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Computer Use Among Turkish Middle School Pupils: Identifying Gender
Differences In Attitudes Toward Computers
Pinar Bayhan
Department of Child Development,
Hacettepe University
Turkey
pinarsan2002@yahoo.com
R. Firat Sipal
Department of Child Development,
Hacettepe University
Turkey
fsipal@hacettepe.edu.tr
B. Tugba Karaaslan
Department of Developmental Pediatrics
Ankara University
Turkey
tugbak@hotmail.com
Abstract: Females have less experience and less positive attitudes towards computers
according the researches on computer use report. This research aims to investigate that fact
upon Turkish students’ attitudes toward computers. Participants were 106 boys and 110
girls from 6th, 7th and 8th grades. A questionnaire consisting three sections; participants’
preferences of use of computers, computer use experience and attitudes towards computers,
was administered. Results show that, boys spend more hours with computers and they have
more computer use experience than girls. In means of self-concept of students, girls
reported lower computer use abilities. Moreover, girls find computer technology difficult
and complicated as well. Results are discussed in the light of literature.
Introduction
Research on computer use and education has examined gender differences since 80’s. These studies
have indicated gender differences in computer use and attitudes in primary schools (Shiann & Macleod, 1986),
secondary schools (Collis, 1985; Lockheed, 1985; Shashaani, 1994), and at the college level (Dambrot, Watkins-
Malek, Silling, Marshall, & Graver, 1985; Koohang, 1989; Miura, 1987). These differences have also been
observed at computer camps, at home, and elsewhere (Hess & Miura, 1985; Manning, 1984; Sanders, 1984).
Even though children benefit from the use of computers in educational, domestic, and leisure settings, a number
of studies found that females have less experience and less positive attitudes towards computers (Darnell &
Thompson, 1997; Kadijevich, 2000; Whitley, 1997). Results of these studies show that, girls are less interested
and more prepared than boys to accept direction and help from others in their use of computers. The gender gap
still persists at the new millennium and researchers argue that girls are missing out on computer use. More recent
studies have revisited the issue of gender difference in computer use (Davies & Camp, 2000).
A number of studies have examined the relationship among people’s perceptions and attitudes towards
computers. The research literature suggests that positive perceptions and attitudes toward computer use are
related with computer competency. For example, Robertson and Stanforth (1999) found that computer attitudes
were significantly related to self-reported computer skill levels. Earlier studies by Dambrot et al. (1985) and
Marcoulides (1988) also identified significant relationships between computer attitudes and computer
competency. Some studies found a tendency for females to be unsure of their own abilities to use computers but
believe that women, in general, are as capable as men (Sanders & Stone, 1986). Also Levin and Gordon (1989)
argued that female students believe more consistently than do comparable male students that women are equal in
ability and competence in using computers. Mumtaz (2001) reported that, boys were more confident than girls
about using computers at home and at school and rated themselves better at using computers. Besides, according
to a study by Reinen and Plomp (1997), female students reported that they knew less about technology and
enjoyed using it less than males.
Ethnic studies have also shown differences between genders in attitudes toward computers and
computer use. Makarakis and Sawada (1996) reported that, males scored higher on aptitude and liking for
computers. Collins and Williams (1987) found both Canadian and Chinese males had more positive attitudes
towards computers than females.
Many factors are likely to influence an individual’s response to use of computers and as computer usage
becomes more widespread and more diverse, it is likely that it will become increasingly difficult to both identify
such factors and establish between them (Siann, Macleod, Glissov & Durndell, 1990). As literature show that
computer competency is directly related to attitudes towards computers, frequent use of computers will have
positive effects to attitudes towards computers and computer use (Robertson & Stanforth 1999; Dambrot et al.
1985, Marcoulides 1988). The body of literature discussing the sex-related differences in response to computers
has revealed that males and females are exposed to computers differently from elementary school through
college. At all educational levels, boys have greater access to computers than girls do, are more interested in
learning about computers, and find working with computers more enjoyable (Badagliacco, 1990; Hess & Miura,
1985; Ogletree & Williams, 1990; Shashanni, 1993). Besides, boys have consistently been found to use home
computers more frequently and for more applications (Durndell & Thomson, 1997; Martin 1991). Massoud
(1991) reported that, male students have more computer related interests than female students and are more
confident in their ability to use computers. On the basis of a survey of 1730 students, Shashaani (1993) found
that male students were more interested in computing and had more confidence in their ability to work with
computers. Moreover, teachers and parents act on the perception of computers as a male domain. Children at all
levels perceive computers as a male domain with beliefs pronounced in the adolescent years (Young, 2000).
King (1994) reports that, teacher attitudes both in positive and negative ways, affect student attitudes towards
computers. Moreover, Canada & Brusca (1991) state that, eventhough almost all schools have access to
computers, computer applications mostly linked to mathematics and science where it is believed to be male areas
of interest. According to their study; girls feel unprepared for their future lives in terms of technology use.
Similarly, Brunner & Bennet (1997) report that, a series of research at the Center for Children and Technology
about gender differences and attitudes toward computers and technology show that, boys are more positive
toward computers than girls.
Even though there are numerous studies concerning gender differences in attitudes toward computers
and computer use and suggestions are made for closing the remaining gap between genders in terms of computer
use, the differences still remain. Purpose of this study is to investigate the current situation in Turkey, where
technology use in schools is newly applied with the collaboration of World Bank and Turkish Ministry of
Education starting from 08.01.1998 (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, 1998). Writers want to determine Turkish middle
school pupils’ attitudes toward computers and computer use, in order to clarify if there is gendered bias toward
computers and to guide educators to encourage both male and female students in terms of technology use in the
classroom, by discussing the results in the light of literature.
Method
Participants
Participants of the present study were 106 male and 110 female from 6th, 7th and 8th grades. Children
were from 3 different schools, serving around the metropolitan area of Ankara, where is the Capital City of
Turkey. Students without a disability were eligible and eligible students whose parents signed the consent forms
were included in the study. Within the sample, 78 were from the 6th grade (41 girl and 37 boys), 103 from the 7th
grade (48 girls and 55 boys) and 35 from the 8th grade (21 girls and 14 boys). 7th graders seem to be the majority
of the group with 47, 7 % of the whole sample, where 6th graders are 36, 1 % and 8th graders are 16, 2 %.
Data Collection
Data were collected in a 25-30 minutes by way of questionnaires. Computer Attitudes Questionnaire
was used to identify the gender differences in attitudes toward computers. The questionnaire consists of two
sections. One section concerned computer use and experience and the second one computer attitudes. The
questions in computer use and experience section (section 1) concerned access to, ownership of and frequency of
use of home computers, use of friends’ computers and use of computers at school. Frequency for use of
computers for different applications, i.e. writing (word processing), music, programming, math’s, drawings,
computer games, the internet, e-mail was also included. Items about attitudes to computers (section 2) have three
subscales: self-confidence, general attitude (liking) and sex bias (in attitudes toward computer use). In addition
to the attitude scales, as an additional measure of self-confidence in relation to male and female peers, the
participants were asked to rate how good they are at computers compared with first girls, then boys of their own
age, on a five point scale labeled as; “much better”, “better”, “same”, worse” and “much worse”.
The questionnaire was administered under the supervision of teachers in school time. Children were
first informed about the purpose of the study. Confidentiality and the voluntary nature of the participation were
explained. Then the research team introduced the children with the questionnaire. Even though participation was
entirely voluntary, all the children agreed to participate.
Results
Computer use and experience
According to the data collected among the students, more girls than boys have access to a computer at
home or school (see Table 1). Since the questionnaire was not subdivided computers into personal computers
(PC’S) and game consoles, it is not possible to see if there is a gender difference between having access to a PC
or a game console. 39, 62% of the boys and 66, 36% of the girls reported that they have access to a computer
(even a PC or a game console) at home or school. Even though a high proportion of both genders have access to
a school computer, it is clear that more boys than girls have access to a computer from an Internet cafe. 33, 96%
of the boys reported that, they have access to a computer from an Internet cafe (see Table 1). Computer access
from a friend’s house or a parent’s workplace shows no significant gender difference.
Computer
access
Only at school or
home
Internet cafe
Friend’s place
Parent
workplace
Relatives
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Boys
42
39,62
36
33,96
14
13,20
10
9,43
4
3,79
Girls
73
66,36
6
5,45
15
13,63
8
7,28
8
7,28
Total
115
53,24
42
19,44
29
13,42
18
8,34
12
5,56
Table 1: Computer Access of Students Participating in the Study
Students participating in the study reported their weekly computer use amounts as well. Table 2 shows
weekly computer use amounts of the students participating in the study. More girls (17, 27%) than boys (11,
32%) reported 1hour usage of computers at home. Besides, more boys reported that they spend 2-4 hours at
home with computers with a rating of 16, 98%. Moreover, 7, 54% of boys reported that they have 10 or more
hours of computer usage, where only 1, 81% of girls do.
Item
No computer at
home
Do not use
1 hour
2-4 hours
5-9 hours
10 or more hours
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Boys
55
51,88
6
5,66
12
11,32
18
16,98
7
6,61
8
7,55
Girls
63
57,27
4
3,63
19
17,27
15
13,64
7
6,36
2
1,83
Total
118
54,62
10
4,62
31
14,35
33
15,29
14
6,49
10
4,63
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of Weekly Computer Use Amounts of Students
Gender differences in the use of the computers for different purposes were analyzed within and between
groups by Mann Whitney U and Wilcoxon W. Table 3 show the significant results. Boys showed higher
frequency of computer use in terms of programming, gaming, Internet use, e-mailing and chatting. Even though
boys also showed higher frequency of word processing and paint applications, there were no significant
differences. Girls showed lower ratings in use of all kinds of applications than boys.
Activity
N
Mean Rank
Mann-Whitney U
Wilcoxon W
Sig.
Programming
Boys
106
115,41
5098,0
11203,0
,042*
Girls
110
101,85
Games
Boys
106
119,09
4707,5
10812,5
,012*
Girls
110
98,30
Internet surfing
Boys
106
117,18
4909,5
11014,5
,015*
Girls
110
100,13
e-mail
Boys
106
114,68
5174,5
11279,5
,035*
Girls
110
102,54
chat
Boys
106
114,68
5200,0
11305,0
,049*
Girls
110
102,77
Note: Significant difference *p<,05
Table 3: Mean Ratings of Frequencies of Computer Use for Different Purposes and Significant Results
Attitudes toward computers
Table 4 shows self-ratings of students in terms of computer use abilities. 14, 15% of boys report that
they are perfect in computer use, where girls report only 5, 45%. Besides, a high proportion of boys (36,79%)
and 26,36% of girls report that they find themselves very good at computer use. 17 of 106 boys (16,03%) report
themselves as not good at computer use as well as 14 of 110 girls (12,72%).
Item
Do not use
computers
Perfect
Very good
Fair
Not good
No idea
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Boys
6
5,67
15
14,15
39
36,79
26
24,52
17
16,03
3
2,84
Girls
28
25,45
6
5,46
29
26,36
29
26,36
14
12,72
4
3,65
Total
34
15,74
21
9,72
68
31,48
55
25,46
31
14,35
7
3,25
Table 4: Self-Ratings of Students on Computer Use Abilities
Self-ratings of students of how good they are at computer use compared to their peers are listed in Table
5. Boys seem to be more confident than girls in terms of computer use, 47,16% of boys report that, they are
much better computer users then their female peers, as well as 32,07% of them rate themselves better computer
users than their female peers. Boys also report that, they are much better users than their male peers with a rating
of 35, 84% and better users with a rating of 22, 64%. Girls ratings are less pretentious than boys, girls report
themselves with a rating of 40, 90% as good as their male and female peers.
Rating
How good are you at computers compared to
your female peers?
How good are you at computers
compared to your male peers?
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Much better
50
47,16
19
17,27
38
35,84
14
12,72
Better
34
32,07
30
27,27
24
22,64
18
16,36
Same
17
16,03
45
40,90
33
31,13
45
40,90
Worse
2
1,88
11
10,0
8
7,54
27
24,54
Much worse
3
2,83
5
4,54
3
2,83
6
5,45
Total
106
100,0
110
100,0
106
100,0
110
100,0
Table 5: Ratings of the Students of How Good They Are At Computers Compared With Their Peers
For better understanding of the students of how good they are at computers compared to their peers,
further analyze is done and Mann Whitney U and Wilcoxon W results are shown in Table 6. Boys ratings of self
perceptions on computer use compared to their peers are higher than girls and results are statistically significant
(p<.05).
Rating
How good are you at computers compared to your
female peers?
How good are you at computers compared to your
male peers?
Mean
rank
Mann
Whitney U
Wilcoxon W
Sig.
Mean
rank
Mann
Whitney U
Wilcoxon W
Sig.
Girls
130,8ª
3368,0
9039,0
,000*
128,2ª
3661,5
9332,5
,000*
Boys
85,27
88,04
Note: * p<,05 Significant difference
ª Higher rank shows lower self perception of computer use ability
Table 6: Mean Ratings of the Students of How Good They Are at Computers Compared With Their Peers
ANOVA results of the subscales of the questionnaire and gender-age variables are presented at Table 7.
Gender and age were found significant for self confidence subscale. Liking subscale was found significant for
only gender variable. Sex bias subscale was found significant for gender, age and for gender x age.
Subscales
Girls
Boys
Gender
Age
Gender x Age
Self confidence
3,42
4,12
29,22*
35,44*
Liking
3,98
4,26
25,47*
Sex bias
4,07
4,31
22,55*
18,71*
6,97*
Note: Significant difference *p<,05
Table 7: Mean Scores on Computer Attitudes Subscales and Significant ANOVA Results
Discussion
This study attempts to provide a glimpse of the computer attitudes among students in Turkey. On the
basis of a national project funded by World Bank, Turkish Ministry of Education started “Temel Egitim Projesi
(Education Master Project) Ln4355-TU / Phase I” on the 1st of August, 1998. Within the project, computer
laboratories were set in the schools as well as technology classes (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, 1998). As a result,
computer use in schools rapidly increased nationwide. However, it seems that social aspects of technology use in
the classes are not considered. Even though there are numerous studies in the literature concerning gender
differences toward computers, to date, this topic has not been examined in details using participants in Turkey.
While this study does not claim to provide a representative survey of the computer attitudes of Turkish students,
it provides empirical data to inform on computer attitudes among students. Information relating to students’
attitudes towards computers could be useful for various reasons ranging from curriculum design to teacher
training in Turkey.
The results emerged from the analysis of the data in this study clearly show that, there is a gender gap
in computer use of students participating in present study. According to data obtained, even though more girls
than boys have access to a home or school computer, a high proportion of the boys reported that, they have
access to a computer from an Internet cafe. The detailed data show that, boys achieve most of their computing
experience outside the school, at Internet cafes or at friend’s houses. These findings are consistent with the large
body of literature on the gender gap in computers and computer technology (Shasaani, 1994; Kay, 2006; Teo,
2006).
Moreover, reports of the students participating in the study show that, boys have higher frequency of
use of computers than girls. These findings are similar with the study of Colley and Comber (2003). Results of
their study on age and gender differences in computer use and attitudes among British secondary school students
show that more boys reported high frequency of computer use than girls both at home and at school. Mumtaz
(2001) also reported a high frequent use of computers among boys in her study. Findings of her study show that,
boys were spending more time on computers than girls. Furthermore, Kay (2006) argues that, males use
computers more often than females. Also in his meta-analysis on gender differences on computer use, Kay
(1992) concludes that 37 in 72 studies on computer use show that males report higher frequency use of
computers than females, whereas only 10 out of 72 studies show higher frequency of females.
Durndell & Thomson (1997), report that boys use computers more frequently than girls for any
applications. Present study echoes Durndell & Thomson’s findings. Boys in this study reported high levels of use
of computer applications than girls, which is statistically significant (Table 3). Moreover, Houtz & Gupta (2001)
reported similar findings in their study. Their study on Nebraska high school students’ attitudes toward
computers show that boys participating in their study showed higher levels of computer use than girls in different
kinds of computer applications such as gaming, word processing, internet use, e-mailing and chatting. Moreover,
Colley and Comber (2003) report that, male’s use computers more than females in terms of pc games and
Internet use. Volman et al. (2005) echoes this finding and state that males report higher frequency use of
computer use for different purposes such as gaming, chatting and internet surfing.
Computer attitude results show; boys are more confident in computers and like to use them more. Self-
ratings of students in the study show that, boys find themselves better computer users than girls, whereas girls
report that they are fair computer users. Those ratings of own computing ability; reinforce the findings from the
confidence subscale in showing that girls compare themselves less favorably than boys. Colley and Comber
(2003) report in their study that, 11 years of girls rate themselves less favorably than their male peers in terms of
reactions to technology. These findings are similar with the study of Mumtaz (2001). In her study on children’s
perceptions of computers, boys are more confident about using computers at home and at school and rated
themselves better at using computers. These results presented both in recent study and Mumtaz’s study might be
due to more computer usage of boys. This finding was also suggested in Shashaani and Khalili (2001)’s work.
Even though girls participating in their study believe that girls are as confident as boys on computers, they need
boys’ help when they face a problem about computers. Kay (1992)’s review supports these findings. In his
review, 15 out of 33 studies on computer use abilities show that males report themselves skilled users. Within
the 33 studies only 5 studies report on behalf of females as skilled computer users. Furthermore, Aust et al.
(2005), in their study found that males report higher computer use abilities in terms of basic computer skills such
as typing skills and online activities. These findings might be related to the computer use amounts of boys both
in and out of school. More computer usage provides more computer experience including technology related
problems. As far as boys face these problems, they learn to solve them more. This conclusion supported by
Whitley (1997). In his study on gender differences in computer attitudes and behavior, he found that males
exhibited greater sex-role stereotyping of computers, higher computer self-efficacy, and more positive attitudes
toward computers than females. More computer usage leads to higher computer self-efficacy.
Self-ratings of students of how good they are on computer use compared to their peers reflect the
confidence of boys in the study. Boys rated themselves as “much better” computer users then their female peers
and male peers as well. Girls seem less pretentious and they rate themselves as good as their male and female
peers. These results also support the findings in similar studies (Colley & Comber, 2003; Shashaani & Khalili,
2001; Houtz & Goupta, 2001; Young, 2000; Mumtaz, 2001). Further analysis of ratings of students on their
computer use abilities compared to their peers also shows significant results. Both within groups and between
groups, boys are more confident than girls and find themselves very good at computer use. Similarly, Houtz and
Goupta (2001) in their study found that boys rated themselves significantly higher than girls in their ability to
use computers. Moreover, Makarakis and Savada (1996), in their study on gender and computer use; surveyed
773 ninth-grade students from Tokyo (Japan) and from Stockholm (Sweden). Regardless of country, males
reported higher scores of aptitude with and enjoyment of computers than females did. However, since research
on gender differences on attitudes toward computers highlight boys are more confident on computers (Young,
2000; Siann, MacLeod, Glissov & Durndell, 1990; Sanders, 1984), Shashaani and Khalili (2001), in their study
they found no gender differences on computer use in Iran. They discuss this finding in the light of technological
development and women participation in technology related work areas in Iran.
In summary, the examination of gender differences in Turkish students’ attitudes toward computers has
found evidence that gender differences in attitudes toward computers are also present in Turkish middle school
pupils as well. Girls use computers less, like them less and rate their computing abilities worse than their male
peers. Unfortunately it is not possible to find a detailed study on gender differences in Turkish students’ attitudes
toward computers. Thus, it is not possible to compare the results on a national basis. However, it seems clear that
gendered attitudes toward computers are still present and universal and related to computer use amounts of
students.
Authors of the study suggest that, female student’s attitudes toward computers must be improved and
their level of involvement with computers must be increased. It is believed that computer attitudes not only play
an influential role in determining the extent to which students accept the computer as a learning tool but also
future behaviors towards the computer such as using it for further study and vocational purposes (Rosen & Weil,
1995). Besides, research on gendered bias on computer use and interest in computer related areas show that, girls
are less likely to pursue computer related work areas (Margolis & Fisher, 2002). Some reasons to this statement
listed by Lazowska (2002) are the isolation associated with the field, negative experiences during computer
classes, lack of role models and negative stereotypes of those who use computers heavily. Thus, to discourage
the gendered bias toward computers during primary and elementary years, teachers must provide more
opportunities to girls to participate in technology related studies. In addition, parents should be highly supportive
to their daughters and encourage them to use computers. Furthermore, in order to take attention to gender
differences in computer use and attitudes toward computers on a national basis, further research could examine
the impact of other student variables such as length of computer use, level of computer experience, level of
computer literacy, and Internet access between different age groups from elementary years to college. On an
international level, comparative and cross-cultural studies could be conducted to shed light on the influence of
computer attitudes on issues relating to teaching and learning.
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