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Subtropical design in South East Queensland : a handbook for planners, developers and decision makers
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... First, a KolmogorovÀSmirnov test was performed to investigate the distribution of the indicator data-set. As a result of the non-normal distribution of the data-set, the Spearman's rank correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the indicators with reference to similar studies (e.g., Pinho Katz 1999; Lehman et al. 2005; Morien 2006; Christmann and Badgett 2009). It needs to be mentioned that this analysis was conducted with normalized indicator values (between 1 and 5) which narrowed the range of data and resulted in a decrease in standard deviations and an increase in the correlation coefficients. ...
... The sustainability performance score for the 'Site Design' category is medium-low (1.97). Climate responsive site design plays an important role in encouraging energy efficiency in subtropical regions like the study area (Kennedy 2010). The City Council prepared Energy Conservation (Design for Climate) (GCCC 2015e) policy under the city's planning scheme to reduce greenhouse gas emissions arising from energy consumption, in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol and the Cities for Climate Protection program. ...
... The correlation between the indicator data-sets is presented in Appendix 2. A high correlation was found between 'evapotranspiration (ISR)' and 'surface runoff (SR)' (r D 0.734), 'stormwater pollution (SW)' and 'air pollution (AIR)' (r D 0.648), and 'proximity to land-use destinations (LUD)' and 'access to public transport (PT) stops' (r D 0.731) indicators. A correlation coefficient ratio 0.8 was taken as the benchmark value as suggested ( Katz 1999;Lehman et al. 2005;Morien 2006;Christmann and Badgett 2009). It needs to be mentioned that this analysis was conducted with normalized indicator values (between 1 and 5) which narrowed the range of data and resulted in a decrease in standard deviations and an increase in the correlation coefficients. ...
This paper introduces a policy-making support tool called ‘Micro-level Urban-ecosystem Sustainability IndeX (MUSIX)’. The index serves as a sustainability assessment model that monitors six aspects of urban ecosystems – hydrology, ecology, pollution, location, design, and efficiency – based on parcel-scale indicators. This index is applied in a case study investigation in the Gold Coast City, Queensland, Australia. The outcomes reveal that there are major environmental problems caused by increased impervious surfaces from growing urban development in the study area. The findings suggest that increased impervious surfaces are linked to increased surface runoff, car dependency, transport-related pollution, poor public transport accessibility, and unsustainable built environment. This paper presents how the MUSIX outputs can be used to guide policy-making through the evaluation of existing policies.
... Climate-related lifestyle needs are frequently overlooked in residential environment satisfaction research, but are an important aspect of subtropical cities where the climate is conducive to outdoor living all year round. The subtropical humid climate zone has no distinctly dry season [15] and though summers are hot and humid, and winters are cool, the ambient outdoor temperatures (19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29) °C in summer and 9-21 °C in winter) are within a comfortable range for much of the year [16,17]. Humidity is the main factor affecting thermal comfort in subtropical settlements, and is most noticeable when air temperature is high and wind velocity is low [18]. ...
... Despite the advantages and disadvantages of the mild subtropical climate, the climate zone is relatively under-researched, in terms of the relationship between climate, multi-residential building design and residents' perceptions and experiences of this relationship. For example, many domestic activities are conducted in exterior private spaces such as verandas, balconies and terraces [20] and are a characteristic feature of multi-storey apartment buildings (MSABs) in subtropical cities like Brisbane ( Figure 1). Residents occupying such spaces in dwellings in are potentially exposed to noise discomfort. ...
Dwellings in multi-storey apartment buildings (MSAB) are predicted to increase dramatically as a proportion of housing stock in subtropical cities over coming decades. The problem of designing comfortable and healthy high-density residential environments and minimising energy consumption must be addressed urgently in subtropical cities globally. This paper explores private residents’ experiences of privacy and comfort and their perceptions of how well their apartment dwelling modulated the external environment in subtropical conditions through analysis of 636 survey responses and 24 interviews with residents of MSAB in inner urban neighbourhoods of Brisbane, Australia. The findings show that the availability of natural ventilation and outdoor private living spaces play important roles in resident perceptions of liveability in the subtropics where the climate is conducive to year round “outdoor living”. Residents valued choice with regard to climate control methods in their apartments. They overwhelmingly preferred natural ventilation to manage thermal comfort, and turned to the air-conditioner for limited periods, particularly when external conditions were too noisy. These findings provide a unique evidence base for reducing the environmental impact of MSAB and increasing the acceptability of apartment living, through incorporating residential attributes positioned around climate-responsive architecture.
... Designing climate responsive buildings in sub--tropical Australia to provide a level of comfort for the occupants is discussed by Hyde, Groenhout, Barram, Yeang 2013, Kennedy 2010, Prescott 2001, Hyde 2000, Australian Government 2010, and Think Brick 2014. Architectural science principles are discussed by Koenisberger et al. 1980, Kwok & Grondzik 2007, and Szokolay 2008 and the seminal bioclimatic design approach is explained by Olgyagy 1963. ...
In subtropical southeast Queensland, a common approach to improving thermal comfort in existing school classrooms is to use air-conditioners. However, increasing reliance on air-conditioners in schools adds to energy costs and increases carbon emissions. Greater understanding of low energy approaches to improving thermal comfort is needed to address this problem. The purpose of this research was to firstly, evaluate the impact of four passive cooling strategies retrofitted to existing classroom buildings and their immediate surrounds in a Brisbane school. The retrofitted interventions were: 1) stack ventilation, 2) cool roof, 3) shade sails over courtyards, and 4) schoolyard greening. Secondly, the research explored the adaptive behaviour of teachers during times of perceived over-heating in classrooms. The research used a case study methodology that combined quantitative (temperature) and qualitative (perceptions of teachers) data gathering within an overarching systems framework. Classroom temperatures were collected before and after interventions from 2012 to 2015. Teachers participated in an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews in 2015. Results indicate that the duration of high classroom temperatures decreased following each intervention. However, the reduction in classroom temperature was not enough to be within an acceptable comfort range for summer months, particularly during hot and humid weather. Common adaptive behaviours exhibited by teachers included the use of windows and ceiling fans to increase air movement, and scheduling more intense teaching in the cooler, morning session. The research identified times in the school year when classrooms with passive, retrofitted interventions were within an acceptable comfort range. However, a significant finding was that air-conditioning some classrooms and not others was seen to be an equity issue. The research makes an important contribution to the information available to schools on low energy approaches to improving thermal comfort. These approaches include reducing heat load in existing classrooms by retrofitting passive cooling strategies and increasing awareness amongst teachers of the potential for adaptive behaviours to decrease the use of mechanical cooling and heating.
... Performance measurement of the space is then an on-going and responsive process and the design criteria measure an aspect or various aspects of a place and/or site in order to reflect on how best the area fits within a certain standard. Source: [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] 2. Research Method In this study, it is then possible to envisage performance design criteria (PDC) for tropical urban environments founded on the knowledge arising from scholarly and evidence-based research, and the most commonly used criteria or indicators in planning and designing of subtropical and tropical urban environments. 40 PDCs have been identified [7-23]. ...
Sustainability is an overarching sense of responsibility towards the future. On a city-wide level, urban sustainability incorporates a wide body of changes especially as they relate to the built environment, all of which intended at creating a livable place. This paper discusses existing public spaces in view of their achievement against a set of criteria for the built environment. The paper introduces performance design criteria for the tropical built environment. The key findings indicate that long-term strategies, guidance and directions for the city and region can achieve development which corresponds to local climate, synergies and provide a higher proportion of public spaces that offer something for everyone.
... It highlights a different outlook of Brisbane climate than it is portrayed in a generalized climate analysis approach. In broader climatic classification, Brisbane climate is defined as 'subtropical' and is considered favourable for natural ventilation in summer and mild winter (Kennedy 2010;Reardon and Downton 2013). In contrast, this study has highlighted that the humid environmental condition in warm period (December-March) is of greater concern in Brisbane. ...
Designing for the climate-responsive built environment is not a new concept. Local climate played a significant part in ancient city and building designs. In contrast, modern built environment professionals increasingly use climate-modifying technologies to nullify the local climatic constraints. The lack of climate considerations is often associated with limited understanding of local climate. Although detailed quantitative climate information is available for thermal performance evaluation tools, its qualitative interpretation is often too simplified to inform design decisions at early design stage. This paper addresses the
issues of climate data analysis and presentation, and uses simple graphics to inform building designers
about the local climate and encourages them to consider climate in their designs. This paper takes the
case of Brisbane’s climate, illustrates it through simple diagrams, and redefines seasonal variation into different periods based on comfort conditions. This paper also discusses application of the information in
climate-responsive design.
... In broader climatic context, Brisbane climate is defined as 'Subtropical' and considered favourable for natural ventilation in summer and requiring not much heating in winter (Kennedy, 2010;Reardon and Downton, 2013). However, in contrast to those understandings, this study has highlighted the need to address two different seasonal requirements for Brisbane which are -minimizing the impact of high humidity in summer months and maintaining a comfortable temperature in winter. ...
Local climate has always been a major factor in the layout of cities and building forms in the past. With the modern technological innovations and climate modifying techniques, building designers often overlook the usefulness of climate design strategies in their designs thus isolating them from the immediate environment. With the availability of affordable and efficient energy modelling tools, designers can assess energy efficiency of their designs prior to construction, but the interactions between various environmental factors at the early design stage are not often clear to them. Only thorough analysis of local climate data can shed light on the effective design strategies for a particular site. Most often, climate data is presented in tabular formats making them difficult to comprehend the interrelationships between climatic elements and their implication in building design. As a result, climate consideration in conceptual design stage is usually ignored or inadequate. This paper addresses the underlying issues of climate data presentation and uses informative figures and tables to inform local climate in a meaningful way. The information will help building professionals to understand local climate easily and allow them to incorporate climate design strategies in their designs. This paper takes Brisbane as an example to explore a climate design approach. Brisbane climate data recommends minimizing the impact of high humidity in summer and maintaining a comfortable temperature in winter.
Cities are recognized as the main consumers of energy on the planet, and to optimize their energy consumption and enhance the potential of using renewable energy sources, built form and density are considered highly influential factors. The energy efficiency of compact built forms has been debated by many studies. Meanwhile, urban density, as an attribute of urban form, has yet to be well defined due to the diversity of density indicators used in literature. Hence, there is a lack of integrated guidelines for urban density indicators and their relationships with urban built forms in urban energy studies.
This thesis establishes a framework to demonstrate the inter-correlation of urban built form, density and energy for residential buildings, and the impact of climate as an influential parameter is investigated by adopting a mixed methods research approach. It primarily identifies the relationship between the urban built form and density by introducing a novel indicator of urban form termed the Form Signature. It demonstrates the simultaneous correlation of two selected density indicators with influential variables developed from the geometry of four selected urban built forms. An urban energy simulation software package, CitySim, is adopted to conduct sensitivity analyses. The simulation models are validated against data from a known building group. An energy indicator, termed Energy Equity, is also introduced that simultaneously considers the amount of building energy demand as well as energy generation by building-mounted PVs.
Cross case study analysis is undertaken to examine the impact of climate on urban energy performance, where four cities (London, Singapore, Helsinki and Phoenix) are chosen based on the specific climatic criteria. Meteonorm software is adopted to generate climate file relating to each case study. The investigation is further complemented by analysing future scenarios to examine the impact of climate change and technological developments (i.e. the penetration of EVs into the transportation sector) on the energy efficiency of urban areas of the future.
Graphical results of the Form Signature indicator prove that the term ‘high density’ is crucially dependent on the definition of the density indicator. The resulting graphs provide a robust platform for the analysis of contexts such as climate, economy, social issues and energy. Overlaying results of building energy simulations over the Form Signature graphs indicates the relationship of energy with urban built form and density.
Results show that buildings with a greater number of storeys and greater plan depth (equivalent to low values of plot ratio and variable values of site coverage) have lower energy demand. When PV generation is also considered, low number of storeys and great plan depth can improve the energy performance of buildings (equivalent to low plot ratio and high site coverage). Having identical geometric variables, tunnel-court form (that is introduced in this study) provides the greatest density while pavilion form provides the lowest (~80% lower than tunnel-court). The energy performance of tunnel-court form is also the highest in all considered climates, while pavilion form shows the lowest energy performance (between 27% and 67% for cooling-dominated buildings and between 7% and 32% for heating-dominated buildings). Nevertheless, if density remains constant and geometric variables are changed, the opposite becomes true. An important conclusion is that the site plans with similar built forms and densities may have different energy performance since the same value of density can be achieved by different combinations of geometrical variables.
Increasing the cut-off angle reduces building energy demand in cooling-dominated buildings (i.e. in Singapore and Phoenix) between 6% and 56%, while increase building energy demand in heating-dominated buildings (i.e. in London and Helsinki) between 2% and 16.5%. Therefore, increasing density through cut-off angle is not always energy efficient as it depends on climate. In general, building energy demand in London is the lowest among the case studies, while it is the highest in Singapore (up to 219% higher than London). London also shows the highest value of Energy Equity (demonstrating the best energy performance) and Helsinki shows the lowest (up to 51% lower than London). Considering future scenarios, the total building energy demand in 2050 will be 48% higher than at present, on average. A recommendation for future urban planning in London, for instance, is that court and tunnel-court forms will be more energy efficient, and possessing a lower number of storeys, small cut-off angle and greater plan depth will further improve their energy performance and reduce their emissions.
The holistic outcome of this study provides urban energy planning guidelines that can be used by various stakeholders in the built environment.
The summer of 2018-19 was the hottest on record for Australia. The extreme heatwaves and bushfires that occurred across Queensland are a clear indication that we are facing unprecedented challenges in understanding and responding to the impacts of natural hazards in a changing climate.
The State Heatwave Risk Assessment (SHRA) was developed to provide all stakeholders with clear and consistent information regarding the changing nature of heatwave risk in Queensland. It was a collaborative effort between multiple stakeholders, coordinated through a working group led by Queensland Fire and Emergency Services (QFES), Queensland Health (QH), and the Department of Environment and Science (DES).
The inclusion of long-term climate change projections within the assessment represents a first for hazard specific, emergency management related risk assessments in Australia. This robust scientific basis enhances the assessment and enables State agencies and disaster management groups to inform their planning against current and future heatwave risk.
In subtropical southeast Queensland, a common approach to improving thermal comfort in existing classrooms is to use air-conditioners. However increasing reliance on air-conditioners in schools adds to energy costs and increases carbon emissions. Greater understanding of low energy approaches to improving thermal comfort is needed to address this problem. This paper increases understanding of low energy approaches to improving thermal comfort in existing school buildings. In a case study school in Brisbane the impacts of a number of passive cooling interventions to classroom buildings and their surrounds were studied together with the current adaptive behaviours of teachers during perceived overheating in classrooms. The impact of the interventions on classrooms was evaluated through quantitative data, classroom temperature, collected over 2012 to 2015 and qualitative data, perceptions of teachers of the classrooms, though an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with teachers and the Principal in 2015. This paper discusses key findings from the case study: current adaptive actions of teachers and the social and cultural aspects of thermal comfort in classrooms. A significant finding was that airconditioning some classrooms and not others in the school was seen as an equity issue. Implications from this study could inform a pathway for low energy occupation of classrooms in southeast Queensland.
This paper presents an index for measuring experiential qualities (EQs) of urban public spaces through users’ perspective. The index is underpinned by interrelated qualities of comfort, diversity and vitality, inclusiveness, and image and likeability. It is then applied to two public spaces in the Australian city of Brisbane: Queen Street Mall and South Bank Parklands. The index extends the user-centred measuring tools and can be used by practitioners, authorities and scholars to highlight users’ needs and concerns. Findings from case spaces revealed deficiencies and provided a deeper insight into EQs through integrating urban design qualities, perception and management measuring items.
There is enormous interest in urban design and the regeneration of our urban areas, but current thinking often concentrates on the built form, forgetting the important role that open spaces play. Urban Open Spaces brings together extensive research and practical experience to prove the opportunities and benefits of different types of open space to society and individuals. Focusing on the importance of open spaces in daily urban life, the book is divided into three sections. The first section describes the social, health, environmental and economic benefits and opportunities that open spaces can provide. The second section discusses the different types of urban open spaces that individuals or communities might use on a daily basis: from private gardens to commercial squares and waterway corridors. The final section provides best practice case-studies demonstrating urban spaces being incorporated in new developments and community initiatives. This is the first book to bring together a variety of evidence from different disciplines to outline the benefits and opportunities of urban open spaces in an accessible way. Not just for students and practitioners, this book will be of value for anyone interested in the design, development, regeneration, funding and use of open spaces in urban areas.
The need to respond to the rapidly changing city climate is particularly urgent in the tropics where the urban transition is currently at its peak. While the need is clearly felt by the tropical urban dwellers, texts that provide an overview of the problem and indicate possible design solutions are rare. This comprehensive reference will be welcomed by student and practising architects as well as other built envronment professionals engaged with the environmental effects of building in worldwide warm and humid climates.
A dilemma of urbanization: The metropolitan area of Fort Lauderdale, Florida with 1.75 million inhabitants is sandwiched between the Everglades subtropical preserve and the Atlantic Ocean and characterized by the predominance of sprawl. A population increase of 1 million by 2030 is projected as the country runs out of vacant land for new development. In order to maintain both a steady course of growth and a desirable quality of life the convergence of these two conditions frames the emergence of a new vision shifting the balance from an automobile dominated paradigm to one that is more diverse, efficient, sustainable and community oriented. Broward County (26°7'28" N 80°14'58" W) seeks to create a sense of place as it guides redevelopment to accommodate future growth. The County-wide Community Design Guidebook Project responds to critical urban redevelopment and planning issues with a conceptual framework, a comprehensive set of design principles and a community design and implementation process that is context-driven. Further, by describing and examining the built environment in its local natural, built, and cultural contexts, the Community Design Guidebook provides the basis for interpreting and implementing an inherently climate responsive and contextual vision for future redevelopment. The Guidebook is intended to be a "living" compendium of local intelligence combined with best-practices for coordinating coherent design of transportation, urban design, landscape architecture, architecture and environmental graphics best suited to the subtropical climate thereby reinforcing a sense of place. The Guidebook developed from the QUILTNET concept: By interpreting the County as a patchwork quilt of diverse communities threaded together with transportation corridors, the Guidebook presents a vision and a tool for weaving areas of redevelopment to form new networks of highly integrated community centres, superimposed on the existing automobile based structure. An increased variety of transportation options become warp and weft for weaving revitalised communities allowing them to form more vibrant, liveable outdoor realms. Context-driven design principles are based on the premise that creating wholeness, or a sense of place, is not achieved by imposing themes or patterns, but rather through an interpretive design process that begins with analysing three conditions of the local context within which meaningful design action can occur: • The natural context: a hot-humid climate in a high velocity hurricane zone (HVHZ) • The built context: largely determined by the form(s) of transportation • The cultural context: the history of settlement and diversity of the population Design action is executed through five design systems that shape the perception and experience of urban environments: Transportation, Urban Design, Landscape Architecture, Architecture, and Environmental Graphic Design. Each is identified and examined through the lens of the local contexts described. The Guidebook facilitates interaction among them as a
We estimated the effect of shade trees on the summertime electricity use of 460 single-family homes in Sacramento, California. Results show that trees on the west and south sides of a house reduce summertime electricity use, whereas trees on the north side of a house increase summertime electricity use. The current level of tree cover on the west and south sides of houses in our sample reduced summertime electricity use by 185 kWh (5.2%), whereas north-side trees increased electricity use by 55 kWh (1.5%). Results also show that a London plane tree, planted on the west side of a house, can reduce carbon emissions from summertime electricity use by an average of 31% over 100 years.
The research being undertaken seeks to achieve a better understanding of the richness of microclimatic characteristics in outdoor urban spaces, and the comfort implications for the people using them. The underlying hypothesis is that these conditions influence people’s behaviour and usage of outdoor spaces. The initial results demonstrate that a purely physiological approach is inadequate in characterising comfort conditions outdoors, and an understanding of the dynamic human parameter is necessary in designing spaces for public use. The thermal environment is indeed of prime importance influencing people’s use of these spaces, but psychological adaptation (available choice, environmental stimulation, thermal history, memory effect, expectations) is also of great importance in such spaces that present few constraints.