply knowledge in other
contexts, and also promotes a positive attitude towards the subject matter which naturally increases
knowledge retention. Besides, as proven in the literature, learning in a cooperative manner
enhances learners’ interaction, motivation and participation in the subject matter which can lead to
positive outcomes (Moraga & Rahn, 2009). Since PBL is a learning approach that organizes
students’ learning activities around projects, it provides a learning environment with cooperative
group learning (Center for Occupational Research and Development, 2004) which can enhance
EFL learners’ vocabulary recall and retention of vocabulary items.
Conclusion
The results of the present study clearly show that parrot-like learning by repeating the meaning of
words and phrases does not really work. Learners need to have an active role in their learning
process and be responsible for what they learn. They must also be allowed to explore new things
and be independent learners. This study shows that PBL is effective in the Iranian EFL context of
learning. The opportunity to work in a cooperative and authentic learning environment provided
learners with the opportunity to learn and practice a new and different way of learning that
ultimately enhanced their vocabulary recall and retention.
In conclusion, the findings of this study may not be generalized to all Iranian EFL learners because
the participants were from one area of the country. Nonetheless, the findings suggest that an
interactive and effective teaching method is paramount to teach vocabulary to the EFL students,
especially for the current Iranian context where there is a desperate need for a shift in the way
English language is approached in the classroom. A conscious effort must be made to move away
from the existing traditional practices to more effective, practical and useful methods, such as the
PBL method. As the results obtained in this study are not conclusive, further research will be
helpful to gain more insights into vocabulary teaching methods. To verify the value of the PBL
method, it would be desirable to take into consideration other components of curriculum, such as
grammar, reading, writing, and include students from different levels of English language
proficiency such as beginner, intermediate, and advanced.
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 95
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Acknowledgement:
Azadeh Shafaei is a recipient of USM Global Fellowship.
Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 3(2), (July, 2015) 83-99 99
Azadeh Shafaei is a PhD fellow as the School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia.
She has a B.A in English Translation and M.A in Applied Linguistics. She is a recipient of USM
Global Fellowship. Her research interests include Vocabulary Studies, Effective Teaching
Methods, English Teaching, Linguistics, Cross-Cultural Adaptation, Acculturation, Education
Mobility, and Education Internationalization.
Associate Professor Dr. Hajar Abdul Rahim is currently the Dean of School of Humanities,
Universiti Sains Malaysia. She has a B.Sc. in English Education, M.A in TESL, and PhD in
Linguistics. Her areas of specialisation are TESL, Corpus Linguistics, Lexical Studies. Her
research interests include Vocabulary Studies, Corpus-based Lexis Studies, and New Varieties
of English.
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This study aims to: 1) describe the effects of cooperative learning (CL ) on achievement motivation of female college students, and 2) compare the difference in the achievement motivation between the female college students learning through cooperative learning and those learning through the traditional learning pattern. In this study , an intervention program was devised as part of a new learning style to encourage the performance of physical education and achievement motivation in which students (mean age =21.2years, N= 67) were invited to participate as part of physical classes. The questionnaire were completed as pre-test at the beginning of the intervention for overall the treated and control groups and as post-tests at the end of week twelve. T test measures were used to examine whether there were significant differences of achievement motivation within the two groups. The results showed that the cooperative learning classes to improve the achievement motivation among the female college students.
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This collection provides an overview of current approaches, issues, and practices in the teaching of English to speakers of other languages. This book provides an overview of current approaches, issues, and practices in the teaching of English to speakers of other languages. The anthology offers a comprehensive overview to the teaching of English and illustrates the complexity underlying many of the practical planning and instructional activities it involves. Organized into 16 sections, the book contains 41 seminal articles by well-known teacher trainers and researchers. Also included are two sets of discussion questions - a pre-reading background set and a post-reading reflection set. This anthology serves as an important resource for teachers wishing to design a basic course in methodology.
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Cambridge Core - ELT Applied Linguistics - Learning Vocabulary in Another Language - by I. S. P. Nation
Article
Professional software developers use version control systems to coordinate their work, and to provide an unwindable history of their project's evolution. In contrast, students in most programming courses use a homegrown electronic submission program to submit their work, and email to coordinate with partners when doing team projects. In May 2003, we began using CVS, a popular open source version control system, as an assignment submission system. Students receive starter code by checking out the assignment, use the version control system to manage their work, and submit their assignment by committing it to CVS. Teaching assistants grade assignments by checking out each student's repository, and committing the marks. Our experience to date shows that this is both a simpler and a more flexible way to manage student assignments, and also an excellent way to teach them how to use a fundamental software development tool.
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With the help from a grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, we identified 1,000 children who were in 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th grades in 12 school districts from Orlando, Florida, to Long Beach, California, and everywhere in between. Nine years later, we are still following some of the participants as young adults, although a much smaller group of them.
Article
How do we teach and learn vocabulary? How do words work in literary texts? In this book, Ronald Carter provides the necessary basis for the further study of modern English vocabulary with particular reference to linguistic descriptive frameworks and educational contexts. Vocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives includes an introductory account of linguistic approaches to the analysis of the modern lexicon in English and discusses key topics such as vocabulary and language teaching, dictionaries and lexicography and the literary, stylistic study of vocabulary. This Routledge Linguistics Classic includes a substantial new introductory chapter situating the book in the current digital age, covering changes and developments in related fields from lexicography and corpus linguistics to vocabulary testing and assessment as well as additional new references. Vocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives has been widely praised since first publication for the breadth, depth and clarity of its approach and is a key text for postgraduate students and researchers studying vocabulary within the fields of English Language, Applied Linguistics and Education.
Article
A major hurdle in implementing project-based curricula is that they require simultaneous changes in curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices-changes that are often foreign to the students as well as the teachers. In this article, we share an approach to designing, implementing, and evaluating problem- and project-based curricula that has emerged from a long-term collaboration with teachers. Collectively, we have identified 4 design principles that appear to be especially important: (a) defining learning-appropriate goals that lead to deep understanding; (b) providing scaffolds such as "embedded teaching," "teaching tools," sets of "contrasting cases," and beginning with problem-based learning activities before initiating projects; (c) ensuring multiple opportunities for formative self-assessment and revision; and (d) developing social structures that promote participation and a sense of agency. We first discuss these principles individually and then describe how they have been incorporated into a single project. Finally, we discuss research findings that show positive effects on student learning and that show students' reflections on their year as 5th graders were strongly influenced by their experiences in problem- and project-based activities that followed the design principles.