Walking and cycling in Western Europe and the United States: Trends, policies, and lessons

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Walking and Cycling in Western
Europe and the United States
Trends, Policies, and Lessons
R A L P H B U E H L E R A N D J O H N P U C H E R
On this road in Santa
Barbara, California, motor
vehicle lanes were replaced
by a bidirectional bike path,
separated from car traffic.
PHOTO: RALPH FERTIG
TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
34
Buehler is Assistant
Professor, Urban Affairs
and Planning, School of
Public and International
Affairs, Virginia Tech,
Alexandria, Virginia.
Pucher is Professor,
Bloustein School of
Planning and Public
Policy, Rutgers
University, New
Brunswick, New Jersey.
W
alking and cycling are the most sustain-
able means of daily travel. They cause vir-
tually no noise or air pollution and
consume far fewer nonrenewable resources than any
motorized mode of transport. The energy that walk-
ing and cycling require is provided directly by the
traveler, and the use of that energy offers valuable
cardiovascular exercise.
Walking and cycling require only a fraction of
the space needed for operating and parking cars.
Moreover, walking and cycling are economical—they
cost far less than the private car or public transport,
in terms of direct outlays by users and of invest-
ments in public infrastructure. Walking and cycling
are affordable by virtually everyone and therefore are
the most equitable of all transport modes.
Following is a brief overview of cycling and walk-
ing trends and policies in the United States and West-
ern Europe, with a focus on the United Kingdom,
Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands, the coun-
tries for which the most comparable and detailed
data are available (1–9).
Variations and Trends
The share of daily trips by walking and cycling
varies greatly from country to country (see Figure
P
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TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
35
1, right). At the low end, approximately one-tenth
of daily trips are by foot or bike in car-oriented
countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United
States. At the high end, more than half of all daily
trips in the Netherlands are by walking or cycling.
Most European countries have levels in between,
with active travel accounting for 25 percent to 35
percent of daily trips.
Differences in national travel surveys limit the
comparability of walking and cycling statistics.
Nevertheless, the European countries included in
Figure 1 clearly have active transport rates at least
twice as high as those of North America and Aus-
tralia.
Active travel generally has declined in the
United States and Western Europe in the past four
decades. The most dramatic change has been in
trips by walking. The modal share of walking fell by
roughly one-half in France and the United King-
dom, by one-third in Germany, and by one-fourth
in Denmark (see Figure 2, below). Only in the
Netherlands did the share of walking trips remain
stable. The bike share of trips fell by one-half in the
United Kingdom, by one-third in France, and by
one-tenth in the Netherlands but increased slightly
in Germany and Denmark.
In the five European countries in Figure 2, the
combined modal shares of walking and cycling in
3
5
11 11 11
22
16
2
2
21
22 22
23
24
16
2
5
0.5
1
1
1
2
2
8
3
4
4
9
9
1
0
1
8
2
6
0
1
0
2
0
30
40
50
USA* ('08)
Australia* ('06)
US
A
('09)
Canada* ('06)
Ireland* ('06)
UK ('08)
Belgium ('99)
France ('08)
Austria ('05)
Norway ('09)
Finland ('05)
Swed
en
(
'06
)
G
erm
a
n
y
(
'
09)
D
enmar
k ('08)
N
eth
e
r
land
s (
'0
8)
Percent of trips by cycling and walking
Cycling Walking
9 9
7
9
11
34
28 28
23
24
20
18
20
21
50
32
24
22
44
41
36
27
22
21
18
15 15
16
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
9
11
12
9
10
28
28 24
25
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
17
20
20 20 18
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1977
1983
1990
2001
2009
1976
1982
1989
2002
2008
1985
1990
2000
2008
1974
1982
1994
2008
1975
1985
1991
2002
2008
1975
1981
1995
2000
2008
Percent of trips by cycling and walking
Cycling Walking
NL
USA
GER
DK
UK
FR
FIGURE 1 Cycling and walking share of daily trips in Europe, North America,
and Australia, 1999–2009.
Note: The latest available travel surveys were used for each country; the year of
the survey is noted in parentheses after each country’s name. The modal shares
reflect travel for all trip purposes except for those countries marked with an
asterisk, which only report journeys to work derived from their censuses.
Dissimilarities in data collection methods, timing, and variable definitions limit
the comparability of the modal shares shown. [Sources: Danish Ministry of
Transport (MOT), British Department for Transport (DfT), German MOT, Statistics
Netherlands, U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), and
Norwegian Institute of Economic Research.]
FIGURE 2 Trends in combined cycling and walking share of all daily trips in the United States, Germany (GER),
the Netherlands (NL), France (FR), the United Kingdom (UK), and Denmark (DK), 1974–2009.
Note: Dissimilarities in data collection methods, timing, and variable definitions limit the comparability of the
modal shares shown. The increase reported for the United States in the combined walk and bike share of trips
between 1990 and 2001 probably results from a change in methodology that captured previously
underreported walk trips. (Sources: Danish MOT, British DfT, French MOT, German MOT, Netherlands MOT, U.S.
DOT, and Norwegian Institute of Economic Research.)

the early 1970s were roughly comparable, at
approximately 40 to 50 percent, but the most recent
surveys indicate that active travel in Denmark, Ger-
many, and the Netherlands is at a level almost twice
that of France and the United Kingdom. The much
smaller declines in active transport in Denmark,
Germany, and the Netherlands are attributable to
more car-restrictive policies since the 1970s, com-
bined with a range of measures to encourage walk-
ing and cycling.
Walking and cycling trends in the United States
are difficult to gauge, because the national travel
survey methodology changed in 2001, increasing
the walk mode share by capturing previously unre-
ported walk trips. The survey results in Figure 2
suggest slight increases in walking and cycling lev-
els in the United States in the past two decades, but
in the long term, the walk mode share probably
declined. The U.S. Census, which has applied a
consistent methodology, reports a substantial
decline in walking and cycling to work, from 7.9
percent of workers in 1970 to 3.5 percent in 2009
(10, 11).
Gender and Age Groups
Cyclists comprise virtually all segments of society in
Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. In the
United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom,
women account for approximately one-fourth of all
bike trips; women in Denmark, Germany, and the
Netherlands make approximately half of all bike
trips. Cycling is gender-neutral in Denmark, Ger-
many, and the Netherlands but dominated by men in
the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
In contrast, the share of walk trips made by women
shows little variation among countries.
Walking and cycling levels vary significantly by
age, but the variation is much less in some countries
than in others. The combined share of walking and
TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
36
PHOTO: RALPH BUEHLER
Since the early 1970s, an
increasing number of
German cities have
banned automobiles
from the city center, as
here in Freiburg,
Germany.
15
11
12
10
9
32
24
20 20
21
29
19
20 20
27
34
19
18
13
13
13
18
21
24
23
19
21
28
3
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.5
2
2
2
1
1
14
9
9 9
11
9
32
20
14
14
15
15
15
40
25
21
22
23
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
5-15
16-24
25-39
40-65
65 +
0-16
17-29
30-59
60-65
65+
0-17
18-25
26-44
45-59
60-65
65 +
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-84
0-17
18-25
26-44
45-64
65 +
Percent of trips by cycling and walking
Age Group
NL USA GER DK UK
Cycling Walking
FIGURE 3 Cycling and walking share of trips within each age group in the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany,
the United Kingdom, and the United States, 2009, as percent of trips by all modes for all trip purposes.
Note: Each country uses somewhat different age categories in travel surveys. The percentages shown refer to
the walking and cycling share of all trips made by persons within each age category. (Sources: Danish MOT,
British DfT, German MOT, Netherlands MOT, and U.S. DOT.)

TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
37
cycling trips increases with age in Denmark, Ger-
many, and the Netherlands (see Figure 3, page 36).
Walking and cycling account for roughly half of all
trips by Danish, German, and Dutch elderly, com-
pared with one-fifth of the trips by British elderly
and one-tenth of trips by U.S. elderly.
Differences among countries in rates of cycling
are striking. The cycling share of trips made by the
elderly is 23 percent in the Netherlands, 15 percent
in Denmark, and 10 percent in Germany but 1 per-
cent in the United Kingdom and 0.5 percent in the
United States.
Safety Issues and Trends
Studies show that traffic danger deters walking and
cycling, especially by women, children, and the
elderly (12–14). The lower rates of walking and
cycling in the United States may be attributable to
greater dangers faced by pedestrians and cyclists.
Cyclist fatalities per kilometer are 3 to 5 times higher
in the United States than in Denmark, Germany,
and the Netherlands (see Figure 4, above).
Walking in the United States is even more dan-
gerous, with pedestrian fatalities per kilometer 5 to
6 times higher than in Denmark, Germany, and the
Netherlands. Walking and cycling are about twice as
dangerous in the United Kingdom as in Germany, but
still much less dangerous than in the United States.
Nonfatal injury rates for pedestrians and cyclists also
are much higher in the United States.
Walking and cycling were not always as safe in
Northern Europe as they are today. Annual cyclist
fatalities in Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands,
and the United Kingdom declined by 60 to 80 per-
cent between 1970 and 2008. By comparison, cyclist
fatalities in the United States fell by less than 10 per-
cent, mainly reflecting a sharp decline in cycling by
children (15, 16). Similarly, part of the decrease in
cyclist fatalities in the United Kingdom was attrib-
utable to a decrease in the number of bike trips. In
Denmark and Germany, by contrast, cycling fatalities
fell although the number of bike trips increased.
A bicyclist crosses a
roundabout in the
Netherlands. Bicycling
rates of the elderly reach
10 percent in Germany,
15 percent in Denmark,
and 23 percent in the
Netherlands, compared
with 1 percent in the
United Kingdom and 0.5
percent in the United
States.
1.1
1.6
1.6
3.3
5
.5
1.6
1
.5
4.7
5.7
33.5*
1.6
2
.3
1
.9
3.6
9.7
1.3
1
.3
2.4
3
.3
1
3.7
0.0
2
.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
1
2.0
14.0
1
6.0
NL DK GER UK USA
Fatalities and injuries per kilometer
Cyclists killed per 100 million km cycled
Cyclists injured per 10 million km cycled
P
edestrians killed per 100 million km walked
P
edestrians injured per 10 million km walked
FIGURE 4 Cyclist and
pedestrian fatality rates
and nonfatal injury rates
in the Netherlands,
Denmark, Germany, the
United Kingdom, and the
United States, 2004–2009.
Note: To control for
annual fluctuations, a
5-year average (2004–
2008) was used for
pedestrian and cyclist
injuries and fatalities. Trips
and kilometers for cycling
and walking exposure
levels derive from 2008
travel survey data.
* Cyclist injury rate for the
United States is off the
chart and is shown with a
discontinuous bar.
(Sources: Danish MOT,
British DfT, German MOT,
Netherlands MOT, U.S.
DOT.)
PHOTO: DAN BURDEN

In all five countries, pedestrian fatalities have
declined more than cyclist fatalities. Walking levels
fell in most countries over this period, however, so
that part of the reduction is attributable to reduced
exposure rates. The number of annual pedestrian
fatalities dropped more sharply in Europe—by
between 80 percent and 90 percent—than in the
United States, with a decline of 50 percent. Germany
and the Netherlands recorded an impressive 90 per-
cent decline in pedestrian fatalities between 1970
and 2008.
These statistics suggest that traffic safety affects
walking and cycling and that greater safety in Den-
mark, Germany, and the Netherlands has contributed
to the higher rates of walking and cycling. The the-
ory of safety in numbers also suggests that more
walking and cycling may help improve safety (17).
Walking and cycling levels correlate strongly with
safety rates. More and safer walking and cycling in
Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands result from
a range of programs and policies designed to encour-
age walking and cycling while restricting car use.
Promoting Walking and Cycling
Danish, German, and Dutch transportation policies
have emphasized improvements in the transporta-
tion infrastructure for walking and cycling. For
pedestrians, measures include extensive auto-free
zones in much of the city center; wide, well-lit side-
walks on both sides of every street; pedestrian refuge
islands for crossing wide streets; clearly marked
zebra crosswalks, often raised and with special light-
ing; and pedestrian signals at intersections and mid-
block crosswalks with ample crossing times.
From the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s, separate
bicycling facilities—such as bike paths and lanes—
expanded in most Northern European countries. In
Germany, the bikeway network more than doubled in
length, from 12,911 km (8,070 mi) in 1976 to 31,236
km (19,522 mi) in 1996. In the Netherlands, the bike-
way network doubled in length, from 9,282 km (5,801
mi) in 1978 to 18,948 km (11,843 mi) in 1996 (3).
TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
38
PHOTO: NEW YORK CITY DOT
P
HOTO: WARREN SALOMON
This cycle track in New
York City features
priority traffic signals for
cyclists and physical
separation from motor
vehicles.
Bike paths in the
Netherlands are designed
for safety and comfort
for all, including women,
children, and seniors.
Wide paths enable
cyclists to ride two or
three abreast, making
cycling more sociable.

TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
39
Comparable nationwide aggregate statistics for
the period since the mid-1990s are not available, but
data for individual cities suggest continued expan-
sion, although at a slower rate. The current focus is
on improving the design of cycle paths and lanes to
improve safety, especially at intersections.
Various other measures complement separate
rights-of-way: special bike lanes leading directly to
and through intersections; separate bike traffic sig-
nals with advance green lights for cyclists; bicyclist-
activated traffic signals at key intersections; and
modification of street networks to create dead ends
and slow, circuitous routing for cars but direct, fast
connections for bikes.
Danish, German, and Dutch bikeway systems
serve practical destinations for everyday travel. By
comparison, most separate bike paths in the United
States are located in parks or along rivers, lakes, or
harbors and are mainly for recreation.
Traffic Calming
Traffic calming in residential neighborhoods in West-
ern Europe limits the volume and the speed—usu-
ally to less than 30 km/h (20 mph)—of motor vehicle
traffic, both by law and by physical barriers, such as
raised intersections and crosswalks, traffic circles,
road narrowing, zigzag routes, curves, speed humps,
and artificial dead ends created by street closures at
midblock. Traffic calming is less common in the
United States and is usually limited to isolated
streets.
The most extreme form of traffic calming—the
woonerf, home zone, or Spielstrasse—imposes addi-
tional restrictions, requiring cars to travel at walking
speed—7 km/h (4 mph) in Germany—and to yield
to nonmotorized users.
Reduced speeds are crucial in enabling motorists
to avoid crashes with pedestrians and bicyclists and
in increasing the likelihood of a nonmotorist’s sur-
vival in a crash. The World Health Organization (18),
for example, found that the risk of pedestrian death
in crashes rose from 5 percent at 30 km/h (20 mph)
to 45 percent at 50 km/h (30 mph) and to 85 percent
at 65 km/h (40 mph). In Denmark, Germany, the
Netherlands, and Great Britain, a comprehensive
review found that traffic injuries fell by an average of
53 percent in neighborhoods with traffic calming
measures (19).
Integration with Transit
Coordinating walking and cycling with public trans-
port enhances the benefits of all three modes,
encouraging more walking and cycling, as well as
more use of public transport. In most countries, trips
by public transport usually start and end with walks
to and from bus or rail stops.
Bicycling extends the catchment area of transit
stops beyond the range of walking and at a much
lower cost than neighborhood feeder buses or park-
and-ride facilities for cars. Access to public trans-
Many bikeway
facilities in Europe
have parallel walkways
for pedestrians, such
as here in Münster,
Germany.
Many German cities have
introduced home zones
or Spielstrassen, an
advanced form of traffic
calming, with a speed
limit of 7 km/h on
neighborhood streets;
cars are required by law
to yield to cyclists,
pedestrians, and children.
PHOTO: JOHN PUCHER
PHOTO: PETER BERKELEY

TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
40
port helps cyclists make longer trips than are possi-
ble by bike alone. Therefore the design of public
transport stations should offer safe, convenient, and
comfortable pedestrian and cycling facilities, both
in the stations themselves and on routes leading to
the stops.
Four main categories of measures assist in coor-
dinating cycling with public transportation (20):
1. Bike parking at rail stations and bus stops;
2. Provisions for taking bikes aboard trains and
buses;
3. Bike rental facilities near public transportation
stops; and
4. Coordination of bike routes with public trans-
portation.
Compact Development
Trip distance affects levels of walking and cycling.
Most walking trips are 1 km (0.6 mi) or shorter, and
most bike trips are 3 km (1.8 mi) or shorter. Land use
is crucial in determining average trip distances. By
promoting or requiring compact, mixed-use devel-
opment and discouraging low-density sprawl, land
use policies in Denmark, Germany, and the Nether-
lands have established a long-term framework for
walkable and bikeable communities.
In the past two decades, many Danish, German,
and Dutch cities have revised their land use and
transport plans to strengthen neighborhood com-
mercial and service centers. The plans encourage
more variety in neighborhood land use by mixing
housing with stores, restaurants, offices, schools, and
services. The plans emphasize development in the
neighborhood centers, not on the suburban fringe;
this keeps trip distances short and assures local
accessibility by foot and bicycle.
Many European cities have implemented people-
friendly urban design to create a safe, convenient, and
attractive environment that facilitates cycling and
walking into city centers. Wide sidewalks and pedes-
trian plazas can encourage walking, particularly facil-
ities that are well maintained and include attractive
paving, comfortable benches, shade trees, outdoor
cafes, public art, and fountains. Short city blocks,
pedestrian passageways within longer blocks, narrow
streets, midblock crosswalks, and median refuge
islands facilitate pedestrian access and safety. Pedes-
trian-scale signage and lighting also are necessary (21).
Some European countries have improved subur-
ban design as well. Many new suburban develop-
ments in Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands
PHOTO: PETER BERKELEY
PHOTO: CITY OF FREIBURG
Münster offers secure
and sheltered parking for
3,300 bikes at its main
train station and bus
terminal.
Even inexpensive and
easily implemented
traffic-calming measures
can reduce car speeds in
residential neighbor -
hoods, as here in
Freiburg.

TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
41
provide safe and convenient pedestrian and cycling
access. European suburbs almost always include
sidewalks for pedestrians and often bikeways or bike
lanes for cyclists.
Training and Regulations
Driver training is much more rigorous in Denmark,
Germany, and the Netherlands than in the United
States and pays special attention to avoiding colli-
sions with pedestrians and cyclists (12). Traffic edu-
cation of children is a priority. By the age of 10, most
schoolchildren in Denmark, Germany, and the
Netherlands have received extensive instruction
about safe walking and cycling—not only in traffic
regulations but in walking and bicycling defensively,
anticipating dangerous situations, and reacting
appropriately.
Traffic regulations in Denmark, Germany, and the
Netherlands favor pedestrians and bicyclists. When
a crash involves children or the elderly, the police and
the courts almost always find that the motorist was
at fault and should have anticipated irregular moves
by children or seniors.
In addition, Danish, German, and Dutch police
are strict in ticketing motorists, pedestrians, and
cyclists who violate traffic regulations. Penalties for
motorists in particular can be high for minor viola-
tions. Not stopping for pedestrians at crosswalks is
considered a serious offense. Red traffic signals are
strictly enforced, and many intersections in Danish,
German, and Dutch cities have cameras that auto-
matically photograph cars running red lights and
stop signs.
Complementary Policies
These measures make walking and cycling safer and
more convenient in Europe. Many other government
policies indirectly encourage walking and cycling—
for example, road capacity and car parking facilities
are far less generous than in American cities. Many
Danish, German, and Dutch cities have reduced
roadway and parking supply in the past few decades
to discourage car use in the city center. These restric-
tions reduce the relative speed, convenience, and
flexibility of car travel compared with walking and
cycling.
Moreover, sales taxes on gasoline and on new car
purchases, import tariffs, registration fees, license
fees, driver training fees, and parking fees are gener-
ally much higher in Europe than in the United States
(22, 23). The costs of car ownership and use are two
to three times higher in Europe as a result and dis-
courage car use, indirectly promoting alternative,
less expensive modes, including walking and cycling.
Climate, Topography, and Culture
Climate, topography, and culture also influence
cycling and walking levels but are beyond the con-
trol of policy makers and planners; nevertheless,
inclement weather conditions and hilly topography
do not necessarily prevent walking and cycling. For
example, the Netherlands and Denmark have high
rates of cycling despite rainy climates, and cities such
as Helsinki, Finland; Stockholm, Sweden; Montreal,
Canada; and Minneapolis, Minnesota, have high
cycling rates despite harsh winters. San Francisco,
California, and Seattle, Washington, are among the
hilliest U.S. cities but also two of the most bike-
oriented.
Culture and habit tend to foster cycling in cities
and countries with high levels of cycling, but where
cycling levels are low, and where cycling is viewed as
a fringe mode, culture and habit can deter cycling—
especially among noncyclists (24). Nevertheless, cul-
ture and habit can change over time.
Some traditionally car-oriented and sprawling
U.S. cities have promoted cycling successfully with
the same sorts of measures used in Danish, German,
and Dutch cities. For example, Portland, Oregon,
and Minneapolis raised cycling levels more than five-
fold from 1990 to 2010 (10, 11).
History and culture therefore are not insuperable
obstacles to increasing walking and cycling but do
not guarantee continued high levels of walking and
cycling, either, as shown by the sharp declines in
active travel in France and the United Kingdom. Poli-
cies appear far more important than history and cul-
ture in explaining trends in walking and cycling.
Fuel prices and costs of
car ownership are far
higher in Europe than in
the United States and
indirectly contribute to
higher rates of active
transportation.
PHOTO: CURRAN KELLEHER

Comprehensive Approach
The infrastructure, programs, and policies needed
to increase walking and cycling are well known and
tested, with decades of successful experience in
many European cities. One key lesson is that no sin-
gle strategy is sufficient (25). Communities must
implement a fully integrated package of measures
like those discussed in this article.
A comprehensive approach has a much greater
impact on walking and cycling levels than several
individual measures that are not coordinated. The
impact of any particular measure is enhanced by the
synergies with complementary measures in the same
package.
Acknowledgment
This article is a condensed and updated version of a
paper by the authors, Walking and Cycling for
Healthy Cities, which appeared in Built Environment,
Vol. 36, No. 4 (2010), pp. 391–414, and is adapted
with permission of the publisher, Alexandrine Press
(www.alexandrinepress.co.uk).
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TR NEWS 280 MAY–JUNE 2012
42
PHOTO: RALPH BUEHLER
On-street bike corrals in
Portland offered more
than 1,425 parking
spaces for bikes in 2012.