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Positive Affect, Cognitive Processes, and Social Behavior
Abstract
This chapter examines some of the literature demonstrating an impact of affect on social behavior. It will consider the influence of affect on cognition in an attempt to further understand on the way cognitive processes may mediate the effect of feelings on social behavior. The chapter describes the recent works suggesting an influence of positive affect on flexibility in cognitive organization (that is, in the perceived relatedness of ideas) and the implications of this effect for social interaction. The goal of this research is to expand the understanding of social behavior and the factors, such as affect, that influence interaction among people. Another has been to extend the knowledge of affect, both as one of these determinants of social behavior and in its own right. And a third has been to increase the understanding of cognitive processes, especially as they play a role in social interaction. Most recently, cognitive and social psychologists have investigated ways in which affective factors may participate in cognitive processes (not just interrupt them) and have begun to include affect as a factor in more comprehensive models of cognition. The research described in the chapter has focused primarily on feelings rather than intense emotion, because feelings are probably the most frequent affective experiences. The chapter focuses primarily on positive affect.
... Our current affective state can influence our behaviour towards others and it is often assumed that when "we feel good, we do good" (Carlson et al., 1988;Glomb et al., 2011;Isen, 1987). For example, the induction of positive affect through a variety of methods, from receiving good news (Veitch et al., 1977) to thinking about the future (Baumsteiger, 2017) to finding money (Levin & Isen, 1975) have been shown to increase helping and prosociality (see Isen, 1987 for review). ...
... Our current affective state can influence our behaviour towards others and it is often assumed that when "we feel good, we do good" (Carlson et al., 1988;Glomb et al., 2011;Isen, 1987). For example, the induction of positive affect through a variety of methods, from receiving good news (Veitch et al., 1977) to thinking about the future (Baumsteiger, 2017) to finding money (Levin & Isen, 1975) have been shown to increase helping and prosociality (see Isen, 1987 for review). After helping, people often experience a 'warm-glow' (Harbaugh et al., 2007) which can motivate future prosocial acts (Ferguson et al., 2012). ...
... However, neither greater mood valence nor greater calmness preceded helping regardless of the amount of effort involved. This suggests that in everyday life it may not always be the case that when "we feel good, we do good" (Carlson et al., 1988;Glomb et al., 2011;Isen, 1987). Hence, feeling energised, rather than positive affect per se, may be an essential component of engaging in helping behaviour. ...
Our affective states influence whether we help others and after helping we often experience improved affect or reduced stress. One important factor that determines whether we help, and the potential affective consequences of helping, is the amount of effort involved. People are usually less willing to help others if it involves significant effort. In this preregistered study, using an ecological momentary assessment approach in 527 participants, we investigated the affective antecedents and consequences of everyday helping in terms of individuals' self-reported momentary stress and mood, with a specific focus on the perceived amount of effort involved in helping. Regardless of whether helping was deemed high or low in effort, greater energetic arousal predicted subsequent helping, which suggests we must be sufficiently energised when helping others. Contrary to our preregistered hypothesis, higher perceived stress predicted subsequent high effort, but not low effort, helping. Notably, whereas both low and high effort helping predicted subsequent greater energetic arousal, only low effort helping was associated with greater mood valence compared to not helping at all. Additionally, the greater the effort involved in helping, the greater the increase in stress after helping. Thus, the momentary affective benefits for the helper may be most pronounced when helping is associated with low effort costs. These findings have important implications for how the affective benefits of helping involving different amounts of effort can be used as part of a positive feedback loop that fosters and sustains prosocial behaviour.
... Angry drivers were also shown to have the lowest level of perceived safety, and happier drivers were shown to have the highest perceived workload. Happy people typically want to maintain their happiness (Isen, 1987;Wegener et al., 1995), but a challenging driving task might have served as an obstacle to it, which made them perceive relatively high workload. ...
... In the present study, participants experienced driving scenarios that were designed to contain dangerous driving situations that required takeovers, such as driving in a foggy weather and an unpredictable car accident ahead. A motivational theory suggested that the positive affect, such as happiness, might encourage the participants to work harder than other emotions in unpleasant situations to solve problems and maintain their positive state (Isen, 1987;Wegener et al., 1995;Jeon, 2015). In the study by Jeon et al. (2014b), happiness also had numerically higher scores in perceived workload than other emotions. ...
The advancement of Conditionally Automated Vehicles (CAVs) requires research into critical factors to achieve an optimal interaction between drivers and vehicles. The present study investigated the impact of driver emotions and in-vehicle agent (IVA) reliability on drivers’ perceptions, trust, perceived workload, situation awareness (SA), and driving performance toward a Level 3 automated vehicle system. Two humanoid robots acted as the in-vehicle intelligent agents to guide and communicate with the drivers during the experiment. Forty-eight college students participated in the driving simulator study. The participants each experienced a 12-min writing task to induce their designated emotion (happy, angry, or neutral) prior to the driving task. Their affective states were measured before the induction, after the induction, and after the experiment by completing an emotion assessment questionnaire. During the driving scenarios, IVAs informed the participants about five upcoming driving events and three of them asked for the participants to take over control. Participants’ SA and takeover driving performance were measured during driving; in addition, participants reported their subjective judgment ratings, trust, and perceived workload (NASA-TLX) toward the Level 3 automated vehicle system after each driving scenario. The results suggested that there was an interaction between emotions and agent reliability contributing to the part of affective trust and the jerk rate in takeover performance. Participants in the happy and high reliability conditions were shown to have a higher affective trust and a lower jerk rate than other emotions in the low reliability condition; however, no significant difference was found in the cognitive trust and other driving performance measures. We suggested that affective trust can be achieved only when both conditions met, including drivers’ happy emotion and high reliability. Happy participants also perceived more physical demand than angry and neutral participants. Our results indicated that trust depends on driver emotional states interacting with reliability of the system, which suggested future research and design should consider the impact of driver emotions and system reliability on automated vehicles.
... There is growing evidence that positive affect leads people to be more flexible thinkers in both non-social and social contexts-enabling the consideration of multiple aspects of situations. This evidence comes from studies showing that positive affect promotes such processes as elaboration, responsiveness to context, creative problem solving and flexible focus of attention, all of which result in changes in cognitive organization and the ability to see things in new or multiple ways (Isen, 1987(Isen, , 2008Isen et al., 1992). According to Isen (1990), a good technique of affect induction to use in daily life may be that of conveying respect to people, enabling them to feel good about themselves. ...
... Both surprise and positive affect are associated with attitude change. Surprise increases message processing exploration (Smith & Petty, 1996), and positive affect increases flexibility and the ability to see things in new or multiple ways (Isen, 1987). Indeed, effects have been found in variables that evoke openness to the other, such as seeing the other in a positive light, willingness to hear alternative information about the conflict and seeing hope in the future of relations between the groups. ...
Respect has been found to play a crucial role in human relationships including intergroup relations. Its presence has a significant positive influence in shaping the character of all relationship interactions. In intractable violent conflicts, there is almost no space for gestures of respect between adversarial parties, and the prevailing phenomenon is a mutual disrespect that fuels the conflict. This study examines a novel and challenging intervention that aims to induce in laboratory experiments, for the first time, perceptions of respect from adversary group members in the context of intractable inter-group conflict. In addition, this research examines the effect of perceived respect from the adversary on attitudes and perceptions towards the adversary group and the conflict. In three experimental studies (N = 1261) in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, we manipulated expressions of respect from the Palestinian adversary group members and presented them to Jewish Israelis. Results revealed that, a group involved in a prolonged violent conflict may perceive respect from its adversary outgroup, and the perceived respect from the adversary in turn predicts improvement in attitudes and perceptions towards the adversary group and the conflict. These findings underline the important role of respect in intergroup conflict and its role in mitigating the conflict.
... Pride seems to affect the cognitive dimensions of control and legitimacy, thus increasing the tendency to perceive positive events as predictable and the direct consequences of personal decisions and actions, and to consider the contribution of others positively (Fredrickson, 1998(Fredrickson, , 2001Isen, 1987). Moreover, these positive emotions also seem to trigger positive interpersonal predispositions that are in contrast with the ones triggered by fear and anxiety: people tend to be more predisposed to granting concessions and more inclined to listen to the needs and viewpoints of others. ...
... Moreover, these positive emotions also seem to trigger positive interpersonal predispositions that are in contrast with the ones triggered by fear and anxiety: people tend to be more predisposed to granting concessions and more inclined to listen to the needs and viewpoints of others. The combination of these cognitive processes and interpersonal predispositions in turn induces individuals to act promptly and courageously, thereby triggering a virtuous circle of satisfaction and contentment (Fredrickson, 1998(Fredrickson, , 2001Isen, 1987) (Fig. 3). ...
Emergency policies are among the most challenging policies that policy makers have to deal with, because of their extreme seriousness, the lack of time, and the high uncertainties that are involved. Policy analyses have demonstrated that good structural and organizational strategies are important, but not sufficient, to systematically guarantee a high level of resiliency in response processes. Some scholars have therefore suggested the need to verify whether individual cognitive and relational mechanisms can contribute to explaining the different levels of resiliency that emerge in emergency response processes. From such a perspective, this article presents the findings of a research that was aimed at testing whether emotional mechanisms matter. The affect infusion model was used to provide the analytical framework that was considered to identify the evidence necessary for the empirical research, and the ‘most similar system design’ was applied to select and compare two couples of emergency response processes with similar contextual, structural and organizational features, but different levels of resiliency. The empirical research was conducted from April 2020 to February 2021, through periods of job shadowing and semi-structured interviews with personnel from the public and private organizations involved in the response processes. The research has substantially corroborated the hypothesis and has highlighted that, despite very similar contextual, structural and organizational conditions, a negative emotional mechanism, triggered by fear and anxiety, was pervasive among managers involved in the two lower-resiliency emergency response processes, while a positive emotional mechanism, triggered by pride, was dominant among managers involved in the two lower-resiliency processes.
... Not only does elation lead to an expansive and holistic scope of attention in mania, but a similar effect is seen in normal positive affect. Isen (46) and associates have shown that enhanced creativity may be induced by giving a person a small gift. Similarly, when manic individuals were given lithium to normalize their mood, their high scores on a creativity (remote associates) test were lowered to the normal range (77). ...
... Importantly, whether conscious or not, the reentrant property of maintaining activity in these dual limbic circuits has differing implications not only for the scope of working memory but also for the affective quality that is essential to the subjective meaning of experience. The elation associated with strong phasic arousal, whether normal (46) or abnormal (77), expands the scope of working memory, and thus conscious experience. This leads to enhanced flexibility and creativity, but also, in the extreme cases of elation in mania, to the flight of ideas (76). ...
Neurophysiological mechanisms are increasingly understood to constitute the foundations of human conscious experience. These include the capacity for ongoing memory, achieved through a hierarchy of reentrant cross-laminar connections across limbic, heteromodal, unimodal, and primary cortices. The neurophysiological mechanisms of consciousness also include the capacity for volitional direction of attention to the ongoing cognitive process, through a reentrant fronto-thalamo-cortical network regulation of the inhibitory thalamic reticular nucleus. More elusive is the way that discrete objects of subjective experience - such as the color of deep blue or the sound of middle C - could be generated by neural mechanisms. Explaining such ineffable qualities of subjective experience is what Chalmers has called "the hard problem of consciousness," which has divided modern neuroscientists and philosophers alike. We propose that insight into the appearance of the hard problem can be gained through integrating classical phenomenological studies of experience with recent progress in the differential neurophysiology of consolidating explicit versus implicit memory. Although the achievement of consciousness - once it is reflected upon - becomes explicit, the underlying process of generating consciousness, through neurophysiological mechanisms, is largely implicit. Studying the neurophysiological mechanisms of adaptive implicit memory, including brainstem, limbic, and thalamic regulation of neocortical representations, may lead to a more extended phenomenological understanding of both the neurophysiological process and the subjective experience of consciousness.
... In addition to the original contributions that this research will be making as discussed above, the current study also places a heavy emphasis on the role that additional mental states might have on the outcomes, in particular, the role that affect may have on the ability of individuals to learn implicitly. The mood, or affective state, that an individual is experiencing at a particular time has been shown to influence many aspects of explicit cognition, such as idea generation, creativity, and information processing (Isen, 1987(Isen, , 1999Vosburg, 1998). The effect that an individuals' affective state may have on implicit cognitive abilities has only recently started to be investigated, and as such, there is a level of ambiguity and uncertainty with regards to just how much of an impact this mental state may have on a learners' implicit cognitive abilities. ...
... The mood, or affective state, that an individual is experiencing at a particular time has been shown to influence many aspects of explicit cognition, such as idea generation, creativity, and information processing (Isen, 1987(Isen, , 1999Vosburg, 1998). The effect that an individuals' affective state may have on implicit cognitive abilities has only recently started to be investigated, and as such, there is a level of ambiguity and uncertainty with regards to just how much of an impact this mental state may have on a learners' implicit cognitive abilities. ...
Is there is a common implicit ability analogous to I.Q. (i.e., a latent factor determined by strong inter correlations of psychometric measures)? Based on my Ph.D. research, there is just enough evidence to argue both ways.
... Studies have shown that driving in positive emotions, such as letting the guard down and playing with friends, can lead to dangerous driving behavior (Møller and Gregersen, 2008). However, there are opposing views that positive emotions have been found to promote more flexible, creative thinking and action, thus may enhance creativity associated with perceived danger (Isen, 1987;Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). ...
... While positive emotions could influence people to think, feel, and act creatively (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). When the elderly drivers were in a positive emotional state and saw these traffic warning signs, creativity associated with danger perception may be improved (Isen, 1987). This may reasonably explain why young drivers with negative emotions have higher HP of road traffic warning signs, while older drivers with positive emotions have higher HP of road traffic warning signs. ...
With the increasingly powerful functions of vehicle-mounted entertainment facilities, people (especially young drivers) like to listen to music while driving to render different atmospheres and emotions. However, emotions are important factors affecting drivers’ decisions, behavior and may reduce drivers’ hazard perception (HP), even promote dangerous driving behaviors of drivers. The purpose of this study is to explore the young and elderly drivers in assessing the HP difference under different emotional states. We conducted a 3 × 2 mixed experimental design with emotion as a within-participants variable and age as a between-participants factor. A sample of 14 young drivers (mean age = 22.21, SD = 1.05) and 13 elderly drivers (mean age = 54.08, SD = 2.72) completed the HP self-assessment of road traffic warning signs under negative emotion, neutral emotion, and positive emotion, randomly. The results showed that the young had the highest self-assessment HP under the negative emotion arousal condition, while the old had the highest self-assessment HP under the positive emotion arousal condition. In addition, When both groups were in a positive arousal state, the older group perceived more hazards than the young group. The results could help designers create driving emotions suitable for different driver groups, thus improving their perception of hazards and reducing risky driving.
... According to this theory, shared experiences of positive affect within a group strengthen the social relationships within the group. The underlying mechanism is as follows: positive affect fosters helping behavior among group members (Isen, 1987;George, 1990), which in turn produces gratitude in the receiver of help and the motivation to reciprocate (Fredrickson, 1998). The result of this process is a set of strengthened social relationships (Brown & Fredrickson, 2021). ...
... According to Fredrickson's (1998) broaden-and-build theory, shared experiences of positive affect within student groups foster social relationships within the group, thus facilitating high quality communication among group members. The specific underlying mechanism operating is that shared positive affect fosters helping behavior among group members (Isen, 1987;George, 1990), which in turn triggers motivation to reciprocate within the group (Fredrickson, 1998). The result of this multidirectional process is a set of strengthened social relationships that facilitate high quality communication within the group. ...
We tested a mediation model of the influence of teacher-student relationship quality on student group performance in a higher-education context where a group-oriented learning approach is implemented. Specifically, we posit that the relationship between teacher-student relationship quality at the group level and group performance is mediated by positive affective group well-being and intragroup communication quality. Data were collected from 68 groups of students at four time points. The hypotheses involved in the proposed mediated model were tested by means of multiple regression. We controlled for group size and students’ initial familiarity with the other group members. All the analyses were conducted at the group level by means of the PROCESS macro for SPSS. The results obtained showed that teacher-student relationship quality has an indirect positive influence on group performance, mediated by positive affective group well-being and within-group communication quality. These findings help to understand how and why teacher-student relationship quality is related to student group performance.
... Ainsi, le fait de ressentir des émotions agréables limiterait la motivation de l'individu. Celui-ci ne s'investirait alors que peu dans la tâche qui lui est proposée, privilégiant des traitements automatisés de l'information au détriment de traitements plus systématiques (Isen, 1987 ;Wegener et al., 1995). A contrario, les émotions désagréables seraient le signe que la situation présente une menace pour l'atteinte des buts de l'individu. ...
... Selon ces modèles, la diversité des résultats observés dans la littérature s'expliquerait par la nature des compétences sollicitées par les tâches utilisées. En effet, le traitement superficiel de l'information peut être un processus adaptatif dans certaines situations puisqu'il permet à l'individu de disposer de suffisamment de ressources cognitives pour traiter d'autres tâches ou informations en parallèle Isen, 1987). Toutefois, si cette idée se vérifie dans le cadre des études citées ci-avant, d'autres travaux font état d'effets des émotions bien moins liés aux types de traitement de l'information qu'impose la tâche (e.g., Bower, 1981 ;Forgas, 1999). ...
De par le lien étroit qu’elles entretiennent avec la cognition, les émotions influencent nos comportements, nos perceptions ainsi que nos performances lorsqu’il s’agit d’apprendre. Si l’existence de ce lien semble faire consensus au sein de la communauté scientifique, la nature de celui-ci fait aujourd’hui encore débat. Ainsi, pour certains, les émotions seraient une entrave aux fonctions cognitives (e.g., Hadwin, Brogan, & Stevenson, 2005). Selon le RAM (Ellis & Moore, 1999), toutes émotions mobiliseraient une partie des ressources attentionnelles au détriment de la tâche à réaliser. Cependant, à l’inverse, d’autres études font état d’un effet facilitateur des émotions (e.g., Burkitt & Barnett, 2006). Cette apparente opposition pourrait être liée à l’interaction entre l’émotion induite et l’état initial des participants. Selon le modèle de la congruence émotionnelle (Bower, 1981), une information véhiculant une émotion de même nature que celle ressentie par l’individu (congruence) serait plus rapidement traitée qu’une information véhiculant une émotion non similaire (incongruence). Or, rares sont les études prenant en considération l’état des participants avant la tâche. De plus, un grand nombre de travaux étudie l’effet des émotions sur des processus cognitifs de haut niveau. Cependant, ceux-ci sont sous-tendus par l’activation de différents processus tels que l’attention qui est impliquée dans toutes tâches d’apprentissage. Il est possible, d’une part, que les émotions n’aient pas le même effet sur l’ensemble des processus cognitifs et d’autre part, que cet effet soit variable au cours du développement de l’individu. A l’heure actuelle, peu de travaux ont été conduits chez l’enfant et encore moins en milieu scolaire. Aussi, ce travail de thèse a pour objectif d’étudier l’influence des émotions sur les processus de focalisation et d’orientation de l’attention sélective chez l’enfant d’école maternelle et primaire. Pour ce faire, cinq études expérimentales ont été réalisées.
... Finally, we continued the effort to establish the unique nomological network of the collective-level construct of positivity resonance as distinct from individual-level affective phenomena. This effort is especially important given extensive early evidence that individual-level positive affect predicts prosocial tendencies (Carlson et al., 1988;Isen, 1987). Accordingly, H5 stated that any effects of perceived positivity resonance observed in tests of H3a, 2 We underscore that the behavioral intervention targeted social connectedness and did not describe the affective state of positivity resonance per se or unpack its defining features. ...
... On the whole, evidence for H5 helps to establish the unique contributions of the collective-level construct of positivity resonance as distinct from the individual-level construct of positive emotions. Given that positive affect is one feature of positivity resonance (albeit, when shared) and is well established as a precursor to prosocial behavior (Carlson et al., 1988;Isen, 1987), these data cleared a high bar for establishing independence of constructs. ...
The positivity resonance theory of coexperienced positive affect (Fredrickson, 2016) identifies the emotion of love as a collective state. This state, termed positive resonance, is defined by the presence of three key features: shared positive affect, caring nonverbal synchrony, and biological synchrony. The current study examined whether a modest behavioral intervention focused on increasing social connectedness could increase study participants' perceptions of day-to-day positivity resonance with corollary impacts on their tendencies for prosociality and self-centeredness. Adults (N = 416, M age = 33.8) were randomized to one of four study conditions: either of two variants of the social connectedness intervention or either of two control groups. Positivity resonance, prosociality, and self-centeredness were measured nightly for 35 consecutive days. Dynamic multilevel factor models of nightly reports showed significant growth in positivity resonance, relative to a passive control group, for the two intervention groups and higher mean levels of prosociality for one of them. In addition, significant dose-response relations were evident (both between persons and within persons), linking positivity resonance to both prosociality and self-centeredness. The within-persons effect for prosociality (but not self-centeredness) was significantly stronger for those randomized to the intervention groups, relative to both passive and active control groups. Taken together, findings suggest that the affective quality of people's day-to-day social encounters may have implications for community flourishing. Discussion centers on theoretical and practical implications as well as directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... Firstly, it determines what comes to a person's mind, influencing the content of their judgments and behaviour. A good mood facilitates the recollection of positive content and enhances evaluations of other people, products, and overall life satisfaction, and strengthens the tendency to help others [22][23][24]. Secondly, it is used as a source of information and a basis for formulating complex judgments using the simplistic heuristic of "how I feel about it". ...
Background: During imprisonment, inmates face many difficulties in adapting to life behind bars. The aim of the study was to find out (a) how challenging for inmates were the selected COVID-19 pandemic-related changes and stressors, (b) what moods and emotions are most commonly experienced by prisoners just after the difficult period of the COVID-19 pandemic, and (c) which of the selected factors determine the positive and negative mood of inmates. Methods: The research was conducted in July 2022 in six randomly selected Polish prisons. Prisoners (N = 250) were invited to participate. Comparative and regression analyses were carried out. Two scales measuring moods: the General Mood Scale and the Mood Scale (positive and negative), the Emotions Questionnaire by B. Wojciszke and W. Baryła, and a proprietary questionnaire were used. Results: Sanitary restrictions implemented in prisons resulted in a moderate experience of discomfort among prisoners, mainly in terms of not being able to have direct contact with family and friends, limitation in their personal freedoms to do their jobs, self-development, and deterioration of mental and physical health. A depressed mood predominated among the prisoners, making them feel unhappy, discouraged, tense, and uptight. They reported dominant feelings of alienation, distress, anxiety, and worry at the time of the survey. The mood of inmates was changing from more positive to more negative; on average, it was described as moderate. Based on the regression coefficients, the significant predictors of inmates’ positive mood were perceived happiness (for those who got sick with COVID-19 during their prison sentence) and joy, angst, and contentment (for the healthy ones). In the group of SARS-CoV-2-infected prisoners, unhappiness, age, concern, cheerfulness, and rage were found to be predictors of their negative mood. The feeling of joy appeared to be a significant predictor of negative mood for those inmates who had no personal experience with COVID-19. Conclusions: It is necessary to provide convicts with continuous psychological care and to monitor their mood. Such measures should be the foundation for restorative interventions.
... People find it easier to recall certain events from memory if their current mood is congruent with their mood when they first remembered/stored an event (Eich, 1995;Eich & Macaulay, 2000;Terry et al., 2005). Studies also suggest that positive feelings lead to more efficient and creative thinking and problem-solving than negative feelings (Isen, 1987). ...
Emotions play an important role in sport. This chapter provides a timely overview of research on emotions from both sport psychology and general psychology. This current chapter covers emotions from evolutionary perspectives, the experience, assumed functions, and connections with physiology. Subsequently, we review studies on the connection between emotions and athletic performance that serve as the foundation for the process of emotion regulation. We extend this discussion to include recent research on emotional intelligence and its significance for performance in sport, health, and well-being. Finally, current methods of emotion research are described in detail including presenting state-of-the-art methods of emotion induction and measurement.
... Emotion regulation is the process by which individuals attempt to manage their emotions in order to regulate their affective and behavioral responses to emotion-eliciting events (McRae and Gross 2020; Adrian, Zeman, and Veits 2011;Gratz and Roemer 2004). Psychology as well as learning science theories have stressed the importance of this process and demonstrated that effective emotion regulation has a significant impact on higher cognitive flexibility (Isen 1987) and abilities to cope within both individual as well as group activities (Cohn et al. 2009). The question we aim to tackle in this paper is how to develop game AI assistant tools that aid players in this emotion regulation phase, thus allowing us to enhance adaptation pro-Copyright © 2022, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (www.aaai.org). ...
Failure and resilience are important aspects of gameplay. This is especially important for serious and competitive games, where players need to adapt and cope with failure frequently. In such situations, emotion regulation -- the active process of modulating ones' emotions to cope and adapt to challenging situations -- becomes essential. It is one of the prominent aspects of human intelligence and promotes mental health and well-being. While there has been work on developing artificial emotional regulation assistants to help users cope with emotion regulation in the field of Intelligent Tutoring systems, little is done to incorporate such systems or ideas into (serious) video games. In this paper, we introduce a data-driven 6-phase approach to establish empathetic artificial intelligence (EAI), which operates on raw chat log data to detect key affective states, identify common sequences and emotion regulation strategies and generalizes these to make them applicable for intervention systems.
... (Fredrickson, 2001;Seligman, 2003). Estudios realizados en el campo de las emociones por Isen y colaboradores (1985;1987;1990;1992;1993;2000), han demostrado que el afecto positivo se relaciona con una organización cognitiva más abierta, más flexible y compleja y, también, con la habilidad para integrar distintos tipos de información. ...
El entorno escolar es un escenario fundamental para el desarrollo del ser humano. Se ha visto ya desde hace muchos años la promoción de la salud en este ámbito, con la finalidad de revertir los índices de sobrepeso y obesidad en México. La escuela es el lugar adecuado para el cuidado de la salud a través de distintas estrategias. Sin embargo, se encuentra en las primeras fases, ya que a pesar de que existen políticas y programas encaminados a este fin, no se han obtenido resultados favorables.Es importe promover conductas alimentarias para la salud, incluyendo tipos de alimentos, las porciones recomendadas, las condiciones por las cuales se consumen ciertos alimentos y todo aquello que forma parte de la elección. En términos más concretos se deben considerar los factores biológicos, psicológicos y socioculturales que motivan los comportamientos alimentarios.
... In an experimental study, people in a positive mood showed greater perspective taking and sympathetic and compassionate responses toward someone with different cultural views compared to those in a neutral or negative mood (Nelson, 2009). Another well-replicated finding is that people who experience positive feelings are inclined to help others (For reviews, see, Aknin et al., 2018;Isen, 1987). Such supportive and caring behaviors might explain why happy people have high quality and longlasting social relationships (Diener & Seligman, 2002;Diener et al., 2018). ...
We explored in three cultures (the United States, Korea, and Costa Rica) the association between subjective well-being (SWB) and behaviors often described as positive or beneficial. In two studies we found that three forms of subjective well-being (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction) were associated with several categories of behavior (health behavior, supportive behavior, citizenship behavior, and creative behavior). Most of the associations were significant in three nations and not significantly different between nations. Furthermore, we examined whether there exists a significant association between common variance across types of SWB and common variance of categories of behaviors. We found that there was a significant common pathway between a latent SWB factor and a latent behavior factor, along with unique associations between individual SWB and behavior categories. We conclude that the SWB and behavior associations are widespread across the three distinct cultures.
... Positive affect signals that things are going well and that the present environment is safe (Frederickson, 2001;Schwarz & Clore, 1983), allowing the individual to engage in more future-oriented goal setting, monitoring and reflecting (Raghunathan & Trope, 2002;Trope & Neter, 1994). Having one's thoughtaction repertoires broadened via the experience of positive affect also aids effective problem solving and increases creative thinking, especially when obstacles arise during goal striving (Isen, 1987(Isen, , 1993Parker et al., 2010). Over time, as individuals experience positive emotions, they build enduring personal resources (e.g., social support, resilience, skills) that can be applied to various challenges. ...
Due to the current tightness in several labor markets around the globe there are more jobs available than ever before. This brings about countless employment opportunities, but also uncertainty and higher risks. Limited knowledge about the available job opportunities often results in considerable uncertainty for job seekers, especially for recent graduates. Since the risks of landing a low-quality job are similar to being unemployed and can hinder future career success, it is of utmost importance that job seekers find a fitting job. Although the ability to find a fitting job depends on a variety of factors, a key determinant that is controllable by individuals is job search behavior. Research has generally focused on the quantitative aspects of job search behaviors, operationalized as the time and effort that people spend on a number of job search activities. Research shows that job seekers who spend more time looking for a job receive more job offers, are more likely to find a job, and find a job faster. However, the effects are rather small, and job search quantity seems to be unrelated to employment quality. Thus, spending a lot of time on job search activities does not necessarily mean that the search is done effectively. Along these lines, several leading scholars have called for more research looking at job search quality. Many of these studies start from the idea that job seekers should search smarter, not harder. Although this seems obvious, empirical research is still scarce and fragmented. In this dissertation, we conceptualize job search quality as a multidimensional model consisting of four dimensions: goal establishment, planning, goal striving, and reflection. We set out to investigate the added value of job search quality, the outcomes of job search quality, the antecedents of job search quality, and how job search quality can be facilitated. To address these objectives, four empirical studies were conducted. Our studies show that (a) the four dimensions of job search quality show added value beyond job search intensity and metacognitive activities, (b) job search quality is positively related to several job search outcomes, including employment quality, (c) personality, attitudinal factors, and contextual factors were identified as antecedents for job search quality, and (d) job search quality can be facilitated by conducting a positive psychology intervention.
... As such, becoming aware of feeling in the moment -such as paying attention to physical sensations of emotional statesis key to changing thoughts and behaviors. In fact, interventions designed to increase positive emotion have been shown to increase behavioral and cognitive repertoires (Isen, 1987;Fredrickson and Branigan, 2005;Fredrickson et al., 2008;Schutte, 2014). Researchers have suggested that optimal emotional well-being occurs when positive affect is experienced by individuals at rates three times more than negative (Diehl et al., 2011). ...
In recent years, the school curricula in many European countries have introduced social and emotional learning (SEL). This calls for the teachers to have SEL competencies. The present study evaluates teachers’ and their students’ readiness for SEL during an intervention in five European countries. The participants were teachers (n = 402) in five European countries; Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, and Spain. The pre-and post-measuring points for both the intervention and the comparison group were at approximately the same time before and after the intervention. Comparison data consisted of 159 teachers in the same countries. The training for the intervention group lasted 16 h for the teachers and a maximum of 16 h for the principles and headmasters. An additional 9 h of further monitoring took place. There were two student groups participating in the study: the age group of 8–11 years (pre-puberty) and the age group of 12–15 years (adolescents). Students, whose teachers had participated in the intervention, formed the intervention group (n = 2,552). Those students, whose teachers did not participate in the intervention, formed the comparison group (n = 1,730). The questionnaire data were collected at the beginning and at the end of the school year for both age groups. The results indicated that there was a favourable development in the intervention group in some of the measured skills among students, but the effects were different for the two age groups. This study adds to both theoretical and practical development of continuing teacher training about SEL and its possible role in reducing problem behaviour among the students.
... For example, happy participants outperformed sad participants on a concentration test that required detailed processing (Bless, Clore, Schwarz, Golisano, Rabe, & Wölk, 1996). In conclusion, it appears that those in a positive mood are motivated and have the cognitive capacity to process details, perhaps because they invest cognitive effort when there is a promise that doing so will maintain or enhance their positive mood (Isen, 1987;Wegener, Petty, & Smith, 1995). In many studies of memory, participants are instructed that their memory will be tested, so perhaps participants in more positive moods will make an effort to effectively encode the learning material because that behavior will be consistent with the task's demands. ...
The purpose of this study was to induce different moods/arousal levels using positive or negative stimuli (auditory, visual) to determine the impact on the use of specific encoding strategies and verbal memory performance. Despite elevated moods and arousal levels in the positive conditions, there was no memory difference between participants in the positive image over the negative image condition. Furthermore, only those in the positive auditory condition exhibited a memory advantage over those in the negative auditory condition (medium effect size, only marginally significant). Importantly, participants in the positive auditory condition had the highest rates of more effective encoding strategies, while participants in the negative auditory condition had the lowest rates of more effective encoding strategies. Thus, encoding strategy appeared to mediate the effect of mood and arousal on memory. The results imply that it is important to include assessments of encoding strategies when researching the relationship between mood, arousal, and memory.
... Bower [44] proposed an associative network with a different organization of emotional states represented as nodes in a semantic network, i.e., the asymmetric effects of positive and negative information, and suggested that positive relationships could be better elaborated and interconnected than negative ones [66,67]. Therefore, a positive prime might have a different effect on the processing of a target compared to a negative prime, as positive and neutral information share a similar semantic network, whereas negative information induces compensatory mechanisms that inhibit the propagation of associations between related concepts [44]. ...
Previous research has shown that physical exercise improves memory. In the present study, we investigated the possible effects of the intensity of physical exercise as a function of the affective valence of words on implicit memory. In the study, 79 young adult volunteers were randomly assigned to perform moderate- (50% VO2max) or high-intensity exercise (80% VO2max) on a stationary bike. Once the required exercise intensity was achieved, participants performed an affective and repetition priming task concurrently with the physical exercise. Both groups showed similar repetition priming. The moderate-intensity exercise group showed affective priming with positive words, while affective priming was not found in the high-intensity exercise group. Facilitation occurred in both groups when a negative target word was preceded by a positive prime word. Our results suggest that the positive effect of physical exercise on memory is modulated by the affective valence of the stimuli. It seems that moderate-intensity exercise is more beneficial for implicit memory than high-intensity exercise.
... Mood is pervasive in many social environments and human interactions, characterizing key aspects of our everyday relations and establishing patterns of behavior. While psychologists argue that humans often make different real-life decisions depending on their mood tendencies (Bless et al. 1996;Isen, 1987), economists have lately tried to factor mood into traditional economic decision-making theories (Rick & Lowewentein, 2008;Kirchsteiger et al. 2006, Sanfey et al. 2003and Dufwenberg et al. 2011). This research uses experimental methods and techniques based on social psychology to shed light on our understanding of the causal link between immediate mood and hiring behavioral outcomes. ...
We explore whether there is a link between mood and hiring decisions. This research examines how positive mood affects the discrimination faced by homosexual job candidates compared to heterosexual ones. Our experimental design allows us to track the complete hiring process and monitor employers' behavior within and without our treatment context in both online and offline labor market settings. Constructing pairs of curriculum vitae, distinguished only by the sexual orientation or the gender of the applicants in each case, leads to the observation that women and gay men faced a significantly lower chance of getting hired regardless of the labor market context. We also find that female employers proposed higher levels of discrimination only in the case of female applicants. Our positive mood manipulation leads to a decrease of discrimination levels, with more robust effects in the online labor context. Thus, there is substantial experimental evidence to suggest that discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender also exists in online labor markets. Contributions to the literature on hiring discrimination, mood research, and the online economy are discussed. JEL codes: D91, D87, D53, D23, D01
... Whereas negative mood seems to be more dysfunctional in that it reinforces the subsequent recall of negative AMs, positive mood appears to be more functional in the sense that it buffers the autoregressive effect of sadness. This may be explained by a general tendency to maintain positive mood states by, for instance, focusing attention away from negative information (e.g., Carstensen, Pasupathi, Mayr, & Nesselroade, 2000;Isen, 1987). However, as Schwager and Rothermund (2014) argued, mood is a rather diffuse state (see also Larsen, Hemenover, Norris, & Cacioppo, 2003) that "reside(s) in the background of consciousness"(p. ...
It is generally accepted that autobiographical memories (AMs) are organised in associative networks. While both thematic and temporal similarity have been examined as connections among AMs, in the present study we focused on both the positive and negative emotional intensity of events as a possible link among AMs. To do so, we investigated whether the output order with which AMs elicited by cue words were reported can be accounted for emotional intensity of adjacent AMs. Data come from 94 older adults ( M $$=$$ = 67.14; SD $$=$$ = 6.17) who reported 30 AMs in response to neutral cue words. Positive and negative emotional intensity of AMs were assessed on two separate scales (happiness and sadness). The output order was modeled based on a dual mixed-effects autoregressive model, where the strength of the autoregressive effect indicates how much the emotional intensity of an AM can be predicted by the emotional intensity of the previously reported AM. Results show that there were significant autoregressive effects for both the happiness and sadness ratings (accounting for 4% of variance). We also observed cross-over effects, such that the happiness rating of an AM was predicted by the sadness rating of the previously reported AM (and vice versa). Moreover, we found individual differences in the strength of the autoregressive effects. For the sadness ratings, these individual differences tended to be related to the participant’s mood state, particularly so during the first output positions. Together, these findings demonstrate that there is a substantive effect of emotional intensity on the output order with which AMs are reported—even when elicited by cue words. Based on the premise that the output order of AMs informs about the organisation of autobiographical memory, our results highlight the role of emotional associations among AMs in old age.
... (Jung Beeman, 2007;Subramaniam, Kounios, Parrish, & Jung-Beeman, 2008) . (Isen, 1987) . (Gordon, 2000;Gordon, Barnett, Cooper, Tran, & Williams, 2008) (Friedman & Foster, 2001) (Arnsten, 1998. . ...
... The cyclic closure describes the relations of generalised exchange, where each individual gives and eventually receives benefits from a different person. Behavioural studies indicate that an individual's cooperative behaviour can be based on prior experiences, regardless of the identity of the other party [24,6,9]. This mechanism, called generalised reciprocity [22] (also referred to as "tit-for-tat" [1] or indirect reciprocity [34]), assumes that previous receipt of help increases the propensity to help a stranger. ...
Temporal network data often encode time-stamped interaction events between senders and receivers, such as co-authoring a scientific article or sending an email. A number of relational event frameworks have been proposed to address specific issues raised by modelling time-stamped data with complex temporal and spatial dependencies. These models attempt to quantify how individuals' behaviour, external factors and interaction with other individuals change the network structure over time. It is often of interest to determine whether changes in the network can be attributed to endogenous mechanisms reflecting natural relational tendencies, such as reciprocity or triadic effects, with the latter thought to represent the inherent complexity of human interaction. The propensity to form (or receive) ties can also be related to individual actors' attributes. Nodal heterogeneity in the network is often modelled by including actor-specific or dyadic covariates, such as age, gender, shared neighbourhood, etc. However, capturing personality traits such as popularity or expansiveness is difficult, if not impossible. A failure to account for unobserved heterogeneity may confound the substantive effect of key variables of interest. This research shows how node level popularity in terms of sender and receiver effects may mask ghost triadic effects. These results suggest that unobserved nodal heterogeneity plays a substantial role in REM estimation procedure and influences the conclusions drawn from real-world networks.
... ET aims to reinforce individual resources and salutary factors by promoting hedonic experiences (Kiermeir et al., 2012). In the framework of 'positive psychology', the 'broaden-and-build-theory' (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002) postulates that short-term induction of positive emotions will lead to a habitual change of cognition and behaviour in the long run (Ashby et al., 1999;Isen, 1987). Thus, Koppenhöfer's (2004) ET group manual focuses on the activation of pleasant sensual experiences within each group session and indorses the seeking of everyday positive experiences to promote sustained self-care and well-being. ...
Background:
Metacognitive Training for Depression (D-MCT) is a novel low-intensity group training for economic treatment of depression. Previous studies demonstrate its efficacy in moderately depressed outpatients. The present study evaluated efficacy and patient's perspective of the D-MCT in severely depressed psychiatric inpatients.
Methods:
In a randomized-controlled trial, 75 individuals with a major depressive disorder (MDD) were allocated to D-MCT versus Euthymic therapy as add-on (twice a week) to cognitive-behavioural-based (CBT) inpatient-care. Depressive symptoms (HDRS, BDI), dysfunctional (meta)cognition (DAS, MCQ-30), and subjective appraisal were assessed at baseline, 4 weeks (post) and 3 months (follow-up).
Results:
Participants in both conditions showed a large decline in depression at post and follow-up-assessment. No superior add-effect of D-MCT versus active control emerged for depression severity on top of the inpatient care. However, among patients with a diagnosis of MDD with no (vs. at least one) comorbidity, D-MCT participants showed a larger decline in depressive (meta-)cognition at follow-up with medium-to-large effect sizes. D-MCT was evaluated as superior in overall appraisal, treatment preference, motivation, and satisfaction.
Limitations:
The follow-up time interval of 3 months may have been too short to detect long-term effects. There is emerging evidence that modification of (meta)cognition unfolds its full effects only with time. Effects of CBT inpatient-care on outcome parameters cannot be differentiated.
Conclusions:
Although D-MCT as an add-on was not superior in complete case analyses, results suggest greater benefit for patients with MDD and no comorbidity. D-MCT proved feasible in acute-psychiatric inpatient-care and was highly accepted by patients. Future studies should investigate the role of modified (meta)cognition on long-term treatment outcome, including dropout and relapse rates.
... As far as the text analytics are concerned, Review Length negatively influences (p < 0.001) OR ratings in all the four models, and this is considered in line with extant literature (Chevalier & Mayzlin, 2006) as customers tend to put more effort in writing and write longer reviews when they are dissatisfied with a product or service. Review Polarity positively affects (p < 0.001) OR ratings in all the four models, again considered in line with extant literature (Geetha et al., 2017) as customers evaluate their consumption experience more positively when they are in a positive emotional state (Isen, 1987). ...
By deploying big data analytical techniques to retrieve and analyze a large volume of more than 2.7 million reviews, this work sheds light on how environmental concerns expressed by tourists on digital platforms, in the guise of online reviews, influence their satisfaction with tourism and hospitality services. More specifically, we conduct a multi-platform study of Tripadvisor.com and Booking.com online reviews (ORs) pertaining to hotel services across eight leading tourism destination cities in America and Europe over the period 2017–2018. By adopting multivariate regression analyses, we show that OR ratings are positively influenced by both the presence and depth of environmental discourse on these platforms. Theoretical and managerial contributions, and implications for digital platforms, big data analytics (BDA), electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) and environmental research within the tourism and hospitality domain are examined, with a view to capturing, empirically, the effect of environmental discourse presence and depth on customer satisfaction proxied through online ratings.
... Seule l'émotion négative semble impacter les performances orthographiques. Cependant, à la différence des travaux d' Isen (1987) ou de Forgas (1995), les résultats ne montrent pas d'effet facilitateur de l'induction positive en comparaison de l'induction neutre. Ces résultats vont dans le sens de l'étude récente de Tornare et al. (2016), qui suggèrent que l'induction d'un état émotionnel positif n'aurait pas d'impact, positif ou négatif, sur la performance orthographique. ...
... Concretamente, los usuarios que visionaban programas de televisión divertidos tendían a recordar el producto intercalado de una manera más clara y positiva que los que veían un programa triste, por tanto, el estado de ánimo influye en cómo se recibe ese spot. Esto se vincula al hecho de que la emoción influye en las respuestas cognitivas, como el recuerdo, la capacidad de memoria en el trabajo y la complejidad del mismo (Isen, 1987). ...
La música y las emociones guardan un vínculo muy estrecho que ha sido investigado desde perspectivas de diversa índole. En las últimas décadas, los mecanismos que operan a nivel perceptual han sido definidos, representando aun hoy en día un reto para la comunidad científica. Estos procesos son, entre otros, la respuesta del tronco encefálico, el condicionamiento evaluativo, la memoria episódica, la imaginación visual o el contagio emocional. En relación a la música y el marketing, ¿son estos procesos vinculantes cuando queremos captar al consumidor?, ¿cómo se relacionan con el producto queremos vender? Preguntas como estas, las cuales, se basan a su vez en distintos análisis del contexto al que va dirigida la música, pueden ayudar al compositor a plantear una música que seduzca al consumidor. ¿Vamos a producir impacto fisiológico en el oyente por medio de una disonancia?, ¿jugaremos con las experiencias del sujeto haciéndole recordar ciertas sonoridades de su infancia?, ¿plantearemos una expresividad determinada en la composición?, ¿qué características tiene el target y cómo podemos captar su atención? Todas estas preguntas se relacionan con mecanismos que ocurren en nuestra mente y que son claves para plantear una música con unas características determinadas. En este trabajo, por medio de ejemplos reales, buscamos una relación entre estos mecanismos y la persuasión de la música en la publicidad. Además, y de un modo transversal establecemos una relación entre la música y el resto de elementos, como es la imagen o el producto y la música. Este trabajo sirve como punto de partida para que músicos y compositores tomen conciencia de la importancia de estos mecanismos con respecto a la composición para publicidad o televisión
... In literature of emotions Impact of mood on risk taking is highlighted by following two different and opposing theories: "Affect Infusion Model" positive mood favors to take more risks (Forgas, 1995) and "the Mood Maintenance Hypothesis" in positive mood people would avoid risk to maintain pleasure and positive mood (Isen, 1987) but great support is present for first theory i.e. Positive affect leads to risky decisions while negative affects leads to less risky decisions. ...
Relaxing the assumption of rational human being, this study examined the risk taking aspect of financial decision making. In this study financial risk taking propensity is explored with altogether new facet and classify it in two domains. First domain highlights advantageous aspect for wealth and economic prosperity while second can be a menace for wealth and prosperity. Literature is precisely collected to sharpen this peculiarity and to reach on imperative determinants of each domain. Objective is to create differentiation (distinction, discrepancy, peculiarity) between Affective (heuristic) and Cognitive Domain of financial risk taking propensity using empirical approach. Our results predict that in heuristic domain the bias of Dispositional Affect and propensity to rely on emotions are significantly dominant factors to take risky investment. Whereas, in beneficial risk taking domain (called cognitive), financial literacy, financial self-efficacy, stock market knowledge and thoughtful analytical processing style found to have significant impact. The evidences reported in this study not only support insightful investment decisions but also elaborate risky behavior of renowned financial players.
... Conversely, negative affect is presumed to be demotivating and, in some cases, debilitating, activating avoidance-oriented systems that reduce effort toward goal attainment or facilitate goal abandonment (Bandura 1991). Other theories similarly tout the selfregulatory benefits of positive affect with Isen's (1987Isen's ( , 2001 work suggesting that positive affect facilitates cognitive flexibility and Fredrickson's (2001) broadenand-build theory noting that experiencing positive affect helps broaden one's state-level thought-action repertories in addition to building personal resources. Likewise, theory related to behavioral activation and inhibition systems (Gray 1987, Gable et al. 2000 notes that behavioral activation tendencies are appetitive and related to feelings of hope (i.e., positive affect), whereas behavioral inhibition tendencies are aversive and tend to correspond with anxiety (i.e., negative affect), suggesting that the true motivating potential stems from activated positive affect . ...
According to self-regulation theories, affect plays a crucial role in driving goal-directed behaviors throughout employees’ work lives. Yet past work presents inconsistent results regarding the effects of positive and negative affect with theory heavily relying on understanding the separate, unique effects of each affective experience. In the current research, we integrate tenets of emotional ambivalence with self-regulation theories to examine how the conjoint experience of positive and negative affect yields benefits for behavioral regulation. We test these ideas within a self-regulatory context that has frequently studied the benefits of affect and has implications for all employees at one point in their careers: the job search. Adopting a person-centered (i.e., profile-based) perspective across two within-person investigations, we explore how emotional ambivalence relates to job search success (i.e., interview invitations, job offers) via job search self-regulatory processes (i.e., metacognitive strategies, effort). Results illustrate that the subsequent week (i.e., at time t + 1; Study 1) and month (Study 2) after job seekers experience emotional ambivalence (i.e., positive and negative affect experienced jointly at similar levels at time t), they receive more job offers via increased job search effort and interview invitations. Theoretical and practical implications for studying emotional ambivalence in organizational scholarship are discussed.
Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1553 .
... Different types of images of nature may lead to different psychological responses, such as feelings and awareness of nature. Affect is closely related to cognition and behavior [11], and positive affect is also known to influence social behavior [12]. If the psychological responses to the image of nature are different, people's valuations and behaviors toward nature may also vary. ...
As individuals’ relationships with nature become more diverse, so do their conceptions of nature. In this study, the image of nature and derived feelings are defined as the conception of nature. This study aimed to identify the conceptions of nature held by individuals and their influence on environmental valuation. The number of respondents who imagined natural forests when they heard the word “nature” was the highest (58%), followed by those who imagined Satoyama (31%). The factor analysis extracted five feelings toward the image of nature: care, oneness, aversion, mystery, and restorativeness. These feelings differed depending on the image of nature conjured up by individuals. Respondents who imagined natural forests and Satoyama had a higher sense of care, causing higher willingness-to-pay for forest conservation. These results revealed that the image of nature differed from person to person, contrary to previous studies where nature was regarded as predominantly represented by vegetation. Feelings for the image of nature also differed. It can be concluded that an individuals’ conception of nature influences their environmental valuation.
... As such, becoming aware of feeling in the moment -such as paying attention to physical sensations of emotional statesis key to changing thoughts and behaviors. In fact, interventions designed to increase positive emotion have been shown to increase behavioral and cognitive repertoires (Isen, 1987;Fredrickson and Branigan, 2005;Fredrickson et al., 2008;Schutte, 2014). Researchers have suggested that optimal emotional well-being occurs when positive affect is experienced by individuals at rates three times more than negative (Diehl et al., 2011). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has presented considerable disruptions to routines that have challenged emotional well-being for children and their caregivers. One direction for supporting emotional well-being includes strategies that help children feel their best in the moment, which can bolster their capacity to respond appropriately to thoughts and behaviors. Strengthening emotional well-being equitably, however, must include opportunities in settings that are easily accessible to all, such as schools. In this paper, we focus on simple, evidence-informed strategies that can be used in schools to promote positive feelings in the moment and build coping behaviors that facilitate tolerance of uncertainty. We focus on those strategies that educators can easily and routinely use across ages, stages, and activities. Selected strategies are primarily tied to cognitive behavioral theory, with our review broadly organized across categories of self-awareness, self-soothing, and social relationships. We review evidence for each, providing examples that illustrate ease of use in school settings.
Background
Successful cause-related marketing (CRM) campaigns can help companies stand out from their competitors; however, CRM may not have pleasant outcomes, even if it receives substantial investment.
Objective
This research aimed to investigate how gamified CRM projects influence consumers’ favorability.
Methods
We introduced 3 different CRM projects in 3 different studies. Every project had 2 versions according to the level of gamification, and participants were randomly assigned into these 2 groups. Additionally, we used a 2 (gamification: lower, higher) 2 (rules presentation: without visual cues, with visual cues) between-subjects design to test the moderation role of rules presentation in gamified CRM projects.
Results
In Study 1, we identified that the highly gamified CRM program induces more enjoyment (F1,139=21.11, P<.001) and higher favorability (F1,139=14.57, P<.001). Moreover, we found that enjoyment played a mediation role between gamification and favorability (P<.001) in Study 2. In addition, the results of Study 3 indicated rules presentation in a gamified CRM program can moderate the indirect effect of gamification on favorability via enjoyment (index of the moderated mediation: 95% CI –1.12 to –0.10; for rules presentation with visual cues: 95% CI 0.69 to 1.40; for rules presentation without visual cues: 95% CI 0.08 to 0.83).
Conclusions
Overall, this research contributes to the CRM literature and suggests gamification is an effective way of managing CRM campaigns.
Following its 40 th anniversary and more than three decades after its introduction to the strategic management literature, agency theory remains the predominant theory of corporate governance. In this paper, we examine affect, an underexplored dimension in principal-agent relationships. Using the CEO-board of directors relationship as a context, we develop a theoretical lens that explains how interpersonal affect underlying relationships between CEOs and directors of boards shapes behavior in ways that deviate from traditional agency theory predictions. We discuss how the incorporation of an affective perspective advances principal-agent research by revising agency theory‘s assumptions concerning human nature and behavior and suggesting new research directions. By acknowledging a central role of affect, we connect existing behavioral approaches to organizational agency and advance our understanding of socioemotional foundations of principal-agent tensions, problems, and agency costs.
Es gibt kaum ein psychologisches Konzept, das so vielfältig behandelt worden ist wie das der Emotion. Gemeinsam ist den vorliegenden Ansätzen die Annahme innerer Erregung, d. h. einer sogenannten affektiven Reaktion und subjektiver Empfindungen. Wir stellen 4 ausgewählte Konzepte dar: a) Duffy (1934, 1962), b) Izard (1999), dabei gehen wir auch auf Aristoteles ein; c) Scherer (1990, S. 2–38) sowie d) Schachter und Singer (1962). Nach dem letzten Ansatz sind Emotionen die kognitiven Interpretationen, die wir uns selber für unsere Erregung geben. Wir können uns diese Erregung nicht objektiv erklären, sondern sind auf Informationen angewiesen.
The Psychology of Wisdom: An Introduction is the first comprehensive coursebook on wisdom, providing an engaging, balanced, and expert introduction to the psychology of wisdom. It provides a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the psychological science of wisdom, covering wide-ranging perspectives. Each chapter includes extensive pedagogy, including a summary, a glossary, bolded terms, practical applications, discussion questions, and a brief description of the authors' research. Topics include the philosophical foundations, folk conceptions, and psychological theories of wisdom; relations of wisdom to morality and ethics, to personality and well-being, to emotion; wisdom and leadership, wisdom and social policy. These topics are covered in a non-technical, bias-free, and student-friendly manner. Written by the most eminent experts in the field, this is the definitive coursebook for undergraduate and graduate students, as well as interested professionals and researchers.
The study investigated interactions between learner expertise and task complexity evaluated from both cognitive and affective perspectives. One hundred and seventy-three students, both novices and advanced learners, were asked to learn Japanese writing in a pen-tablet-based digital learning environment with varying task complexity levels. Cognitive load and learning-centred emotions were measured at intervals during learning, while writing performance was monitored by runtime tracking. Results indicated that while advanced learners performed better than novices across the range of task complexity, the moderate task complexity was shown to be superior in enhancing performance for both levels of expertise. Results for learning-centred emotions showed that advanced learners reported lower enjoyment and higher frustration when completing the low complexity task, whereas the moderately complex task was reported to be the most enjoyable and less frustrating for these learners. No significant difference in emotions was found across levels of task complexity for novices. Finally, a constructed composite indicator of cognitive-affective efficiency of instructional conditions showed a significant interaction between levels of learner expertise and task complexity primarily caused by affective factors.
Background
Speaking up with concerns is critical for patient safety. We studied whether witnessing a civil (i.e. polite, respectful) response to speaking up would increase the occurrence of further speaking up by hospital staff members as compared with witnessing a pseudo-civil (i.e. vague and slightly dismissive) or rude response.
Methods
In this RCT in a single, large academic teaching hospital, a single simulated basic life support scenario was designed to elicit standardised opportunities to speak up. Participants in teams of two or three were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions in which the degree of civility in reacting to speaking up was manipulated by an embedded simulated person. Speaking up behaviour was assessed by behaviour coding of the video recordings of the team interactions by applying 10 codes using The Observer XT 14.1. Data were analysed using multilevel modelling.
Results
The sample included 125 interprofessional hospital staff members (82 [66%] women, 43 [34%] men). Participants were more likely to speak up when they felt psychologically safe (γ=0.47; standard error [se]=0.19; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.09–0.85; P=0.017). Participants were more likely to speak up in the rude condition than in the other conditions (γ=0.28; se=0.12; 95% CI, 0.05–0.52; P=0.019). Across conditions, participants spoke up most frequently by structuring inquiry (n=289, 31.52%), proactive (n=240, 26.17%), and reactive (n=148, 16.14%) instruction statements, and gestures (n=139, 15.16%).
Conclusion
Our study challenges current assumptions about the interplay of civility and speaking up behaviour in healthcare.
The Psychology of Wisdom: An Introduction is the first comprehensive coursebook on wisdom, providing an engaging, balanced, and expert introduction to the psychology of wisdom. It provides a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the psychological science of wisdom, covering wide-ranging perspectives. Each chapter includes extensive pedagogy, including a summary, a glossary, bolded terms, practical applications, discussion questions, and a brief description of the authors' research. Topics include the philosophical foundations, folk conceptions, and psychological theories of wisdom; relations of wisdom to morality and ethics, to personality and well-being, to emotion; wisdom and leadership, wisdom and social policy. These topics are covered in a non-technical, bias-free, and student-friendly manner. Written by the most eminent experts in the field, this is the definitive coursebook for undergraduate and graduate students, as well as interested professionals and researchers.
A flourishing of the importance of customer reviews has been observed in this digital era. This is especially true in hotel sector, which allows guests to express their satisfaction towards the service in the form of open-structured online reviews and overall ratings over travel agency websites. Using reviews data of 2001 hotels from Tripadvisor.com, the chapter analyzes the overall hotel performances through linguistic features of e-WOM such as its length, readability, sentiment, and volume. The chapter develops a regression model for evaluating guest satisfaction by using overall ratings as its measure, validated through hotel review data. Data analysis result shows that review volume, sentiment index, and readability have significant positive affect over guest satisfaction whereas length shows the negative influence. This chapter discusses beneficial implications for researchers and practitioners working in this field.
Abstract:
Overtime is frequently observed in the French medico-social sector, with deleterious effects on care staff’s occupational health and on care quality. However, little is known about the affective experience of overtime for healthcare workers or how it could modulate practices. The aim of this quantitative study is therefore to focus on the reasons for overtime by exploiting factors related to (positive and negative) affects in the workplace. Our results show that the relationship between affects and overtime is complex and depends both on the valence (positive/negative affects) and on the affective texture (subtype of positive/negative affects): for instance, anxiety is positively related to the frequency of overtime but fear/hostility is negatively related to the duration of overtime. We discuss the impact of working conditions (and overtime) on the delivery of care, along with relevant managerial and HR practices concerning the prevention of overtime (ability of the nursing supervisor to identify weak signals, reinforcement of the magnetic attributes of healthcare settings). Finally, avenues for future research are given, particularly concerning the understudied relation between affects and overtime.
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Résumé : Le dépassement horaire est fréquemment observé dans le secteur médico-social français, avec des effets néfastes sur la santé au travail du personnel soignant et sur la qualité des soins. Cependant, l’expérience affective du dépassement horaire pour les personnels de santé ainsi que la manière dont elle peut moduler les pratiques nécessitent d’être approfondies. L’objectif de cette étude quantitative est donc de se concentrer sur les raisons du dépassement horaire en s’intéressant aux facteurs liés aux affects (positifs et négatifs) sur le lieu de travail. Nos résultats montrent que la relation entre les affects et le débordement horaire est complexe et dépend à la fois de la valence (affects positifs/négatifs) et de la texture affective (sous-type des affects positifs/négatifs) : par exemple, l’anxiété est positivement associée à la fréquence du dépassement horaire mais la peur/hostilité est négativement reliée à la durée du débordement horaire. Nous examinons l’impact des conditions de travail (et du dépassement horaire) sur les soins, ainsi que les pratiques managériales et de GRH pertinentes pour prévenir le phénomène de dépassement horaire (capacité du cadre de santé à identifier les signaux faibles, renforcement des attributs magnétiques des établissements de soins). Enfin, des perspectives de recherche sont données, notamment en ce qui concerne la relation encore peu étudiée entre les affects et le débordement horaire.
The intensity of human–artificial intelligence (AI) interactions has been growing at a rapid pace. Research has acknowledged a simultaneous significant resistance on the part of users towards AI services on the one hand and a profound acceptance of AI solutions on the other. As a remedy for this ambiguity concerning AI delegation, the author takes the next step to explain the decisive relevant factors. This research introduces the concept of the human emotional state driving the motivation for AI-based task delegation. Precisely, the affective state, as a function of the two independent neurophysiological systems of valence and arousal, determines the motivation for AI delegation in the individual decision situation. The interplay between these two determinants of a human’s affective state results in a four-quadrant taxonomy on AI delegation. For instance, a combination of low arousal and negative valence results in an affective state, which motivates the human to decide in favour of AI delegation; an opposite emotional state of high arousal and positive valence yields a low incentive to apply AI services. The implications of the present research provide novel reasons for the presence and extension of AI services in the fulfilment of human tasks.
We examined the relationship between childhood maltreatment and prosocial behavior, with social support and psychological capital incorporated as hypothesized mediators. Participants were 581 adolescent students (360 girls, 221 boys) who completed questionnaires regarding prosocial behavior, childhood maltreatment, social support, and psychological capital. The results reveal that childhood maltreatment was negatively associated with prosocial behavior through the sequential mediators of social support and psychological capital. These findings indicate that childhood maltreatment directly reduced the occurrence of prosocial behavior in adolescence. There was also an indirect effect, whereby childhood maltreatment reduced social support and psychological capital, and this, in turn, reduced adolescents' prosocial behavior. This study provides a theoretical basis and practical guidance for the cultivation of adolescents' prosocial behavior.
Background: Democratic societies thrive when citizens actively and critically engage with new ideas, developments and claims to truth. Not only can such practices result in more effective choice-making, but they can also lead to widespread support for progressive beliefs, such as social justice. Yet with western societies in the midst of environmental, social and political crises, it seems more pertinent than ever that citizens become ‘ideas-informed’.
Methods: Drawing on a survey of 1,000 voting age citizens in England, this paper aims to provide insight into the following: 1) the current ‘state of the nation’ in terms of whether, and how, individuals keep themselves up to date with regards to new ideas, developments and claims to truth; 2) the impact of staying up to date on beliefs such as social justice; 3) the factors influencing people’s propensity to stay up to date, their support for value-related statements, as well as the strength of these influencing factors; and 4) clues as to how the extant ‘state of the nation’ might be improved.
Results: our findings indicate that many people do keep up to date, do so in a variety of ways, and also engage with ideas as mature critical consumers. There is also strong importance attached by most respondents to the values one would hope to see in a progressive and scientifically literate society. Yet, as we illustrate with our Structural Equation Model, there are a number of problematic network and educational related factors which affect: 1) whether and how people stay up to date; and 2) the importance people ascribe to certain social values, irrespective of whether they stay up to date or not.
Conclusions: suggestions for the types of social intervention that might foster ‘ideas-informed’ democracies (such as improved dialogue) are presented, along with future research in this area.
Individuals can react to the same media content in significantly different ways depending on their emotions, yet only little attention has been paid to this topic in the context of interactive media usage. Filling this gap, the current study investigates how the valence of emotion affects the persuasive impact of interactive health messages. We conducted a 2 (emotion: positive vs. negative) × 2 (interactivity: interactive website vs. non-interactive webpage) between-subjects factorial design experiment (N = 225) and measured participants’ interface assessment, website/message attitudes, behaviour intentions and recognition memory. The results showed that interactivity elicited more favourable interface assessments and website attitudes only for those experiencing positive emotions, which indirectly enhanced their message attitudes and behavioural intentions toward the anti-drug-driving message. In contrast, negative emotions aided recognition memory of the interactive part of the website. The findings bridge the human–computer interaction and cognitive psychology literature and suggest how user emotions can be used as a design strategy to enhance positive attitudes toward websites.
People seem to remember positive or negative material with greater ease when in corresponding mood states. These memory effects may sometimes be partially mediated by different expressions that people often naturally come to exhibit when in different moods. The present research tested a “congruence” hypothesis about the priming effects of facial and body posture patternings on memory retrieval. This predicts that the accessibility of pleasant experiences from one's own life history may be disproportionately increased when nonverbal expressive patterns are positive in valence instead of negative, such as when an individual smiles and has expansive physical posture; and the accessibility of unpleasant experiences from one's life history may be disporportionately increased when nonverbal expressive patterns are negative in valence instead of positive, such as when an individual frowns and has a slumped posture. The two experiments described here used different procedures, direct or indirect, to put subjects ...
In Exp I, 60 undergraduates' mood responses to manipulated expressions were assessed. Ss then read 2 passages of the same emotional content, either anger-provoking editorials or humorous selections by Woody Allen. Later, one selection was recalled while frowning and the other while smiling. In the self-produced cue group (i.e., those whose mood was affected in the original assessment), recall was significantly better for the editorials when frowning and for the Woody Allen stories when smiling. In the nonself cue group, expressions did not affect recall. In Exp II, 20 undergraduates heard and recalled 3 kinds of sentences—angry, sad, or fearful—in the same 3 expressions. Again, only in the self-produced cue group was recall significantly better when sentence and expression were consistent. Findings indicate that these effects are due to mood rather than expression and to the match between expression and content at the time of recall. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Prior to each target letter string presented visually to 120 university students in a speeded word–nonword classification task, either {bird, body, building,} or {xxx} appeared as a priming event. Five types of word-prime/word-target trials were used: bird-robin, bird-arm, body-door, body-sparrow, and body-heart. The stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between prime and target letter string varied between 250 and 2,000 msec. At 2,000-msec SOA, reaction times (RTs) on bird-robin type trials were faster than on xxx-prime trials (facilitation), whereas RTs on bird-arm type trials were slower than on xxx-prime (inhibition). As SOA decreased, the facilitation effect on bird-robin trials remained constant, but the inhibition effect on bird-arm decreased until, at 250-msec SOA, there was no inhibition. For Shift conditions at 2,000-msec SOA, facilitation was obtained on body-door type trials and inhibition was obtained on body-sparrow type. These effects decreased as SOA decreased until there was no facilitation or inhibition. On body-heart type trials, there was an inhibition effect at 2,000 msec SOA, which decreased as SOA decreased until, at 250-msec SOA, it became a facilitation effect. Results support the theory of M. I. Posner and S. R. Snyder (1975) that postulated 2 distinct components of attention: a fast automatic inhibitionless spreading-activation process and a slow limited-capacity conscious-attention mechanism. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the role of affect in judgments of risk in 4 experiments. 557 Ss were recruited on college campuses and read paragraphs modeled after newspaper reports that described fatal or nonfatal accidents or (Exp III) positive events. Ss were later asked to estimate the chances of specific fatal or nonfatal accidents happening to them and/or to the population in general. Experimental manipulations of affect induced by report of a tragic event produced a pervasive increase in Ss' estimates of the frequency of many risks and other undesirable events. Contrary to expectation, the effect was independent of the similarity between the report and the estimated risk: An account of a fatal stabbing did not increase the frequency estimate of homicide more than the estimates of unrelated risks such as natural hazards. An account of a happy event that created positive affect produced a comparable global decrease in judged frequency of risks. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A review of the literature concerning the promotive influence of experimentally generated happiness and sadness on helping suggests that (a) increased helping among saddened Ss is an instrumental response designed to dispel the helper's negative mood state, and (b) increased helping among elated Ss is not an instrumental response to (maintain) the heightened effect but is a concomitant of elevated mood. A derivation from this hypothesis—that enhanced helping is a direct effect of induced sadness but a side effect of induced happiness—was tested in an experiment that placed 86 undergraduates in a happy, neutral, or sad mood. Through a placebo drug manipulation, half of the Ss in each group were led to believe that their induced moods were temporarily fixed, that is, temporarily resistant to change from normal events. The other Ss believed that their moods were labile and, therefore, manageable. As expected, saddened Ss showed enhanced helping only when they believed their moods to be changeable, whereas elated Ss showed comparable increases in helping whether they believed their moods to be labile or fixed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 10 experiments to evaluate the notion of "depth of processing" in human memory. Undergraduate Ss were asked questions concerning the physical, phonemic, or semantic characteristics of a long series of words; this initial question phase was followed by an unexpected retention test for the words. It was hypothesized that "deeper" (semantic) questions would take longer to answer and be associated with higher retention of the target words. These ideas were confirmed by the 1st 4 experiments. Exps V-X showed (a) it is the qualitative nature of a word's encoding which determines retention, not processing time as such; and (b) retention of words given positive and negative decisions was equalized when the encoding questions were equally salient or congruous for both types of decision. While "depth" (the qualitative nature of the encoding) serves a useful descriptive purpose, results are better described in terms of the degree of elaboration of the encoded trace. Finally, results have implications for an analysis of learning in terms of its constituent encoding operations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a framework for the conceptualization of a broad range of memory phenomena that integrates research on memory performance in young children, the elderly, and individuals under stress with research on memory performance in normal college students. One basic assumption is that encoding operations vary in their attentional requirements. Operations that drain minimal energy from limited-capacity attentional mechanisms are called automatic. Automatic operations function at a constant level under all circumstances, occur without intention, and do not benefit from practice. Effortful operations, such as rehearsal and elaborative mnemonic activities, require considerable capacity, interfere with other cognitive activities also requiring capacity, are initiated intentionally, and show benefits from practice. A 2nd assumption is that attentional capacity varies both within and among individuals. Depression, high arousal levels, and old age are variables thought to reduce attentional capacity. The conjunction of the 2 assumptions of the framework yields the prediction that the aged and individuals under stress will show a decrease in performance only on tasks requiring effortful processing. Evidence from the literature on development, aging, depression, arousal, and normal memory is presented in support of the framework, and 4 experiments with 301 5–40 yr old Ss are described. (5½ p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization.
Conducted 2 field studies on the relationship of weather variables to helping behavior. In Study 1 (540 adult Ss), which was executed in the spring and summer and subsequently replicated in the winter, the amount of sunshine reaching the earth was found to be a strong predictor of an S's willingness to assist an interviewer. Smaller relationships were also found between helping and temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and lunar phase. Exp II was conducted indoors with 130 dining parties to control for comfort factors. Sunshine, lunar phase, and S's age and sex were found to predict the generosity of the tip left for a restaurant waitress. Sunshine and temperature were also significantly related to the 6 waitresses' self-reports of mood. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Tested the hypothesis that empathy leads to altruistic rather than egoistic motivation to help. 44 female college students watched another female undergraduate receive electric shocks and were then given a chance to help her by taking the remaining shocks themselves. In each of 2 experiments, Ss' empathic emotion (low vs high) and their ease of escape from continuing to watch the victim suffer if they did not help (easy vs difficult) were manipulated in a 2 × 2 design. It was reasoned that if empathy led to altruistic motivation, Ss feeling a high degree of empathy for the victim should be as ready to help when escape without helping was easy as when it was difficult. But if empathy led to egoistic motivation, Ss feeling empathy should be more ready to help when escape was difficult than when it was easy. Results followed the former pattern when empathy was high and the latter pattern when empathy was low, supporting the hypothesis that empathy leads to altruistic rather than egoistic motivation to help. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Proposed that a distinction be made between 2 emotional responses to seeing another person suffer--personal distress and empathy--and that these 2 emotions lead to 2 different kinds of motivation to help: Personal distress leads to egoistic motivation; empathy, to altruistic motivation. These distinctions were tested in 3 studies, each using 10 male and 10 female undergraduates. Across the 3 studies, factor analysis of Ss' self-reported emotional response indicated that feelings of personal distress and empathy, although positively correlated, were experienced as qualitatively distinct. The pattern of helping in Studies 1 and 2 indicated that a predominance of personal distress led to egoistic motivation, whereas a predominance of empathy led to altruistic motivation. In Study 3, the cost of helping was made especially high. Results suggest an important qualification on the link between empathic emotion and altruistic motivation: Ss reporting a predominance of empathy displayed an egoistic pattern of helping. Apparently, making helping costly evoked self-concern, which overrode any altruistic impulse produced by feeling empathy. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
A solution is suggested for an old unresolved social psychological problem.
Subjects produced an instance of a category and after 0, 1, or 2 intervening items produced a second instance of the same category. Response latency for the second instance was not only shorter than latency for the first instance, but it also varied directly with the number of intervening items. The results support the idea that memory locations can become temporarily activated.
Previous Research indicates that putting people in a good mood increases the likelihood that they will help others. One possible explanation for this increase is that enhanced mood leads to a relatively general activation of behavior. An activation explanation suggests that elevating mood will not only increase response to others in need, it will increase response to other stimuli as well. To test this explanation, forty adults participated in a field experiment. Half of the participants unexpectedly found a dime in the coin return of a pay telephone (elevated-mood condition); half did not (neutral-mood condition). Subjects were then given an opportunity to acquire some general-interest information, as well as as an opportunity to help another person. Consistent with previous research, elevating mood increased helping. But as predicted by an activation explanation, elevating mood also increased information acquisition.
An experiment investigated the effect of procedures designed to induce mood (and previously demonstrated to influence social interaction such as helping) on subsequent evaluation of positive, negative, and neutral slides. Results showed main effects of both mood and slide type. This indicates that mild mood-inducing events that are sufficient to affect social interaction also affect evaluation, but they do not rely for their effect on directing attention away from the stimuli themselves. Implications for cognitive processes involved in the relationship between mood and evaluation are discussed.
In an attempt to clarify and extend the findings of an earlier study (Isen and Levin, 1972), two experiments investigated the effects of a person's positive affective state on his or her subsequent helpfulness to others. The studies were conducted in divergent locations of a large eastern city, and the subjects differed in ethnic and socio-economic characteristics. As in the earlier investigation, "good mood" was induced by the discovery of a dime in the coin return of a public telephone. The dependent measure in the present experiments, however, was willingness to mail a sealed and addressed letter which had been left at the telephone, apparently by accident. Both stamped and unstamped letters were used. This measure of helping was designed to demonstrate the existence of a relationship between feeling good and helping in situations which do not involve interaction with a person, and to rule out an intepretation of the earlier findings in terms of differential attention to the person in need. Results supported the prediction that those finding a dime would be more helpful, even though all subjects saw the letter and even though the help did not involve interpersonal interaction.
Two experiments examined affect-dependent memory with preschool/kindergarten and third-grade children. A two-list intentional learning procedure was used to assess the effects of the congruent versus incongruent relationship between affect (happy vs sad) during initial list learning and affect (happy vs sad) during a delayed recall test. When induction of emotional mood was preceded by relaxation exercises in Experiment 1, no evidence of affect dependence was observed. When the relaxation procedure was omitted in Experiment 2, the affect-dependent pattern was obtained in both free recall and cued recall for both age groups. The results of Experiment 2 show that affect-dependent memory is a reasonably robust phenomenon in children and that hypnosis is not necessary for its appearance. However, the phenomenon is apparently absent under conditions of relaxation, a result consistent with two-factor theories of emotion.
The question was whether a person's emotional mood could serve as a distinctive context for learning and retrieval of memories. Hypnotized subjects learned a word-list while feeling happy or sad, and recalled it in the same or the opposite mood, either immediately (Exp. 1) or after one day (Exp. 2). Retention proved to be surprisingly independent of the congruence of learning and testing moods. Experiment 3 had subjects learn two lists, one while happy, one while sad. Later recall of both lists while happy (or sad) revealed a powerful congruence effect. Thus, learning mood provided a helpful retrieval cue and differentiating context only in multi-list circumstances where confusions and interference among memories would otherwise obtain.
Two studies conducted simultaneously investigated the influence of positive affect on risk taking. Results of the study, which employed an actual measure of subjects' willingness to bet something of value, supported the prediction of an interaction between level of risk and positive affect: subjects who had reason to be feeling elated bet more than control subjects on a low-risk bet, but wagered less than controls on a high-risk bet. At the same time, in contrast, a study involving hypothetical risk-taking showed that in general subjects were more willing to take the chance as probability of success went up; but that elated subjects were more daring than controls on a “long shot.” Differences in hypothetical vs real risk taking were noted, and the complexity (the interaction) of the influence of positive feelings on real risk taking was emphasized. The results were related to other research suggesting an influence of feeling states on cognitive processes and decision making.
This study examines some specific effects of the Positive and Negative Velten Mood Induction Procedures and of two motion pictures selected for their affect inducing qualities. Results revealed that, despite apparently strong effects on affective state when measured immediately after affect induction, the Velten Statements and one of the films had no discernible effect when measured after a brief, neutral, intervening task. The other film, in contrast, appeared to influence affective state not only when tested immediately, but even after the intervening task. These results were interpreted as shedding additional light on the affect inductions studied, suggesting limitations of some of the techniques, and indicating that induced affect may be measured relatively specifically.
This chapter discusses social norms, feelings, and other factors that influence helping and altruism. Externally derived incentives are undoubtedly major determinants of behavior, perhaps more important than internalized ideals for many persons and in many situations. But there is probably a far greater incidence of selfless action on behalf of others—even in the absence of reciprocal or anticipated benefits than the usual form of exchange theory. Some of this behavior, not all, is influenced by the operation of social rules and internalized standards of conduct. People sometimes act altruistically because this is the right thing to do in a given situation. On other occasions, however, they might help someone else because they empathize with him. The chapter also considers another complication: a person may deviate from social regulations in some instances even though he is firmly convinced of their propriety and has attempted to adhere to these standards in other situations; these occasional deviations do not mean that he or she does not believe in these rules or that they do not frequently govern his behavior. Other factors obviously may become potent determinants of behavior in some situations. Social-exchange conceptions apply to the organizational world because this setting promotes exchange concerns. Outside this milieu however, exchange ideas may be less influential as other motives, interests, and values come into play. Nonetheless, the findings reviewed in the chapter indicate that many normative conceptions of social behavior are vastly oversimplified.
Four basic negotiating strategies are analyzed along with the outcomes they encourage and the determinants of their use. Guidelines for influencing the strategic choice of one's bargaining partners are also presented with an emphasis on techniques for encouraging one's adversaries to move away from contentious behavior and toward problem solving.
Investigated the relationship between affect and altruism in 7- and 8-yr-old middle-class white children (N = 48 males and 24 females). Ss were asked to think of things that made them happy or sad, or they were assigned to control conditions. Ss were then given an opportunity to donate money to other children in the E's absence. In accord with predictions, Ss who experienced positive affect gave more than controls, while Ss who experienced negative affect gave less than controls. Females gave more than males overall. The relationship between self-reward and reward of others is discussed. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
By means of a hypnotic mood-induction procedure, 54 undergraduates were made to experience a happy, sad, or neutral state. Temporary depression caused decreased recall of positive life experiences, weaker memory strength for positive information about oneself, and a bias to recall false negative self-descriptions. Induced elation was associated with decreased recall of negative events and an increased recall of positive events. Results support A. T. Beck's (1967, 1976) notion that mood states are associated with distorted information processing about the self. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 9 experiments with a total of 663 undergraduates using the technique of priming to study the nature of the cognitive representation generated by superordinate semantic category names. In Exp I, norms for the internal structure of 10 categories were collected. In Exps II, III, and IV, internal structure was found to affect the perceptual encoding of physically identical pairs of stimuli, facilitating responses to physically identical good members and hindering responses to identical poor members of a category. Exps V and VI showed that the category name did not generate a physical code (e.g., lines or angles), but rather affected perception of the stimuli at the level of meaning. Exps VII and VIII showed that while the representation of the category name which affected perception contained a depth meaning common to words and pictures which enabled Ss to prepare for either stimulus form within 700 msec, selective reduction of the interval between prime and stimulus below 700 msec revealed differentiation of the coding of meaning in preparation for actual perception. Exp IX suggested that good examples of semantic categories are not physiologically determined, as the effects of the internal structure of semantic categories on priming (unlike the effects for color categories) could be eliminated by long practice. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assigned 60 elementary school children to success or failure treatments on an achievement task that ostensibly required skill. The Ss were also given opportunities for noncontingent self-gratification, in the form of free valuable tokens. These tokens were available in a nonachievement context and deliberately were made independent of the S's attainments on the skill task. Resulting self-gratification patterns revealed no compensatory or self-therapeutic defensive tendencies after failure; instead, successful Ss became more noncontingently generous toward themselves under some conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
84 female undergraduates were exposed to a person in distress and instructed either to observe the victim's reactions (low empathy) or to imagine the victim's feelings (high empathy). This empathy manipulation was crossed with a manipulation of ease of escape without helping (easy vs difficult) to form a 2 × 2 design. As predicted by the empathy-altruism hypothesis, Ss in the low-empathy condition helped less when escape was easy than when it was difficult. This suggests that their helping was directed toward the egoistic goal of reducing their own distress. Ss in the high-empathy condition, however, displayed a high rate of helping, even when escape was easy. This suggests that their helping was directed toward the altruistic goal of reducing the distress of the person in need. Analyses of Ss' self-reported emotional response provided additional support for the hypothesis that feeling a predominance of empathy rather than distress on witnessing someone in need can evoke altruistic motivation. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated whether different empathic responses, generated by different observational sets, could mediate the influence of models on helping behavior. 120 male undergraduates listened to a taped conversation between a person in need of help and a potential helper, under instructions to attend to 1 of the 2 speakers, imagining themselves as that particular speaker, or imagining that speaker's reactions. The potential helper either did not help; helped, but was not thanked; or helped and was thanked. After filling out a mood questionnaire, Ss were requested to help E. Most help was received from Ss who observed either the unaided person in need or the thanked helper, while Ss who attended to the potential helper in the no-help condition were least helpful. The mood data suggested that pleasurable empathic experiences mediated the helping behavior of Ss who attended to the thanked helper, while unpleasant empathic reactions more strongly motivated the helping behavior of Ss who observed the unaided person in need. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Four studies with 256 undergraduates showed that positive affect, induced in any of 3 ways, influenced categorization of either of 2 types of stimuli—words or colors. As reflected by performance on 2 types of tasks (rating and sorting), Ss in whom positive affect had been induced tended to create and use categories more inclusively than did Ss in a control condition. On one task, they tended to group more stimuli together, and on the other task they tended to rate more low-prototypic exemplars of a category as members of the category. Results are interpreted in terms of an influence of affect on cognitive organization or on processes that might influence cognitive organization. It is suggested that borderline effects of negative affect on categorization, obtained in 2 of the studies, might result from normal people's attempts to cope with negative affect. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed a paradigm to investigate the influence of success and failure experiences on subsequent selective attention to information about the self. 60 undergraduates were assigned to success, failure, or control experiences on an achievement task ostensibly testing intellectual ability. 30 Ss expected further testing, and 30 did not. Immediately after the achievement task, Ss were given positive and negative personality information about themselves as well as information about the task. Ss could choose to attend, or not attend, to any of the information in any order for 10 min. Successful Ss attended more to their personality assets, and less to liabilities, than did Ss who failed or had a control experience. The latter 2 groups did not differ. These effects were strongest when there was no expectancy for further testing. The theoretical bases for the effects of positive experiences (e.g., success) on subsequent self-regulatory patterns are discussed. Main effects and interactions with individual differences on the Repression-Sensitization Scale indicate that sensitizers were more likely to attend to their liabilities and repressors to their assets. These effects of individual differences were strongest in control conditions and were nullified when treatment effects were powerful, in accord with theoretical expectations. (31 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
IN AN INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING A PERSON'S WILLINGNESS TO HELP OTHER PEOPLE, 108 MALE COLLEGE STUDENTS SERVED IN THE 9 CONDITIONS OF A 3 * 3 FACTORIAL DESIGN IN WHICH THEY (1) HAD EITHER A SUCCESS, FAILURE, OR NO EXPERIENCE ON A PRELIMINARY, IRRELEVANT TASK, AND THEN (2) WERE REQUIRED TO WORK FOR A PEER WHOSE CHANCE OF GAINING A PRIZE WAS EITHER 20%, 50%, OR 80% DEPENDENT UPON THEIR PRODUCTIVITY. SS WHO HAD EXPERIENCED A FRUSTRATION TENDED TO EXPRESS STRONGER DISLIKE FOR THE EXPERIMENT AND FOR THEIR PEER THE GREATER THEIR PEER'S DEPENDENCY UPON THEM. THE FELT OBLIGATION ARISING FROM THE HIGH PERCEIVED DEPENDENCY WAS APPARENTLY AN UNWELCOME PRESSURE FOR THESE SS. BY CONTRAST, THE SUCCESSFUL SS HAD A GREATER INCREASE IN WORK IN BEHALF OF THEIR DEPENDENT PEER THAN DID THE CONTROL SS. CONSIDERING THE HELP GIVEN THE DEPENDENT PERSON AS A SPECIAL CASE OF CONFORMITY TO A SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY NORM, PRESCRIBING THAT PEOPLE SHOULD HELP THOSE WHO NEED THEIR ASSISTANCE, THE FINDINGS SUPPORT THE THESIS THAT PRIOR FRUSTRATIONS LESSEN WILLINGNESS TO CONFORM TO SUCH MORAL NORMS, WHILE PREVIOUS SUCCESS EXPERIENCES MAY INCREASE MOTIVATION TO ADHERE TO THESE STANDARDS OF CONDUCT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied the time course of the spread of activation in lexical memory, using naming latency as the measure of activation in a variable-duration priming paradigm with 48 college students. Visually presented priming words were shown for 75–225 msec, followed immediately by a mask and a 2nd word that was to be named as quickly as possible. Results show that, relative to a control condition in which primer and test word were unrelated, facilitation in naming the 2nd word was evident when the 2 words shared the same name (name identity) or an associative relationship. The name-identity relation produced the most facilitation at all durations. Most relations showed an increase in facilitation as primer duration increased from 75 to 150 msec. Different temporal patterns of activation for antonym, synonym, and sex-shift pair types among the associative primer/test word pairs were also noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used posthypnotic suggestions to investigate how emotional states influence the learning and memory of a text. Exp I (using 16 undergraduates with high scores on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale) found that happy or sad readers identified with (and recalled more facts about) a character who was in the same mood as they were. In Exp II (with 16 experienced mental health professionals), this selective recall by character could not be produced by inducing the mood at recall after Ss had read the story in a neutral mood. In Exp III (with 32 Ss), mood during reading caused selective learning of mood-congruent incidents, but mood during recall had little effect. Exp IV (with 16 Ss) found that inducing the mood only during recall produced no selective recall of happy vs sad incidents. In Exp V (with 16 Ss), Ss selectively learned whatever affective material was congruent with their emotional state, rather than identifying exclusively with the same-mood character. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contrasts the position of associationism-that psychological phenomena are capable of analysis into basic relations between basic units-with the position of contextualism-that the relevance of any analysis depends upon the purpose for which the quality of a particular event is being explicated. Important aspects of the position of contextualism are illustrated in a discussion of 3 types of experiments in the domain of memory. The contextual approach is shown to provide a more adequate account of the experimental data than the associative approach. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports data from 3 experiments in support of the encoding specificity hypothesis of retrieval: the effectiveness of retrieval cues depends upon the specific format of encoding of the to-be-remembered (TBR) words at the time of their storage, regardless of how strongly the cues are associated with the TBR words in other situations. In the critical experimental conditions, TBR words were studied in presence of weakly associated cue words. 180 female undergraduates served as Ss. Recall of the TBR words in the presence of these cues was greatly facilitated in comparison with noncued recall; recall of the TBR words in presence of their strongest normative associates, which had not been seen at input, did not differ from noncued recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An examination of the bases on which "emotional" responses are supposed to be distinguishable from other responses, such as (1) the physiological mechanisms involved, (2) the intensity of the reaction, (3) the disorganization, (4) the uniqueness of the content, etc., shows that all involve differences in degree, not in kind. The attempt to study emotions as such should be abandoned, and replaced by a study of variation in the simple, irreducible aspects of behavior in general. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Six experiments employing a total of 246 undergraduate Ss studied the effects of semantic (Sem), orthographic (O), and unrelated (U) primes on word retrieval. In Exp I, correct word retrieval probabilities (from definitions) were poorest after Sem, best after O, and intermediate after U primes. A parallel result was found in Exp II, using retrieval latencies: Correct words were retrieved slowest after Sem, fastest after O, and at an intermediate speed after U primes. Exp III demonstrated that this effect was not due simply to differences in the nonmatch decision preceding the correct word search. Increasing the number of Sem primes increased response latencies (Exp IV); both Sem and U primes caused increased search and retrieval times relative to a no-prime control in Exp V; and the effect was replicated using object rather than definition stimuli in Exp VI. It is suggested that Sem primes inhibit locating items within categories, whereas U primes inhibit locating the appropriate category. The discrepancy between the present outcome and the previous finding of Sem prime retrieval facilitation is discussed. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research suggests that, whereas induced happiness tends to facilitate the recall of positive material, induced mild sadness often does not facilitate the recall of negative material symmetrically. These results are compatible with those reported by L. Hasher et al (see record
1986-03061-001) but also suggest that their failure to observe effects of mild depression on recall should not be overgeneralized to conclude that affective states other than mild sadness have negligible effects on cognitive processes. Possible mediators of these phenomena are discussed, and their potential relevance to the understanding of clinical depression and of the cognitive representation of various affective states is considered. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Many personality trait terms can be thought of as summary labels for broad conceptual categories that are used to encode information about an individual's behavior into memory. The likelihood that a behavior is encoded in terms of a particular trait category is postulated to be a function of the relative accessibility of that category in memory. In addition, the trait category used to encode a particular behavior is thought to affect subsequent judgments of the person along dimensions to which it is directly or indirectly related. To test these hypotheses, undergraduates first performed a sentence construction task that activated concepts associated with either hostility (Exp I, 96 Ss) or kindness (Exp II, 96 new Ss). As part of an ostensibly unrelated impression formation experiment, Ss later read a description of behaviors that were ambiguous with respect to hostility (kindness) and then rated the target person along a variety of trait dimensions. Ratings of the target along these dimensions increased with the number of times that the test concept had previously been activated in the sentence construction task and decreased with the time interval between these prior activations and presentation of the stimulus information to be encoded. Results suggest that category accessibility is a major determinant of the way in which social information is encoded into memory and subsequently used to make judgments. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent changes in pretheoretical orientation toward problems of human memory have brought with them a concern with retrieval processes, and a number of early versions of theories of retrieval have been constructed. This paper describes and evaluates explanations offered by these theories to account for the effect of extralist cuing, facilitation of recall of list items by non-list items. Experiments designed to test the currently most popular theory of retrieval, the generation-recognition theory, yielded results incompatible not only with generation-recognition models, but most other theories as well: under certain conditions subjects consistently failed to recognize many recallable list words. Several tentative explanations of this phenomenon of recognition failure were subsumed under the encoding specificity principle according to which the memory trace of an event and hence the properties of effective retrieval cue are determined by the specific encoding operations performed by the system on the input stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two field studies investigated the time course of the effect of feeling good on helping. 42 Ss were given small packets ("free samples") of stationery by a confederate who went from door to door. Then, at different intervals, each S received a "wrong number" telephone call during which he/she had the opportunity to help. Results show that Ss who had received stationery helped more than did those in either of 2 control groups. The effect declined gradually over time, and by 20 min after receipt of the stationery, the experimental group did not differ from the control groups. The time course of the decline in helpfulness and the basic relationship between good mood and helping are discussed in terms of cognitive processes. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the effects of success and failure and their impact on valuation of resources in 3 experiments. In Exp. I, 36 male and 39 female 4th graders who participated in a bowling game and received predetermined scores indicating success or failure, were given the opportunity to contribute to a toy fund for needy children and then asked to estimate the value of 4 toys. Results show that success led to increased generosity. In Exp. II, with 30 male and 30 female 3rd graders, success and failure scores were emphasized. Results show that, where the opportunity for image reparation exists, children who fail are more charitable than control Ss. Exp. III studied the effects of failure only, with 30 male and 30 female 4th graders, indicating that only if a charity is presented as related to an E who knows about S's failure will increased generosity result. Results are discussed in terms of the "warm glow of success" effect and an image repair hypothesis. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
3 experiments with adult Ss investigated the effects of the experience of success or failure on subsequent generosity, helpfulness, and attention to the social environment. On the basis of an intuitive formulation, designated the "warm glow of success" hypothesis, it was expected that Ss who had succeeded on a task would subsequently behave more generously and more helpfully toward a stranger than would Ss who had not succeeded. It was predicted that Ss who had failed would be less attentive to the social environment than those who had succeeded. In the success and failure groups, Ss performed a series of tasks and were then informed that they had scored either well above the norm or well below it. Control Ss in 1 study were exposed to these tasks for about the same period of time, but had no opportunity to actually work on them, and thus received no feedback. In all conditions, after the independent variable manipulation was completed, the E left the room, and a confederate, who did not know the experimental condition of the S, entered. In Study I, the dependent measure was amount of money contributed to a charity collection can which the confederate placed on the table. In both Studies II and III, the dependent variables were helpfulness and attentiveness to the confederate. Results support the predictions. Internal analysis in Study III indicates that the findings regarding helping and those regarding attention were independent of each other. Several possible interpretations of the results are offered. The role of the S's feelings of competence and his expectancy for future incoming resources is suggested as a mediator 178 192 192 192 192 208 286 328 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Shows that the assumption of simple scalability in most probabilistic analyses of choice is inadequate on both theoretical and experimental grounds. A more general theory of choice based on a covert elimination process is developed in which each alternative is viewed as a set of aspects. At each stage in the process, an aspect is selected (with probability proportional to its weight), and all the alternatives that do not include the selected aspect are eliminated. The process continues until all alternatives but 1 are eliminated. It is shown that this model (a) is expressible purely in terms of the choice alternatives without any reference to specific aspects, (b) can be tested using observable choice probabilities, and (c) generalize the choice models of R. D. Luce (see PA, Vol. 34:3588) and of F. Restle (see PA Vol. 36:5CP35R). Empirical support from a study of psychophysical and preferential judgments is presented. Strategic implications and the logic of elimination by aspects are discussed. (29 ref.)
The present study is one of a series exploring the role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. It has been found in our previous studies that in ‚minimal' situations, in which the subjects were categorized into groups on the basis of visual judgments they had made or of their esthetic preferences, they clearly discriminated against members of an outgroup although this gave them no personal advantage. However, in these previous studies division into groups was still made on the basis of certain criteria of ‚real' similarity between subjects who were assigned to the same category. Therefore, the present study established social categories on an explicitly random basis without any reference to any such real similarity.It was found that, as soon as the notion of ‚group' was introduced into the situation, the subjects still discriminated against those assigned to another random category. This discrimination was considerably more marked than the one based on a division of subjects in terms of interindividual similarities in which the notion of ‚group' was never explicitly introduced. In addition, it was found that fairness was also a determinant of the subjects' decisions.The results are discussed from the point of view of their relevance to a social-cognitive theory of intergroup behaviour.
The effects of intergroup contact on stereotypic beliefs, it is argued, depend upon (1) the potential susceptibility of those beliefs to disconfirming information and the degree to which the contact setting “allows” for disconfirming events, and (2) the degree to which disconfirming events are generalized from specific group members to the group as a whole. To account for the generalization of attributes from a sample to a population, we present a cognitive-processing model. The model assumes that impressions of groups are most heavily influenced by the attributes of those members most strongly associated with the group label. In order for group stereotypes to change, then, disconfirming information must be associated with the group labels. However, a number of powerful cognitive processes work against this association. As a consequence, we predict that stereotype change will be relatively rare under “normal” circumstances but may occur when disconfirming information is encountered under circumstances that activate the group label (e.g., when disconfirming attributes are associated with otherwise typical group members).