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Abstract
Examines some of the factors influencing the evolution of conventional fuel and wood fuel demands in the developing world. It shows that the resource and balance-of-payments constraints against the use of conventional fuels are less than commonly assumed. It examines the dynamics of wood-fuel resource depletion, and discusses the problems of estimating the future demand for wood fuel. The need for a disaggregated analysis that takes into account the differences between categories of domestic fuel consumers is emphasized. - Author
... They typically use of mix of energy types to optimize household energy use (Masera et al., 2000). Energy prices also influence the choice of fuels and level of energy consumption (Brouwer & Falcão, 2004;Foley, 1985); in some countries or parts of countries, some energy options may not be available. Availability of different fuels can be generated by changes in markets, transportation, technology, and household income (Brouwer & Falcão, 2004;Leach, 1992;Ruiz-Mercado, Masera, Zamora, & Smith, 2011). ...
... Literature citations Income and prices Brouwer & Falcão, 2004;Foley, 1985;Ruiz-Mercado et al., 2011;Leach, 1992;Rao & Reddy, 2007;Démurger & Fournier, 2011. Charcoal Hosier & Milukas, 1992Ribot, 1998;Mwampamba, 2007;Luoga, Witkowski, & Balkwill, 2000;Chileshe, 2005;Iiyama et al., 2014. ...
... As one woman noted, "charcoal is less work, less smoky, and easy to use." However, charcoal is often purchased and income is often a critical constraint for women in fuel choice (Foley, 1985). ...
The women in Lupeta, Tanzania use fuelwood as the primary source of fuel. The choices and constraints women face in fuelwood collection was examined using walks with women and semi-structured interviews. Women primarily use fuelwood with limited charcoal use. They would prefer to use more charcoal but costs, limited income, competition and ownership of trees and land constrains them in both fuelwood collection and alternative strategies.
... sections. The ÿrst refers to non-domestic consumers, the others to the domestic consumers, starting with 11 an estimate of the consumed quantities, changes over time (seasonal and long-term), and the in uence of 13 socio-economic factors. In the ÿnal section several conclusions regarding wood fuel use in Maputo are 15 drawn. ...
... As income rises, initially more wood fuel is 85 consumed, but beyond a certain level its use decreases due to its substitution by other fuels such as paraf-87 ÿn [12]. According to Foley [13], price in uences the amount of fuel that is consumed, but hardly a ects the 89 choice between fuels. Unclear is what determines the transition from wood to other fuels as a country be-91 comes richer. ...
... Wood fuel using households are significantly larger than those who do not use wood fuel. 13 The di erence is the most outspoken in relation to ÿrewood consumers. Households using ÿrewood have 15 on the average 7.51 members as to 5.89 for the entire population. ...
The population of Mozambique's capital Maputo relies to a large extent on wood fuel to meet its energy needs. The paper, based on a sample of 168 non-domestic and 240 domestic consumers, shows that domestic households constitute the most important wood fuel users in the city. Domestic consumption is now between 0.9 and of woody biomass per capita, an increase of more than 10% compared to data from the 1980s. This increase occurs despite a growing importance of alternatives such as paraffin, gas and electricity, and can be explained by the substitution of firewood by charcoal. The paper also shows a strong correlation between fuel consumption and socio-economic factors such as household size, area of residence and income. A striking feature is that similar to poorer families higher income households tend to use charcoal in combination with non-woody fuels, contradicting FAO's (1993) “fuel ladder”. The paper argues finally that the importance of social economic factors inflicts a dynamism on fuel consumption patterns, which makes it necessary to monitor them on a regular instead of an ad hoc basis, as is the case now.
... Fuelwood remains a crucial resource for rural livelihoods in many countries (Foley, 1985;Webb & Dhakal, 2011). Following Foley (1985) and Webb & Dhakal (2011), the model considers fuelwood harvesting as a constraint on timber harvesting. ...
... Fuelwood remains a crucial resource for rural livelihoods in many countries (Foley, 1985;Webb & Dhakal, 2011). Following Foley (1985) and Webb & Dhakal (2011), the model considers fuelwood harvesting as a constraint on timber harvesting. It assumes that the harvesting of fuelwood begins with deadwood and is then supplemented with live trees if deadwood is not available. ...
For millennia, societies have tried to find ways to sustain people’s livelihoods by setting rules to equitably and sustainably access, harvest and manage common pools of resources (CPR) that are productive and rich in species. But what are the elements that explain historical successes and failures? Elinor Ostrom suggested that it depends on at least eight axiomatic principles of good governance, whereas empirical results suggest that these principles are not sufficient to describe them, especially when applied to CPRs that possess great social and ecological diversity. The aim of this article is to explore the behavior of a mathematical model of multi-species forest dynamics that respects the foundations of ecology and Ostrom’s governance theory, in order to detect possible constraints inherent to the functioning of these complex systems. The model reveals that fundamental structural laws of compatibilities between species life-history traits are indeed constraining the level of co-existence (average and variance) between a diversity of co-vulnerable timber resource users (RU) and of competing tree species. These structural constraints can also lead to unexpected outcomes. For instance in wetter forest commons, opening up the access to as many diverse RUs as there are competing tree species, produces a diversity of independently-controlled disturbances on species, collectively improving the chances of coexistence between species with different life-history traits. Similar benefits are observed on forest carbon and on profits from timber harvesting. However in drier forest commons, the same benefits cannot be observed, as predicted on the basis of the constraining laws. The results show that the successes and failures of certain management strategies can be reasonably explained by simple mechanistic theories from ecology and the social-ecological sciences, which are themselves constrained by fundamental ecological invariants. If corroborated, the results could be used, in conjunction with Ostrom’s CPR theory, to understand and solve various human-nature coexistence dilemmas in complex social-ecological systems.
... However, the production of charcoal has several adverse environmental effects. It has been linked with deforestation in Brazil and in other parts of the tropics (Kohlhemp, 1995;Naughton-Treves et al, 2007) and with soil deterioration and organic matter decline (Foley 1985;Fontodji et al, 2009). The process of charcoal production also influences soil properties, especially in kiln sites, where dried felled trees are accumulated and burned. ...
... The heightened and growing demand for charcoal in Nigerian urban centres, consequent upon the withdrawal of the petroleum subsidy by government and bourgeoning urban population, fueled by rural-urban migration, underscore the need to examine the effects of charcoal production on the ecosystem, especially the soil. This is particularly so as the methods of charcoal production vary from place to place (Foley, 1985) and hence, the results of studies carried out in one region may not be directly applicable to another. The studies on the effects of charcoal production on soil in Ghana and Togo referred to above, concentrated on the effects of charcoal production on the topsoil and ignored the subsoil. ...
In Nigeria, charcoal is a major source of energy, especially among the urban poor. However, the effects of charcoal production on the environment, especially the soil, have not been adequately documented. This study examines the effects of charcoal production in kiln sites on soil properties in the derived savanna zone of Ibarapa region, south-western Nigeria. Soils in ten kiln sites were sampled at depths of 0-10cm and 10-20cm and their characteristics were compared with those of the corresponding layers of soil in ten adjoining derived savanna sites which were used as the control. Unlike in previous studies reported for West Africa, charcoal production in the kiln sites did not result in a significant reduction in soil organic matter levels, presumably because the humid climate of the derived savanna zone, hindered a substantial rise in soil temperatures during biomass burning. Similarly, there were no significant increases in the levels of exchangeable cations in both soil layers, except for soil exchangeable sodium. There was a rise in kiln site soil pH and available phosphorus mainly due to the effects of soil heating. Biomass burning in the kiln sites did not result in significant increases in the levels of the soil micronutrients - extractable iron, copper, zinc and manganese in both the 0-10cm and 10-20cm soil layers and it had no severe deleterious effects on soil chemical status.
Keywords: Charcoal production, kiln sites, macronutrients, micronutrients, Nigeria
... Cattle raising and tree plantations are related to deforestation, ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss. Biomass demand is expected to grow considerably in the future due to the expected growth of global population (Lutz et al. 2004) and to the expected substitution of biomass for fossil fuels encouraged as a strategy to reduce greenhouse emissions (Malhi et al. 2008, OECD-FAO 2007 hypothesis, there seems to be a 'natural' and universal hierarchy in the use of domestic fuel which was first proposed by Foley (1985). As income increases, dung, wood, charcoal are replaced by kerosene and LPG (in bottles), which are in turn replaced by piped gas or electricity. ...
... There seems to be a 'natural' and universal hierarchy in the use of domestic fuel which was first proposed by Foley (1985). As income increases, dung, wood, charcoal are replaced by kerosene and LPG (in bottles), which are in turn replaced by piped gas or electricity. ...
... These trees were meeting much of the local populations demand for wood and also regenerating naturally (Foley 1985, Dewees 1989. Additionally, fuelwood is also taken from deadwood collection, pruning, lopping and other forms of harvesting other than the felling of live trees (Arnold et al. 2006, Norman 1984. ...
... As income rises, initially more fuelwood is consumed, but beyond a certain level its use decreases due to its substitution by other fuels (Laarman 1987). According to Foley (1985), price influences the amount of fuel that is consumed, but only minimally affects the choice between fuels. ...
... Arnold et al. (2006) and(12)Foley (1985) draw attention to the role of markets and tree growing on farms. They point out that markets often fail to encourage investment in tree growth due to the availability of natural resources from poorly managed forests under illegal and informal systems. ...
... According to Foley (1985), their tendency toward exhaustion and responsible for the environmental problems since the use of conventional fuels has a wide spectrum of industries have become an integrally important issue. In the context of environmental problems, the effect of greenhouse gases is one of the issues that need urgent solutions by scientists. ...
Purpose
Determining the performance parameters of the propulsion systems of the aircraft, which is the key product of the aviation industry, plays a critical role in reducing adverse environmental impacts. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present a temperature performance template for turbojet engines at the design stage using a neural network model that defines the relationship between the performance parameters obtained from ground tests of a turbojet engine used in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV).
Design/methodology/approach
The main parameters of the flow passing through the engine of the UAV propulsion system, where ground tests were performed, were obtained through the data acquisition system and injected into a neural network model created. Fifteen sensors were mounted on the engine – six temperature sensors, six pressure sensors, two flow meters and one load cell were connected to the data acquisition system to make sense of this physical environment. Subsequently, the artificial neural network (ANN) model as a complement to the approach was used. Thus, the predicted model relationship with the experimental data was created.
Findings
Fuel flow and thrust parameters were estimated using these components as inputs in the feed-forward neural network. In the network experiments to estimate fuel flow parameter, r -square and mean absolute error were calculated as 0.994 and 0.02, respectively. Similarly, for thrust parameter, these metrics were calculated as 0.994 and 1.42, respectively. In addition, the correlation between fuel flow, thrust parameters and each input parameters was examined. According to this, air compressor inlet (AC inlet,temp ) and outlet (AC outlet,temp ) temperatures and combustion chamber (CC inlet,temp , CC outlet,temp ) temperature parameters were determined to affect the output the most. The proposed ANN model is applicable to any turbojet engines to model its behavior.
Practical implications
Today, deep neural networks are the driving force of artificial intelligence studies. In this study, the behavior of a UAV is modeled with neural networks. Neural networks are used here as a regressor. A neural network model has been developed that predicts fuel flow and thrust parameters using the real parameters of a UAV turbojet engine. As a result, satisfactory findings were obtained. In this regard, fuel flow and thrust values of any turbojet engine can be estimated using the neural network hyperparameters proposed in this study. Python codes of the study can be accessed from https://github.com/tekinonlayn/turbojet .
Originality/value
The originality of the study is that it reports the relationships between turbojet engine performance parameters obtained from ground tests using the neural network application with open source Python code. Thus, small-scale unmanned aerial propulsion system provides designers with a template showing the relationship between engine performance parameters.
... Woodfuel -defined as including both fuelwood and charcoal (FAO, 2017a) -is used by approximately 2.4 billion people worldwide for cooking meals, sterilizing drinking water and heating homes, with around 765 million people using it to boil and sterilize water (FAO, 2017a). Many studies have demonstrated the contribution of woodfuel (Foley, 1985;Dewees, 1989) and charcoal (Wood and Baldwin, 1985) to livelihoods and food security (Zulu and Richardson, 2013). ...
... Il existe un type de croissance économique qui augmente à la fois la pauvreté et la dégradation environnementale comme, par exemple, l'expropriation des peuples indigènes au profit de l'exploitation minière à ciel ouvert. Il pourrait, par contre, y avoir une situation contraire: une croissance économique permettant aux populations rurales de grimper dans « l'échelle » de l'énergie domestique (Foley, 1985). L'utilisation du bois de chauffage et du fumier comme combustible domestique pourrait ainsi diminuer en Inde dans les prochaines années alors que le LPG deviendrait plus abordable (en 2004 une bouteille de 14 kg de LPG coûtait à peu près 270 roupies, tandis que le salaire quotidien à la campagne était de 50 roupies dans beaucoup de régions, c'est-à-dire moins d'un euro). ...
... Replacement of fuelwood (and/or kerosene) with solar energy will ameliorate deforestation and environmental degradation concerns in developing countries. Estimated annual consumption of fuelwood is between 750 kg and 900 kg per person (Foley, 1985). Five countries -Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and Nigeria -account for about half the world's fuelwood and charcoal produced and consumed each year. ...
Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) is a proven renewable energy technology that harnesses solar irradiation in its most primitive form. This technology with roots in ancient history is growing at a fast pace in recent times. Developing countries could use CST to solve fundamental human-needs challenges, such as for the substitution of fuelwood and the treatment of water for household use. This paper proposes a conceptual design for a standardized modular CST for these applications in developing countries. A modular-designed parabolic CST with an aperture area of 7.5 m2 is adequate to provide enough solar thermal energy to replace the fuelwood need (5 tons/yr) or to pasteurize the minimum daily water requirement (2500 liters) for a household. Critical parameters of the CST are discussed and an affordable solid thermal storage is recommended to be used as a backup when sunlight is unavailable. A funding program that includes in-country resources and external funding will be needed to sustain the development and wide spread adaptation of this technology.
... The study then established the status of these ®rewoods in the local landscape (in terms of stocking and basal area coverage) as well as their regeneration capacity, since studies working in miombo and elsewhere have found that domestic ®rewood collectors will locally exploit preferred species, leading to local scarcity (Chidumayo, 1979;Fleuret, 1980;Reid et al., 1990;Shackleton, 1993). As local scarcity increases, the number of species utilised increases as farmers diversify their product sources (Foley, 1985) and it is then that the most common species are more likely to be used ®rst. After identifying the important indigenous ®rewood species using both physical and socio-economic criteria, along with an evaluation of their abundance and regenerative capacity, the paper presents options for their management. ...
Taking a case study from Malawi's Central Region, this paper identifies the locally important firewood species and discusses options for their management. The wood properties (moisture content and density) of 15 commonly used indigenous firewood species were determined and according to the fuel value index employed, the high grade firewoods were Combretum apiculatum, Pericopsis angolensis and C. molle. Supported by socio-economic, inventory and ecological data, the status (stocking and basic density) and coppice management of the preferred firewoods was then discussed. Whilst the high grade species had a low stocking in the woodland, their coppicing response was good, reaching a mean basal diameter of 4.4cm and mean height of 3.3m in 4 years. The paper proposes that these species be managed for domestic firewood on a coppice rotation of 5 years upwards and recommends that national policies for fuelwood production develop mechanisms for incorporating the rural woodland users into the management process.
... In Uganda proposals for countrywide tree planting have been recommended [5]. Attempts to develop exotic wood plantations to provide ÿrewood have not been very successful in countries such as Nigeria and Tanzania [9][10][11][12][13]. Some of the reasons why agroforestry was not successful are: the farmers did not attach importance to the introduced trees; inadequate funding, planning and follow-up; lack of seedlings and skilled manpower; transportation problems. ...
This study was carried out in Bulamogi, Uganda, with the main objective of determining preferred firewood species, their harvesting and consumption patterns. Data collected through household and key-informants interviews, using open- and close-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, showed that 48 plant species in 36 genera and 20 families are used as firewood. These plants have other uses as herbal medicines and in traditional cultural rites. There is almost total dependence on firewood for domestic cooking and small-scale industries. Firewood is used to fire bricks (55%), distil spirits (26%), cure fish (10%), cook food in restaurants (6%) and to produce charcoal (3%). Firewood for domestic use is collected mainly by women, and largely comprises of dead wood. The distances travelled to firewood collection areas are short and little time is spent. The harvesting of firewood for domestic use may have a lower direct impact on the native flora, than the harvesting of fuelwood for commercial use by small-scale industries and to make charcoal, which requires large amounts of wood that is often green. According to the community response, firewood is abundant but declining. This decline may be related to increasing demands generated by the growing human population of Bulamogi, and growing national need for charcoal. Cultural taboos that have hitherto played an important role in plant conservation appear to be weakening. There is limited trading of firewood in the community.
... e resource; therefore rural dwellers could find it difficult to use any other energy source that involves financial commitment. There has been inadequate public awareness on fuel wood energy conservation techniques. Income poverty in urban areas deprives most people from using other forms of energy (petroleum products, and electricity) for cooking. Foley (1985) reported that poverty seems to be linked with fuel wood consumption because; as people's income improved they shift from fuel wood to other forms of fuel such as kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas and electricity. Between 1985 and 1997 the incidence of poverty in south-western Nigeria increased from 42% to 74.1% (Central Bank of Nigeria ...
Oyo state has a huge forest resource. The rural communities depend on the forest for their livelihood, while it is a source of revenue for the government. Presently, the forest resource is faced with a decline in quantity and quality. In order to address this decline, this study has been designed to investigate the threats to sustainable forestry development. The data were generated from Oyo state forest resource inventory. The triangle of sustainability and International Tropical Trade Organisation (ITTO) criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management were used to discuss the impact of factors affecting sustainable forestry and evaluate forestry in Oyo state, respectively. The study indicated that forestry in Oyo state has not been able to meet the criteria for sustainable forest management. Major factors hindering sustainable forestry were socio-economic, such as unclear tenure and property right, inefficient use of resources, inadequate information about the forest, weaknesses in implementation of the forest management plan and enforcement of the forestry law. These factors have led to some impacts such as loss of revenue, economic insecurity and instability, loss of biological diversity, depletion of the forest resource and disempowerment of the rural communities. Major suggestions made are that the indigenous communities should be actively involved in forest management operations, customary laws should be incorporated into formal land allocation laws and a comprehensive environmental education campaign should be undertaken.
The population of Mozambique's capital Maputo relies to a large extent on wood fuel to meet its energy needs. The paper, based on a sample of 168 non-domestic and 240 domestic consumers, shows that domestic households constitute the most important wood fuel users in the city. Domestic consumption is now between 0.9 and of woody biomass per capita, an increase of more than 10% compared to data from the 1980s. This increase occurs despite a growing importance of alternatives such as paraffin, gas and electricity, and can be explained by the substitution of firewood by charcoal. The paper also shows a strong correlation between fuel consumption and socio-economic factors such as household size, area of residence and income. A striking feature is that similar to poorer families higher income households tend to use charcoal in combination with non-woody fuels, contradicting FAO's (1993) “fuel ladder”. The paper argues finally that the importance of social economic factors inflicts a dynamism on fuel consumption patterns, which makes it necessary to monitor them on a regular instead of an ad hoc basis, as is the case now.
The basic issues in economic development are how to raise productivity in order to alleviate poverty and how to alleviate the imbalance of economic growth between the rich and poor nations and between the rural and urban dwellers (World Bank 1991). In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) between 85% and 95% of the people live in rural areas. The majority are poor and depend largely on subsistence agriculture and livestock. The annual per capita income is low being less than USD 100. Population growth rates are high, with annual rates of between 2.5% to 3.5% (Sharma 1992). Thus all vagaries of poverty such as hunger, unstable family life, poor nutrition, ill-health, poor formal education and environmental degradation are persistent.
The negative environmental impacts of energy use, particularly soil and water pollution, continue to present serious policy dilemmas. The release of emissions and effluents and the build-up of solid waste throughout the fuel cycle have disruptive effects on natural habitats and human health. Fürther, fuel combustion can result in the emission of carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrogen dioxide � the 'greenhouse gases' which have been linked to climate change. The safe and sustainable use of energy has become an important issue in the wider environmental debate.
Deforestation and decline in agricultural productivity are major concerns over large parts of sub-Saharan Africa. One of the
principal causes for both these phenomena is the export of woodfuels from rural agroecosystems to urban markets. This process
is noteworthy because of the size of the trade. Wood fuels (fuelwood, charcoal, and agricultural residues) constitute the
most important source of energy in these countries, varying from 60% to 95% of total energy consumption. In terms of the environmental
impact of the fuelwood trade, solutions typically considered are the introduction of improved cookstoves, fuelwood plantations,
and fuel substitution by conventional fuels. This article examines the structure of the fuelwood problem, reviews the successes
and failures of past experiences, and focuses on the potential for fuel substitution as an option to reduce the urban demand
for fuelwood.
Results of a comprehensive survey of residential sector energy use in the second largest urban center in the Philippines are presented. A total of 603 households were interviewed regarding their energy consumption and purchase patterns, fuel-switching history, and reasons for fuel-choice selection. LPG and fuelwood are the most widely-used cooking fuels in the residential sector, followed in importance by kerosene, charcoal and electricity. Multiple cooking fuel use is widespread. Electricity is used in 93% of the city's households, primarily for lighting and appliances. Average household electricity consumption increases 1500% between the lowest and highest income groups, indicating that future growth in residential electricity demand could be rapid under conditions of rising living standards. Economies of scale in household energy consumption, percentage of household income going to energy purchases, and the impact of fuel-switching and commercial food vendors on the types and amounts of energy consumed in the residential sector are also discussed.
More efficient cookstoves have been introduced in developing countries by development agencies to retard deforestation and to improve the welfare of low-income consumers. To date, studies of the economics of cookstove programs have been limited to financial analyses of stove costs and an input-output study of a single country. This paper examines the consequences of the implicit income effect of a 25% to 50% improvement in fuel efficiency of household cookstoves. A model is constructed to examine the spending pattern of resources saved from reduced fuel expenditures and the consequences of fuel price reductions caused by reductions in aggregate demand. It is found that, with parameter values typical of low-income developing countries, roughly 50% of technical fuel savings from stove efficiency improvements are lost through increased fuel use induced by income and price effects. Even when the income elasticity of demand for the fuel is zero and own-price elasticity is one-half, with a unitary supply elasticity, 28% of the initial technical savings will be lost through increased consumption.
This paper examines energy use and environmental deterioration in Haiti. It applies linear programming to the national energy balance to analyze whether or not the substitution of kerosene or other petroleum fuels for charcoal is economically beneficial and whether it will result in a reduction of pressure for deforestation. It concludes that because of the inefficiencies in the production of charcoal, the substitution of kerosene for charcoal is an economically beneficial option. However, if stimulated through price incentives alone, it is unlikely to lead to an overall reduction in the quantity of wood used for fuel. Energy and environmental policy, therefore, must focus on interfuel substitution, improved efficiency and rural afforestation, in addition to "getting the prices right".
This paper reports a study of wood quality and preferences for type of wood in relation to food preparation and diet composition in Ntcheu District, Malawi. Women preferred splitwood or branches and were reluctant to use twigs and maize stalks because the former is transformed into more charcoal of a better quality with longer burning duration, needs less attention to maintain the fire, produces no smoke/ash, eliminates the need for expensive metal cooking pots, and requires less time and fuel to prepare dishes. Time studies, however, showed that use of twigs did not prolong cooking time, but more attention was needed to maintain the fire, which required the time of women in another way. As a response to a hypothetical fuelwood scarcity, breakfast was skipped. Women also replaced dishes requiring long cooking such as beans, or omitted less important foods such as snacks. However, the dish nsima accompanied with relish was the mainstay of the diet, and was hardly ever left out.
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