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Abstract
In the years 1962 to 1997 451 birds of prey of 17 species were examined. Material for evaluation was obtained from Butea buteo, Falco tinnunculus, Accipiter nisus and A. gentilis. Individual birds were examined from Milvus milvus, Haliaeetus albicilla, Buteo lagopus, Pernis apivorus, Aquila chrysaetos, A. rapax, A. clanga, Circus aeruginosus, C. cyaneus, Falco peregrinus, F. cherrug, F. vespertinus and F. subbuteo. Sexteen species of trematodes were found (Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium recurvatum, Platynosomum illiciens, Euparadistomum falconi, Opistorchis simulans, Metorchis crassiusculus, Plagiorchis elegans, Strigea falconis, S. vandenbrokae, Parastrigea flexis, Cotylurus cornutus, Tylodelphys excavata, Neodiplostomum attenuatum, N. spathoides, N. perlatum and Pracoenogonimus ovatus. E. falconi was found for the first time in Europe. Seven species P. illiciens, O. simulans, M. crassiusculus, N. spathoides, S. vandenbrokae, P. flexis, T. excavata, were found for the first time in the Czech Republic. New hosts were found for E. revolutum and E. recurvatum - Buteo buteo, for P. elegans - Falco tinnunculus and Accipiter nisus, for C. cornutus - Accipiter gentilis. As dominant species in Buteo buteo were found S. falconis (27.0 %) and N. attenuatum (25.0 %). In other examined hosts, trematodes were found rarely.
... Komorova et al. [30], in research conducted in Slovakia, found C. spathula in one out of six (16.7%) tested imperial eagles, as well as in mixed infection with 15 individuals of S. falconis. In the Czech Republic, Sitko [31] reported that 27% of analyzed common buzzards were infected by N. attenuatum. These investigations confirm that grass snakes are a common vector for both trematodes and can play an important role in spreading these parasites. ...
... The authors identified this species in four out of a total of 152 (2.63%) vipers collected in the Bieszczady Mountains. This trematode species occurs in birds of prey such as buzzards, hawks and harriers [31][32][33]. Sitko [31] noted the occurrence of S. falconis in 27% of the investigated common buzzard (Buteo buteo) specimens. The study of [29] Komorova et al. showed a prevalence ranging from 2.7% to 75% in tested birds of prey: buzzards, northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and marsh harrier (C. ...
... This trematode species occurs in birds of prey such as buzzards, hawks and harriers [31][32][33]. Sitko [31] noted the occurrence of S. falconis in 27% of the investigated common buzzard (Buteo buteo) specimens. The study of [29] Komorova et al. showed a prevalence ranging from 2.7% to 75% in tested birds of prey: buzzards, northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and marsh harrier (C. ...
The aim of the study was to investigate the occurrence of Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) in fifty-one grass snakes (Natrix natrix) collected in Gostynińsko-Włocławski Landscape Park. Each snake was tested for the presence of A. alata mesocercariae using the AMT and MSM methods. 18S ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA), cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) and 28S ribosomal RNA (28S rRNA) genes were amplified by PCR and sequenced for the purpose of species identification. Fifty grass snakes were infected with helminths. The molecular characterization of trematodes allowed us to identify A. alata in 30 snakes (58.8%), Conodiplostomum spathula (Dubois, 1937) in 16 snakes (31.3%), Strigea falconis (Szidat, 1928) in 12 snakes (23.5%), and Neodiplostomum attenuatum (Linstow, 1906) in 2 snakes (3.9%), while, in 4 snakes (7.8%), the trematodes species could not be identified. Based on the analysis of 18S and COI sequences, Crenosoma vulpis (Dujardin, 1845) was identified in four snakes (7.8%), while nematodes collected from three snakes remained unidentified. The tapeworm sample was identified as Ophiotaenia. The obtained results indicate that grass snakes are an excellent vector of A. alata and may be a potential source of infection for mammals, e.g., wild boars and foxes, which results in an increased risk of alariosis for consumers of raw or undercooked game meat.
... During helminthological autopsy, flukes were removed from organs and conserved in 70 % ethanol. Specimens were stained with iron acetocarmine and species determination was conducted according to morphological characters using the keys and papers by Dubois (1968Dubois ( , 1970, Gibson et al. (2002), Sitko (1998Sitko ( , 2001, Sitko et al. (2006), andBray et al. (2008). Prevalence (%) and intensity of infection were calculated considering definitions by Bush et al. (1997). ...
... C. perlatum was rarely reported in the white-tailed in Middle Europe (Okulewicz et al. 1993, Sitko et al. 2006Kalisińska et al. 2008a). On a broader scale, the fluke was reported from various localities and several other host birds in Europe and Asia (for review, see Sitko 1998). Some reported birds of prey as hosts of C. perlatum are not piscivorous and infections in them were either experimental (C. ...
... Like all aforementioned diplostomatid trematodes, N. spathoides was determined in Slovakia for the first time. This common species occurred in a wide range of falcons and eagles throughout Europe (Furmaga 1957;Sitko 1998;Borgsteede et al. 2003;Papazahariadou et al. 2008;Santoro et al. 2012a). Dubois (1970) and Sitko et al. (2006) summarised information on N. spathoides distribution throughout Palaearctic region including North Africa. ...
During 2012-2014 up to 286 birds of the orders Falconiformes (5 species), Accipitriformes (11 species), and Strigiformes (7 species) were examined for trematodes and this represents the first detailed study in Slovakia. A total of 12 trematode species belonging to the families Diplostomidae, Cyathocotylidae, Strigeidae, and Opisthorchiidae were identified. Rare infections were found in falcons where only two species (40 %) and three of 85 examined birds (3.5 %) were infected with a low range of two to four worms of generalists Strigea falconis or Plagiorchis elegans. Contrary to that, ten accipitriformes species (90.9 %) and 63 of 156 bird individuals (40.4 %) were infected with nine flukes: Conodiplostomum perlatum, Conodiplostomum spathula, Neodiplostomum attenuatum, Neodiplostomum spathoides, Parastrigea flexilis, Strigea falconis, Strigea vandenbrokae, Paracoenogonimus ovatus, and Metorchis bilis. S. falconis and N. attenuatum were the most frequent, occurring in parallel in eight and four bird species, in numbers up to 575 and 224. The intensity of infection with other fluke species was low ranging from one to 13 worms. Three owl (Strigiformes) representatives (42.9 %) were exclusive hosts for Neodiplostomum canaliculatum and Strigea strigis, and the proportion of positive and dissected individual birds was 10:45 (22.2 %). Both trematodes occurred in two or three owl species. In conclusion, apparent dissimilarity of trematode load of three unrelated lines of falcons, eagles, and owls was revealed. The present study extends our knowledge on the composition of the trematode fauna in Slovakia as all species except S. falconis and P. elegans that represent new host and species records in Slovakia.
... Since P. illiciens was first described in Brazilian birds in the early 20th century, it has been recorded in several bird species distributed throughout the Americas and Europe. Interestingly, low prevalences (0.86-3.27%) and mean intensities of infection (5.5-14) were reported in different species of birds of prey naturally infected with P. illiciens (Denton & Rausch, 1949;Kinsella et al., 1995;Sitko, 1998;Ferrer et al., 2004). Exceptions to this include the reports of P. illiciens in Cacatua spp., where 80 -156 parasites were found in specimens of these psittaciforme birds in Germany and the USA (Heidigger & Mendheim, 1938;Kazacos et al., 1980;Quesenberry et al., 1986). ...
... In addition to Rodrigues (1963), the descriptions, measurements and illustrations of specimens identified as P. illiciens and P. fastosum, respectively, from birds and mammals (Travassos, 1944;Brenes-Madrigal & Arroyo-Sancho 1962;Travassos et al., 1969;Groschaft et al., 1975;Sitko, 1998;Arceo et al., 1999;Basu & Charles, 2014) do not reveal morphological differences to support the notion that these taxa are distinct species. The morphological polymorphism of dicrocoeliids, which likely results from factors such as the age of the parasites, the host species (phenotypic plasticity), and differences in the techniques used to fix and mount the trematodes, is related to the variations observed in the measurements reported by different authors (Sitko, 1998). ...
... In addition to Rodrigues (1963), the descriptions, measurements and illustrations of specimens identified as P. illiciens and P. fastosum, respectively, from birds and mammals (Travassos, 1944;Brenes-Madrigal & Arroyo-Sancho 1962;Travassos et al., 1969;Groschaft et al., 1975;Sitko, 1998;Arceo et al., 1999;Basu & Charles, 2014) do not reveal morphological differences to support the notion that these taxa are distinct species. The morphological polymorphism of dicrocoeliids, which likely results from factors such as the age of the parasites, the host species (phenotypic plasticity), and differences in the techniques used to fix and mount the trematodes, is related to the variations observed in the measurements reported by different authors (Sitko, 1998). These factors may be related to the previous descriptions of Platynosomum species that were later synonymized. ...
The importance of platynosomiasis has increased in feline veterinary practice, but aspects related to the specificity of Platynosomum spp. in definitive hosts requires further study. Although morphological traits suggest that the same species, P. illiciens, may infect both birds and mammals, the synonymies previously proposed have not been widely accepted, likely because host specificity is assumed. In addition, the name P. fastosum has frequently been used for parasites recovered from mammals. In the present study, metacercariae (n= 100/animal) of P. illiciens recovered from lizards (Hemidactylus mabouia) in Brazil were fed to Australian parakeets (Melopsittacus undulatus) and mice. Two parasites were recovered from the liver of one M. undulatus specimen during a necropsy that was performed 105 days after infection, and all mice were found to be infected with 37 ± 12 (18–48) parasites. The morphology of the P. illiciens obtained from the parakeet was similar to that of parasites obtained from mice and those described previously from naturally infected birds and mammals. Non-specificity of P. illiciens in hosts is discussed briefly, based on the parasitological and morphological results obtained during the avian experimental platynosomiasis and the epidemiology and geographical distribution of this parasite.
... Other reported hosts: Amphibia: Bombina variegata (Prokopic and Krivanec, 1975), Pelophylas lessonae (reported as Rana esculenta, Prokopic and Krivanec, 1975), Rana temporaria (Capuse, 1971); Reptilia: Lacerta agilis (Shechenko and Barabashova, 1958;Moravec, 1963;Capuse, 1971;Lewin, 1992a;Shimalov et al., 2000;Sharpilo et al., 2001;Borkovcova and Kopriva, 2004), Lacerta viridis (Capuse, 1971), Zootoca vivipara (reported as Lacerta vivipara, Lewin, 1992b;Shimalov et al., 2000), Natrix natrix (Capuse, 1971); Aves: Accipiter gentilis (Sitko, 1998), Accipiter nisus (Sitko, 1998), Anas formosa (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1962), Anas platyrhynchos (Styczynska-Jurewicz, 1962), Calidris minuta (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1962), Calidris melanotos (Tallman et al., 1985), Gallinago gallinago (Massino, 1927), Carduelis flavirostris (Massino, 1929), Casarca ferruginea (Mehra, 1937), Chlidonias nigra, (Massino, 1929), Circus aeruginosus (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1953;Krasnolobova, 1987), Circus cyaneus (Krasnolobova, 1987), Circus macrourus (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1953;Krasnolobova, 1987), Coturnix coturnix (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1953), Corvus corax (Massino, 1927), Corvus corone (Mühling, 1896), Corvus frugilegus (Braun, 1902), Corvus monedula (Massino, 1927), Crex crex (Macko, 1969), Cucullus canorus (Dubinina and Kulakova, 1960), Delichon urbica (Odening, 1961), Dendrocopos major (Bychovasaia-Pavlovskaia, 1954;Styczynska-Jurewicz, 1962), Falco columbarius (Massino, 1927;Krasnolobova, Remarks: Plagiorchis elegans requires 3 hosts to complete its life cycle (Chihai et al., 2020). In the adult stage it parasitizes the small intestines of the definitive hosts (amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals); in the larval stage it parasitizes the digestive tract of aquatic gastropods as first intermediate hosts, then in aquatic insects and crustaceans as second intermediate hosts. ...
... Other reported hosts: Amphibia: Bombina variegata (Prokopic and Krivanec, 1975), Pelophylas lessonae (reported as Rana esculenta, Prokopic and Krivanec, 1975), Rana temporaria (Capuse, 1971); Reptilia: Lacerta agilis (Shechenko and Barabashova, 1958;Moravec, 1963;Capuse, 1971;Lewin, 1992a;Shimalov et al., 2000;Sharpilo et al., 2001;Borkovcova and Kopriva, 2004), Lacerta viridis (Capuse, 1971), Zootoca vivipara (reported as Lacerta vivipara, Lewin, 1992b;Shimalov et al., 2000), Natrix natrix (Capuse, 1971); Aves: Accipiter gentilis (Sitko, 1998), Accipiter nisus (Sitko, 1998), Anas formosa (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1962), Anas platyrhynchos (Styczynska-Jurewicz, 1962), Calidris minuta (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1962), Calidris melanotos (Tallman et al., 1985), Gallinago gallinago (Massino, 1927), Carduelis flavirostris (Massino, 1929), Casarca ferruginea (Mehra, 1937), Chlidonias nigra, (Massino, 1929), Circus aeruginosus (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1953;Krasnolobova, 1987), Circus cyaneus (Krasnolobova, 1987), Circus macrourus (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1953;Krasnolobova, 1987), Coturnix coturnix (Bykhovskaia-Pavlovskaia, 1953), Corvus corax (Massino, 1927), Corvus corone (Mühling, 1896), Corvus frugilegus (Braun, 1902), Corvus monedula (Massino, 1927), Crex crex (Macko, 1969), Cucullus canorus (Dubinina and Kulakova, 1960), Delichon urbica (Odening, 1961), Dendrocopos major (Bychovasaia-Pavlovskaia, 1954;Styczynska-Jurewicz, 1962), Falco columbarius (Massino, 1927;Krasnolobova, Remarks: Plagiorchis elegans requires 3 hosts to complete its life cycle (Chihai et al., 2020). In the adult stage it parasitizes the small intestines of the definitive hosts (amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals); in the larval stage it parasitizes the digestive tract of aquatic gastropods as first intermediate hosts, then in aquatic insects and crustaceans as second intermediate hosts. ...
... A great morphological variability is reported to P. illiciens both naturally (Travassos, 1944;Roberts, 1963;Groschaft et al., 1975) and experimentally infected hosts (Pinto et al., 2015a(Pinto et al., , 2015b. Factors such as age, localization in the biliary system, and fixation technique can be associated with the wide intraspecific variation reported for this species (Sitko et al., 1998;Pinto et al., 2015b). In this sense, an attempt to categorize the parasite development stages can be an approach useful for understand the morphological variation that exists in these parasites. ...
... These authors considered both new species distinct from other previously described, including P. illiciens, by measures and proportions of the body and sexual organs. The morphology and measures of the parasites studied by Kingston and Cosgrove (1967) overlaps with those described for P. illiciens (= P. fastosum) by different authors (Rodrigues, 1963;Sitko, 1998;Andrade et al., 2012). Despite this, Travassos et al. (1969), probably taking into account the position of ventral sucker, vitellaria and the termination of caeca of P. marmoseti and the position of genital pore of P. amazonensis, as illustrated in the original description, considered both species conspecific, which were synonymized with Conspicuum conspicuum (Faria, 1912), a dicrocoeliid species so far described only from birds. ...
The trematodes belonging to the genus Platynosomum are biliary parasites of birds and mammals (domestic and wildlife) in tropical and subtropical areas of the globe. Despite several reports on platynosomosis in captive nonhuman primates, mainly in South America, the taxonomy of species of Platynosomum that infect these hosts remains confused, and it is not clear whether the species found in cats is the same that infects nonhuman primates. Because a detailed morphological study of Platynosomum from nonhuman primates is lacking, in this study we analyzed specimens of Platynosomum recovered from the biliary system of Callithrix penicillata kept in captivity in an animal facility. The helminths were submitted to morphological and morphometric analyses in a light microscope and measurements of sixteen morphological traits were taken. A Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) was used to estimate density distributions of the measurements obtained as well as the occurrence of overlap with the ranges of the measurements known to two other species of Platynosomum previously described from South American marmosets, P. amazonensis and P. marmoseti. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was also performed in order to evaluate the position of each three species in the multivariate gradient of morphometric measurements. The occurrence of a growth gradient was also evaluated by analysis of correlation between the measurements. Besides a great morphological variability, all specimens obtained from marmosets in this study were identified as Platynosomum illiciens (Braun, 1901). In addition, the published ranges of the measurements of P. amazonensis and P. marmoseti were completely contained within the ranges found in this study as revealed by KDE. The PCA does not show the formation of groups, and the three species were distributed along a growth continuum, also corroborated by correlation analysis. Therefore P. amazonensis and P. marmoseti are here synonymized with P. illiciens. The involvement of wildlife hosts to the epidemiology of feline platynosomosis and implications for its control are briefly discussed.
... No additional morphometric differences were observed in parasites obtained from the EBD between 160 DPI and 240 DPI. Parasites recovered at 160 DPI had similar size measurements to those reported by most authors for specimens found in naturally infected hosts (birds and felines) (Travassos, 1944;Groschaft et al., 1975;Sitko, 1998;Ferreira et al., 1999). A high coefficient of variation was observed for all morphological measures of adult parasites analyzed in the present study. ...
... Morphological polymorphisms have been reported in Platynosomum spp., and the factors as parasite age, host species (phenotypic plasticity), and differences in the process of fixation of the parasites have been discussed as possible factors related to these variations (Sitko, 1998;Pinto et al., 2015). In the present study, the kinetics of P. illiciens growth in mice were examined from 60 to 240 DPI. ...
Despite the veterinary importance of species of Platynosomum, biliary trematode parasites of birds and mammals with worldwide distribution and a growing role in feline practice, the basic parasitological aspects of platynosomosis is still not completely understood due to the scarcity of studies in experimental models. In the present study, metacercariae of Platynosomum illiciens obtained from naturally infected tropical house geckos (Hemidactylus mabouia) in an urban area of Brazil were force-fed to mice of the AKR/J strain (100 metacercariae/animal). Groups of mice were euthanized at 60, 120, 160 and 240 days post-infection (DPI), and the biliary tree of the animals (intrahepatic biliary ducts, common hepatic and bile ducts, cystic duct and gallbladder) were examined for the presence of adult parasites. Recovered flukes were counted, classified by their site of origin (i.e., intrahepatic or extrahepatic biliary ducts) and morphologically analyzed under light microscope. The number of adult parasites obtained at 60, 120, 160 and 240 DPI was 22±6 (16-32), 41±14 (18-48), 27±11 (18-40) and 20±6 (13-30), respectively, and no significant differences in total worm burden at the different experimental times were observed. However, 41%, 51%, 75% and 95% of the parasites were found in the common hepatic and bile ducts at 60, 120, 160 and 240 DPI, respectively, suggesting the occurrence of parasitic migration to the extrahepatic biliary tree during infection; however, no parasites were observed in the gallbladder or cystic duct. Regarding the morphometric analysis, progressive growth of P. illiciens during the experimental time was observed, and the parasites collected from the extrahepatic bile ducts were larger than those obtained from the intrahepatic ducts at the same time of infection. Parasites obtained from the extrahepatic biliary tree of the mice at 160 DPI had similar measurements to those of parasites obtained at 240 DPI, and those measurements were equivalent to those reported for parasites from natural hosts (cats, birds and nonhuman primates). The results obtained provide new insights into the biology of P. illiciens, and the kinetics of the parasite development of this species is presented here for the first time. The potential use of mice as an experimental model for P. illiciens is presented and the implications of the results obtained in that model for feline platynosomosis are briefly discussed.
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... Other reported hosts: Amphibia: yellowbelly toad, Bombina variegata, ; pool frog, Pelophylas lessonae, (reported as Rana esculenta, Prokopic and Krivanec, 1975); common frog, Rana temporaria, (Capuse, 1971); Reptilia: sand lizard, Lacerta agilis, (Shevechenko and Barabashova, 1958;Moravec, 1963;Capuse, 1971;Lewin, 1992a;Sharpilo et al., 2001;Borkovcova and Kopriva, 2004); European green lizard, Lacerta viridis, (Capuse, 1971); viviparous lizard, Zootoca vivipara, (reported as Lacerta vivipara, Lewin, 1992b;; European grass snake, Natrix natrix (Capuse, 1971); Aves: northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis, (Sitko, 1998); Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus, (Sitko, 1998); spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularius, ; Balkal tean, Anas formosa, (Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya, 1962); mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, (Styczynska-Jurewicz, 1962); little stint, Calidris minuta, (Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya, Geographic range: Northern hemisphere. ...
... Other reported hosts: Amphibia: yellowbelly toad, Bombina variegata, ; pool frog, Pelophylas lessonae, (reported as Rana esculenta, Prokopic and Krivanec, 1975); common frog, Rana temporaria, (Capuse, 1971); Reptilia: sand lizard, Lacerta agilis, (Shevechenko and Barabashova, 1958;Moravec, 1963;Capuse, 1971;Lewin, 1992a;Sharpilo et al., 2001;Borkovcova and Kopriva, 2004); European green lizard, Lacerta viridis, (Capuse, 1971); viviparous lizard, Zootoca vivipara, (reported as Lacerta vivipara, Lewin, 1992b;; European grass snake, Natrix natrix (Capuse, 1971); Aves: northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis, (Sitko, 1998); Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus, (Sitko, 1998); spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularius, ; Balkal tean, Anas formosa, (Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya, 1962); mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, (Styczynska-Jurewicz, 1962); little stint, Calidris minuta, (Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya, Geographic range: Northern hemisphere. ...
Th irty-eight Balkan green lizards, Lacerta trilineata, from Turkey were examined for helminths. Th ree species of Digenea, Plagiorchis elegans, Pleurogenoides medians, Brachylaemus sp. (metacercaria); 2 species of Cestoda, Oochoristica tuberculata and Mesocestoides sp. (tetrathyridium); and 6 species of Nematoda, Abbreviata abbreviata, Ascarops strongylina (larva in cysts), Falcaustra armenica, Oswaldocruzia fi liformis, Skrjabinelazia hoff manni, Skrjabinodon medinae, were found. Lacerta trilineata represents a new host record for each of the parasite species; Plagiorchis elegans, Brachylaemus sp., Oochoristica tuberculata, Mesocestoides sp., Abbreviata abbreviata, Ascarops strongylina (larva), Falcaustra armenica Skrjabinelazia hoff manni, and Skrjabinodon medinae are reported from Turkey for the fi rst time. Bursa (Türkiye) ilinden toplanan İri Yeşil Kertenkele (Lacerta trilineata, Bedriaga 1886)'nin helmint faunası Özet: 38 iri yeşil kertenkele Bursa' dan (Türkiye) (Lacerta trilineata) helmintleri incelenmek üzere toplanmıştır. Bulunan türlerin 3'ü Digenea; Plagiorchis elegans, Pleurogenoides medians, Brachylaemus sp. (metacercaria), 2'si Cestoda; Oochoristica tuberculata, Mesocestoides sp. (tetrathyridium), 6'sı Nematoda; Abbreviata abbreviata, Ascarops strongylina (kist içinde larva), Falcaustra armenica, Oswaldocruzia fi liformis, Skrjabinelazia hoff manni, Skrjabinodon medinae grubuna aittir. Lacerta trilineata, her bir parazit türü için yeni konak kaydı olup, bu parazitler iri yeşil kertenkeleden ilk kez rapor edilmiştir. Plagiorchis elegans, Brachylaemus sp., Mesocestoides sp., Abbreviata abbreviata, Ascarops strongylina (larva), Falcaustra armenica, Skrjabinelazia hoff manni, Skrjabinodon medinae türleri Türkiye için yeni kayıttır.
... The identification of parasite genus/species was performed based on keys or descriptions given in previous studies [40,41,48,59,[73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84]. ...
The knowledge of raptor pathogens and associated lesions may be extremely important to enhancing raptor conservation efforts and reducing pathogen spillover to humans and domesticated animals and vice versa. Parasite infections of the digestive system and associated bacteria and pathological changes were evaluated in deceased diurnal and nocturnal raptors in central Italy. Overall, the prevalence of parasites (nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, acanthocephalans, and protozoa) identified in the examined birds was 72.41%, and most of the positive raptors (71.42%) showed multiple parasite infections. Among bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enterica subspecies diarizonae, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Pasteurella multocida were identified. The results obtained showed that both parasites and bacteria may cause severe lesions in the digestive system of diurnal and nocturnal raptors; parasites and bacteria may concur in causing these lesions; most severe lesions are caused by the interaction of multiple pathogens , both parasites and bacteria; and the same pathogen taxa are frequently associated with the same pathological changes. This study is the first report of S. typhimurium and S. enterica subspecies diarizonae in Buteo buteo, while Andracantha mergi, Spirocerca spp., Sarcocystis dispersa, Sarcocystis columbae, and Eumonospora spp. were recorded for the first time in Italy.
... We stored representative specimens in the Comenius Museum collections (Přerov, Czech Republic). Most of the new host-parasite records from the examined data sets were published in our previous studies, and some of the analyzed helminths were already used for molecular analyses [34][35][36][37][38][39]. The nomenclature follows the Fauna Europaea database [40] and recently published reclassifications [34,35,39,41]. ...
Abstract Background The biodiversity of farmland habitats is witnessing unprecedented change, mostly in declines and simplification of assemblages that were established during centuries of the use of traditional agricultural techniques. In Central Europe, conspicuous changes are evident in populations of common farmland birds, in strong contrast to forest birds in the same region. However, there is a lack of information on longitudinal changes in trematodes that are associated with common farmland birds, despite the fact that diversity of trematodes is directly linked to the preservation of long-established food webs and habitat use adaptations of their hosts. Methods We analyzed the population trends of trematodes for the period 1963–2020 in six bird species that use Central European farmlands as their predominant feeding habitats. Namely, we examined Falco tinnunculus, Vanellus vanellus, winter populations of Buteo buteo, Ciconia ciconia, extravilan population of Pica pica, and Asio otus, all originating from the Czech Republic. Results We observed dramatic population losses of all trematode species in C. ciconia and V. vanellus; the changes were less prominent in the other examined hosts. Importantly, the declines in prevalence and intensity of infection affected all previously dominant species. These included Tylodelphys excavata and Chaunocephalus ferox in C. ciconia, Lyperosomum petiolatum in P. pica, Strigea strigis in A. otus, Neodiplostomum attenuatum and Strigea falconis in B. buteo (χ 2 test P
... Although extensive morphological variability was reported for specimens of P. illiciens observed in hosts with natural (Travassos, 1944) or experimental infections , factors such as parasite age, the precise location in the biliary system and the fixation technique used may influence the dimensions of the internal structures used for specific morphological diagnosis. For those reasons, it is of value to consider that such morphological variations may explain the various reports of different species of Platynosomum in animals (Kingston & Cosgrove, 1967;Sitko, 1998;Pinto et al., 2016), when, in fact, based on molecular analyses they were most likely the same species (Pinto et al., 2018). ...
Platynosomum illiciens is a liver trematode encountered infecting mainly felids although it has also been reported in birds and in additional mammalian species, including non-human primates. The current study reports a natural P. illiciens infection primate of the genus Callithrix. The diagnosis was made using a combination of copro-parasitological techniques, morphological evaluation of adult specimens recovered from the liver during necropsy, and molecular analyses. Eggs were brown in color, oval, operculated, and contained a miracidium. Adult specimens recovered during necropsy were measured and showed dimensions compatible with P. illiciens. Molecular characterization of the trematode involved amplification by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in combination with nucleotide sequencing, of an approximately 900 base pairs fragment corresponding to 18S-ITS1-5.8S ribosomal DNA. Sequenced amplicons showed 100% nucleotide identity with sequences deposited in the GenBank database as derived from specimens of P. illiciens recovered from cats in Malaysia and Brazil. It was concluded that the morphological and molecular analyses presented herein, confirmed the identification of the trematode recovered as P. illiciens.
... Kossack (1910) transferred Dicrocoelium illiciens into Platynosomum and described another species, Platynosomum fastosum, which he considered distinct from P. illiciens. Subsequently, P. illiciens was reported from other bird species in the Americas and Europe (Travassos 1944;Rodrigues 1963;Sitko 1998). The possibility of the same species of Platynosomum infecting cats and other vertebrates, including birds, was suggested by Rodrigues (1963). ...
Although feline platynosomosis has been commonly reported in several parts of the world, the taxonomy and epidemiological chain related to cat liver flukes remain controversial. In this study, nuclear ribosomal ITS, 28S, and mitochondrial cox1 sequences obtained for Platynosomum illiciens from cat, marmoset, lizard, and snail found naturally infected in Brazil reveal no significant molecular differences between these isolates. Moreover, sequence data confirm that Brazilian P. illiciens from different hosts is conspecific with parasites obtained from cats in Vietnam, supporting wide distribution of the species. The lack of pronounced specificity of P. illiciens to definitive hosts is confirmed here for the first time using molecular approach. The results are discussed in context of the epizootology of platynosomosis.
... Lightening of specimens from the Adenopohorea, Secernentea, and Paleacanthocephala classes was carried out using glycerine or lactophenol. The species identifi cation was conducted according to Dubois (1968Dubois ( , 1970, Gibson et al. (2002), Sitko (1998, 2001), and Bray et al. (2008 for Trematoda ;Joyeux & Timon-David (1934), Joyeux & Baer (1936), Rausch (1948, and Khalil et al. (1994) for Cestoda; Hartwich (1975), Baruš et al. (1978), and Gibbons (2010) for Adenophorea; and Secernentea and Meyer (1933), Petrochenko (1958), Dimitrova et al. (1997), and Dimitrova & Gibson (2005) for Paleacanthocephala. Ecological parameters (prevalence, mean intensity, diversity) were evaluated according to Bush et al. (2007). ...
In the years 2012-2014, carcasses of 286 birds of prey from the territory of Slovakia were examined for the presence of helminth parasites. The number of bird species in the study was 23; five belonging to the Falconiformes order, eleven to Accipitriformes, and seven to Strigiformes. A finding of Cestoda class comprehended 4 families: Paruterinidae (4), Dilepididae (2), Mesocestoididae (2) and Anoplocephalidae (1). Birds of prey were infected with 6 families Nematoda species of the Secernentea class: Syngamidae (1), Habronematidae (2), Tetrameridae (3), Physalopteridae (1), Acuariidae (1), and Anisakidae (2). Out of the Adenophorea class, the Capillariidae family (1) was confirmed. The Acanthocephala group was represented by the Paleacanthocephala class, the Centrorhynchidae family (3). Out of the Trematoda class, 12 different species of flukes were found, belonging to the Diplostomidae (5), Cyathocotylidae (1), Strigeidae (4), Opistorchidae (1), and Plagiorchidae (1) families. The most frequent helminth species infecting diurnal birds of prey was
... The trematode S. falconis (syn. S. falconispalumbi) is a common parasite in Eurasian falconiformes and strigiformes (18,35). Sometimes, a massive invasion of this parasite may be the cause of serious health problems experienced by the peregrine falcon (31). ...
In 2006, an emaciated female peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) was found in Szczecin (North-West Poland). Parasitological, microbiological, and ecotoxicological (including determination of concentrations Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, V, Pb, and Cd) examinations involved the digestive tract, kidneys, liver, brain, breast muscle, and bone. The presence of nematode Serratospiculum tendo (in air sacs), trematodes Strigea falconi and Conodiplostomum spathula, and cestode Cladotaenia cylindracea (in the digestive tract) were demonstrated. Two species of fungi (Aspergillus nidulans and Cladophialophora boppi), responsible for mycosis, were isolated from the skin of breast region. Escherichia coli (rough type) was isolated from the liver, kidneys, lung, small intestine, and heart. Moreover, Micrococcus luteus and Proteus mirabilis were found in the lungs. Worrisome high concentrations of Fe and Mn were denoted, especially in the liver (over 6 000 and 22 mg/kg d.w., respectively).
... Despite this the bird was not emaciated, and even bred which was indicated by the so called breeding spots on its belly (Okulewicz, 1991). Also invasion of 1297 specimens of intestinal flukes Neodiplostomum attenuatum (length 1.6 -2.6 mm) in adult Buteo buteo electrocuted as a result of collision with power line seemed to have no effect on the bird's condition (Sitko, 1998). The most frequent helminths, found in 26 of the 41 examined birds, were intestinal flukes of the genus Leucochloridium. ...
Parasitic helminths were the probable cause of death of 41 passeriform birds (29 adults and 12 juveniles in their first year of life) caught in the net during the spring and autumn ringing (1986–2010). The birds (1 Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, 1 House Martin Delichon urbica, 2 Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus, 9 Great Tit Parus major, 3 Willow Tit Poecile palustris, 1 Great Reed Acrocephalus arundinaceus, 1 Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita, 3 Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, 2 Dunnock Prunella modularis, 1 Magpie Pica pica, 5 Robin Erithacus rubecula, 9 Common Blackbird Turdus merula and 3 Song Thrush T. philomelos) were caught in the environs of Přerov (Czech Republic). The helminths: trematodes, tapeworms, nematodes and hook worms, were located in the intestine, glandular and muscular stomach, cloaca, rectum, gall bladder, liver, pulmonary cavity, air sac, nasal and orbital cavity and subcutaneous tissue of the hosts. The intensity of invasion with different species of parasites was up to 734 per host. Some parasites Brachydistomum ventricosum, Mosesia sittae, Aprocta cylindrica, Diplotriaena tridens were acquired at the wintering grounds. All the helmniths were heteroxenous, with development cycle involving intermediate hosts (invertebrates) which are part of the birds’ diet.
... The natural host is unknown but thought to be a bird. Hosseini et al. 2001Latham and Poulin 2002Sitko 1998Taft et al. 1993Macko et al. 2004Fredensborg et al. 2004Pence et al. 1980Davidson et al. 1977McJunkin et al. 2003 Bile composition may account for the markedly different recovery percentages of adult worms from the two experimental hosts. Miracidia hatch between 9 and 11 days at 22°C. ...
Echinoparyphium species are common, widely distributed intestinal parasites causing disease in animals worldwide. Intermediate hosts include snails, bivalves, and fish, whereas the definitive hosts are mainly birds and mammals. This review examines the significant literature on Echinoparyphium. Descriptive studies, life cycle, experimental and manipulative studies, and biochemical and molecular studies are presented. The influence of environmental factors, and toxic pollutants, are reviewed as well as studies on the pathology of Echinoparyphium.
... Strigea falconis jest stosunkowo częstym paso− żytem szponiastych (Falconiformes) i sów (Strigi− formes) Eurazji, przy czym pasożyt ten ma trzech żywicieli pośrednich (wodne ślimaki, kijanki żab lub ropuch, zaś metacerkarie mogą być pasażowane przez liczne grupy żywicieli paratenicznych spośród płazów, gadów, ptaków i ssaków [7]). W Europie gatunek ten jest najczęściej diagnozowaną przywrą digeniczną ptaków drapieżnych [9,10]. Niekiedy masowa inwazja tego pasożyta może być przyczyną poważnych problemów zdrowotnych sokoła wę− drownego [11]. ...
In 2006, an emaciated female peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus was found near its nest, and died soon after. Parasitological research involved digestive tract and respiratory system, kidney and liver. In air sacs, nematode Serratospiculum tendo (Nitzsch, 1857), which causes the falcon disease serratospiculiasis, was found, and in the digestive tract trematodes Strigeafalconis Szidat, 1928, Conodiplostomum spathula (Creplin, 1829), and a cestode Cladotaenia cylindracea (Bloch, 1782).
Adult trematodes of the genera Conodiplostomum Dubois, 1937 and Neodiplostomum Railliet, 1919 (Trematoda: Diplostomidae) parasitize the intestines of birds of prey, owls and, rarely, passeriform birds. Although the family is taxonomically unsettled, molecular phylogenetics have not been applied to analyze Conodiplostomum and Neodiplostomum and the reference DNA sequences from adult Diplostomidae are scarce and limit studies of their indistinct larval forms. We analyze the Conodiplostomum and Neodiplostomum spp. found during the examination of Czech birds performed from 1962 to 2017, and we provide comparative measurements and host spectra, including prevalence and intensity; we also provide and analyze the sequences of four DNA loci from eight diplostomid species. Molecular phylogenetic analysis suggested that Conodiplostomum spathula (Creplin, 1829), the type species of this genus, is nested in Neodiplostomum. Thus, we suggest the rejection of Conodiplostomum spathula (Creplin, 1829) and the resurrection of Neodiplostomum spathula (Creplin, 1829) La Rue, 1926 and reclassification of all species of Conodiplostomum with the neodiplostomulum type of metacercariae to Neodiplostomum as well. Conodiplostomum canaliculatum (Nicoll, 1914) is reclassified as Neodiplostomum spathulaeforme (Brandes, 1888). The molecular analysis suggested that Conodiplostomum perlatum (Ciurea, 1911), the species with the neascus type of metacercariae, belongs to Crassiphialinae Sudarikov, 1960. We erect the genus Ciureatrema gen. nov. Heneberg & Sitko and reclassify Conodiplostomum perlatum (Ciurea, 1911) as Ciureatrema perlatum (Ciurea, 1911) and establish it as a type species of Ciureatrema gen. nov. Further research should focus on the evolution of the neascus and neodiplostomulum types of metacercariae, as well as the evolution of the genital cone and pseudosuckers in Diplostomidae.
A total of 80 specimens of three species of lacertid Podarcis muralis (39) , Podarcis siculus (18) and Ophisops elegans (23) from Bursa were examined for helminths. One species of Digenea, Plagiorchis elegans , 1 species of Cestoda, Mesocestoides sp. (tetrathyridium); and 3 species of Nematoda, Skrjabinodon medinae, Spauligodon saxicolae and Skrjabinelazia hoffmanni were found. The helminths reported in this study are generalist helminths that infect a number of lizards.
Deep evolutionary relationships within raptorial niche have recently been challenged. Little is known as to whether birds of the raptorial niche share congruent or host-switching communities of parasites. Here, we analyzed the helminth component communities associated with birds of prey and owls. From 1962 to 2015, we examined 1,727 birds of prey and owls in Czechia, and we provide a meta-analysis based on the available literature. Both the analysis of newly examined birds as well as the meta-analysis of previous studies suggested low similarities in the helminth component communities in Strigiformes relative to those in Accipitriformes (Sørensen similarity indices 0.380 in Czechia and 0.324 worldwide) or Falconiformes (0.341 and 0.328), as well as low similarities in the helminth component communities in Falconiformes to those in Accipitriformes (0.366 and 0.413). Globally, 59.6% of helminth species found in Accipitriformes, 39.5% of those in Falconiformes and 38.3% of those in Strigiformes were obligate specialists that were limited to a single examined bird order. Another 11.5%, 12.8% and 8.3% of species had core hosts in only a single order. Only five helminth species infected all three bird orders at a similar prevalence. The differences in prevalence cannot be explained by differences in food composition. We provide detailed information on the prevalence, seasonality, age- and sex-specificity, intensity and lethality of helminth infections. In conclusion, we provide the first systematically collected evidence on the congruence of the helminth distribution and phylogeny of the raptorial niche, which is consistent with its split into Australaves and Afroaves.
Parasitological examinations of White-tailed Lapwing Vanellus leucurus (Charadriiformes: Charadriidae) collected from Dadu district (Sindh Province, Southern Pakistan) were carried out at the Department of Zoology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro. A total of 64 trematodes belonging to the genus Echinoparyphium [1], were collected from the small intestine of two individual hosts. On the basis of the number and varying size of collar spines, number and size of ventral spines, body shape, arrangement of genital organs, distribution of vitellaria and other diagnostic characters, these trematodes were identified as Echinoparyphium recurvatum [2]. Our study provides the first Pakistan record of the trematode E. recurvatum with also the first record of V. leucurus as avian definitive host.
Parasitological examinations of White-tailed Lapwing Vanellus leucurus (Charadriiformes: Charadriidae) collected from Dadu district (Sindh Province, Southern Pakistan) were carried out at the Department of Zoology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro. A total of 64 trematodes belonging to the genus Echinoparyphium [1], were collected from the small intestine of two individual hosts. On the basis of the number and varying size of collar spines, number and size of ventral spines, body shape, arrangement of genital organs, distribution of vitellaria and other diagnostic characters, these trematodes were identified as Echinoparyphium recurvatum [2]. Our study provides the first Pakistan record of the trematode E. recurvatum with also the first record of V. leucurus as avian definitive host.
Parasitological examinations of White-tailed Lapwing Vanellus leucurus (Charadriiformes: Charadriidae) collected from Dadu district (Sindh Province, Southern Pakistan) were carried out at the Department of Zoology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro. A total of 64 trematodes belonging to the genus Echinoparyphium [1], were collected from the small intestine of two individual hosts. On the basis of the number and varying size of collar spines, number and size of ventral spines, body shape, arrangement of genital organs, distribution of vitellaria and other diagnostic characters, these trematodes were identified as Echinoparyphium recurvatum [2]. Our study provides the first Pakistan record of the trematode E. recurvatum with also the first record of V. leucurus as avian definitive host.
Echinostomes are closely related to wildlife and occasionally have been found to infect domestic animals. The low specificity
of some species results in a large number of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts acting as natural hosts, and a large geographic
distribution has been recorded. The zoonotic potential of echinostomes has been related to the ingestion of raw mollusks,
fishes, and amphibians which are naturally found parasitized by these parasitic larvae. The identification of new natural
hosts and the demonstration of their life cycles under experimental conditions have favored the understanding of biological
variables involved in parasite transmission and may be useful predictors of human infection. The impact of echinostome parasitism
in wildlife conservation needs more attention, since most of the known natural hosts are wild animals. The introduction or
spread of echinostome species in new environments may imply a loss of biodiversity and increase the probability of new cases
of zoonoses. Human behavior and the expansion of land use in a global context help to bring about changes in climate and induce
new interfaces between humans and wildlife. Trade among nations and the exchange of new ideas and customs increase our concern
about the spread and emergence of etiologic agents of animal and human diseases.
We compared helminth communities in 6 species of birds of prey from the Calabria region of southern Italy. In total, 31 helminth taxa, including 17 nematodes, 9 digeneans, 3 acanthocephalans, and 2 cestodes, were found. All helminth species were observed in the gastrointestinal tract, except for 3 spirurid nematodes. Most of the parasite species were detected in at least 2 hosts, but 13 helminth species were found in only 1 host. At the infracommunity level, the overall species richness and Brillouin's index of diversity varied by host, with the highest values in a generalist feeder, the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), and the lowest in a specialist, the western honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus). Species richness was gender dependent only in the sparrow hawk (Accipiter nisus). The helminth communities were characterized by different dominant species, namely, Centrorhynchus spp. (Acanthocephala) in the Eurasian buzzard and common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Parastrigea intermedia (Digenea) in the marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus), Physaloptera alata (Nematoda) in the sparrow hawk, Serratospiculum tendo (Nematoda) in the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), and Strigea falconis (Digenea) in the western honey buzzard. Statistical analyses confirmed a highly significant difference of helminth infracommunity structure among host species. We conclude that in the Calabria region of southern Italy, each of the raptor species studied is distinct in terms of its helminth communities, and more diverse feeding habits of the host correspond with richer helminth communities.
Eighteen species of birds of prey in Netherlands were examined for helminth parasites: Accipitriformes - Accipiter gentilis (15 birds), A. nisus (9), Aquila pomarina (1), Buteo buteo (56), B. lagopus (4), Circaetus gallicus (2), Circus aeruginosus (2), C. cyaneus (3), Pernis apivorus (5); Falconiformes - Falco columbarius (2), F. peregrinus (2), F. subbuteo (6), F. tinnunculus (31); Strigiformes - Asio flammeus (3), A. otus (35), Athene noctua (12), Strix aluco (19) and Tyto alba (15). Sixteen nematode species were found: Baruscapillaria falconis, Capillaria tenuissima, Eucoleus dispar, Pterothominx caudinflata, Cyathostoma americana, Porrocaecum angusticolle, P. depressum, P. spiralae, Physaloptera alata, P. apivori, Procyrnea leptoptera, P. seurati, P. spinosa, Spirocerca lupi, Synhimantus laticeps and Diplotriaena henryi. All species of birds were infected with nematodes with the exception of F. peregrinus. Eleven trematode species were present: Brachylaeme fuscatus, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium agnatum, Strigea falconis, S. strigis, Parastrigea flexilis, Neodiplostomum spathoides, N. attenuatum, Ichthyocotylurus platycephalus and Prosthogonimus cuneatus. Trematode infections were found in all birds except A. nisus, C. cyaneus, P. apivorus, F. columbarius, F. peregrinus and A. flammeus. Centrorhynchus aluconis was the only identifiable acanthocephalan. Acanthocephalan infections were seen in A. nisus, B. buteo, C. gallicus, C. aeruginosus and S. aluco. Cestode infections were seen in 8 bird species. The cestodes could not be identified to the genus, because they were poorly preserved. Most findings are new host records for Netherlands.
Eighty-three free-living Eurasian buzzards (Buteo buteo) from three different areas in Germany were examined for adult stages and the metacercaria of the trematode Strigea falconispalumbi. Prevalences of adult parasites in the small intestine was 36% (Berlin/Brandenburg), 28% (Lower Saxony) and 3% (Baden-Württemberg). Metacercaria in the connective tissue of the neck were found in 58%, 55%, and 10% of birds from the respective areas. Significant differences in the prevalence of S. falconispalumbi adults and metacercaria between the areas were attributed to the different abundance of freshwater which is the key habitat for two intermediate hosts.
This is a survey of the helminth fauna of 285 individuals of 14 species of birds of prey (Falconiformes and Strigiformes) from Galicia (northwest Spain), namely Buteo buteo, Accipiter nisus, A. gentilis, Milvus migrans, M. milvus, Pernis apivorus, Circus pygargus, Falco tinnunculus, F. peregrinus, F. subbuteo, Tyto alba, Strix aluco, Asio otus and Athene noctua. A total of 15 helminth species were detected, namely 8 nematodes ( Eucoleus dispar, Capillaria tenuissima, Synhimantus laticeps, Microtetrameres sp., Physaloptera alata, Procyrnea leptoptera, Hovorkonema variegatum and Porrocaecum angusticolle), 4 cestodes ( Cladotaenia globifera, Paruterina candelabraria and Mesocestoides sp.), 2 trematodes ( Neodiplostomum attenuatum and Strigea falconis), and 1 acanthocephalan ( Centrorhynchus globocaudatus). The helminth communities observed were basically similar, although there were marked differences in species richness, which was higher in falconiforms (except for A. gentilis) than in strigiforms. More specifically, species richness was highest in B. buteo (13 species), followed by A. nisus (11 species). In the falconiforms, the helminth species present generally exhibited a clear relationship with host diet. In the strigiforms, by contrast, species richness was lower than expected given the host's diet, suggesting that a different explanation is needed.
The prevalence of parasitic helminths in the digestive tract of 119 diurnal raptors (Falconiformes), which had died in a wildlife rehabilitation centre in Catalonia, was studied. The birds belonged to 13 species, with 100 of them (84 per cent) being kestrels (Falco tinnunculus), buzzards (Buteo buteo), sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) and goshawks (Accipiter gentilis). Ninety-five of the birds (79.8 per cent) were infected with helminths. Nematodes were the most frequently found helminth (75.6 per cent), followed by trematodes, cestodes and ancanthocephalans. All the buzzards and sparrowhawks and 92 per cent of the goshawks were infected, but only 59 per cent of the kestrels were infected.
This review examines the significant literature on the biology of Echinostoma species in the "revolutum" group. We have considered 10 species belonging to this group. There is a considerable body of literature for four of the species, i.e. Echinostoma caproni, E. trivolvis, E. paraensei and E. revolutum. For these species we have arranged coverage to include the following headings: (1) systematic and descriptive studies; (2) experimental, manipulative and ecological studies; (3) physiological and biochemical studies; (4) immunological and molecular studies. For the remaining six species, i.e. E. friedi, E. miyagawai, E. echinatum, E. parvocirris, E. luisyrei and E. jurini, the literature is not very extensive, and headings were not used. Considerable information in various areas of modern parasitology can be obtained from species in the "revolutum" complex for which the entire life cycle is maintained in the laboratory. The review includes a list of researchers and their addresses who currently maintain such life cycles.
206 birds of 11 species were examined. The variational and statistical analysis has shown the dependence of the humidity of biotopes, on the "specific weight" of animals--invaders in the food of birds and on the accumulation of some helminths in birds, difinitive hosts, as compared to invaders.
Five white-tailed eagles were dissected--3 from the Czech Republic and 2 from Poland. 4 specimens were infected with trematodes only: Strigea falconis, Neodiplostomum (Conodiplostomum) perlatum, and Paracoenogonimus ovatus. S. falconis was found for the first time in an eagle from the Czech Republic, whereas N. (C.) perlatum and P. ovatus were detected for the first time in eagle from Poland. Moreover, N. (C.) perlatum is a new species for the Polish parasite fauna.