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Primate Brain Evolution
Abstract
That the cerebral hemispheres are requisite for the spontaneous, directed activities of terrestrial vertebrates has been well known since the last century. As Ferrier (1876) noted, if a decerebrated animal “be left to itself, undisturbed by any form of external stimulus, it remains fixed and immovable on the same spot, and unless artificially fed, dies of starvation....” As has since been repeatedly confirmed, the neuraxis below the level of the hemispheres contains the neural apparatus required for posture and locomotion and the integrated performance of bodily actions involved in self-preservation and procreation. Since the cerebral hemispheres are essential for psychological functions, they may appropriately be referred to as the psychencephalon.
... A la hora de establecer cuáles de estos sistemas son los más relevantes en la experiencia y expresión de las emociones, conviene empezar por las regiones cerebrales que permiten establecer los circuitos neuronales implicados en la respuesta emocional. En este sentido, una de las más sencillas clasificaciones es la que establece la existencia de tres cerebros diferentes que variarían en complejidad y que de manera superpuesta determinaron la evolución en el ser humano (El cerebro triúnico o triuno, MacLean, 1978MacLean, , 1990. El primero de estos cerebros sería el denominado "cerebro reptiliano", que ocuparía el 5 % del volumen cerebral, y estaría relacionado con la supervivencia del individuo. ...
... Se situaría en la zona más baja del prosencéfalo, incluyendo el tronco del encéfalo, el sistema reticular y el cerebelo. Estas zonas, según MacLean (1990), estarían relacionadas con los comportamientos estereotipados característicos de algunos animales como los reptiles. Se caracterizan por ser comportamientos instintivos y programados, resistentes a las modificaciones y relacionados con la acción. ...
... Las estructuras más relevantes del cerebro triuno son (MacLean, 1978(MacLean, , 1990: Cerebro reptiliano: ganglios basales, tronco del encéfalo, cerebelo, bulbo raquídeo. Cerebro emocional: amígdala, hipocampo, fórnix, estría terminal, corteza cingulada. ...
El estudio de las emociones ha permitido comprender cómo los seres humanos experimentan su relación con el entorno físico y social, y su extraordinaria capacidad de adaptación a los cambios impuestos por la evolución. El objetivo del presente trabajo es el de analizar cómo a lo largo de los siglos se han entendido las sensaciones corporales, los pensamientos y las conductas asociadas a las emociones. En primer lugar se define el concepto de emoción y se integra en el ámbito de la psicología. Posteriormente se indaga en el sustrato cerebral que ha permitido su interpretación desde la perspectiva neurocientifica. También se revisa, brevemente, su desarrollo histórico, desde los autores clásicos hasta los más actuales, como Ekman, Ledoux y Damasio, siempre desde una perspectiva evolutiva biologicista. Sin duda, las emociones han sido objeto de debate a lo largo de la historia, y lo seguirán siendo, entendiendo este complejo proceso como una de las señas identitarias de los seres humanos, donde la consciencia de este proceso, los sentimientos, han determinado su pasado y determinarán en gran parte su futuro como sociedad.
... The SNS takes over when there is controllable stress in the environment, but when the stressor is uncontrollable and lifethreatening, and there is no escape possible, the dorsal motor nucleus, exerts its freezing effect to feign death via the unmyelinated, phylogenetically older vagus nerve (Porges, 2009(Porges, , 2011. The polyvagal hypothesis is built and based on the highly criticized triune brain model (MacLean, 1990), which states that the brain consists of three layers that developed progressively in evolution. The first phylogenetically oldest archencephalic layer is called the reptilian complex, the most primitive brain, essential in keeping the animal alive. ...
... The first phylogenetically oldest archencephalic layer is called the reptilian complex, the most primitive brain, essential in keeping the animal alive. A second layer is termed the limbic paleomammalian complex, essential in generating emotions, and a third neocortical mesencephalic complex, which is instrumental in planning and cognition (MacLean, 1990). Each layer is viewed as sequentially developing in the course of evolution. ...
... James wrote in opposition to other scientists steeped in the rationalist Cartesian outlook who believed that humans had overcome the need for instincts. The work of behavioral neuroscientist Paul MacLean (1990) was instrumental in fitting instincts, emotions, and thoughts into an evolutionary theory of the brain. Levine (2017Levine ( , 2019 outlined some neural network approaches to quantitative modeling of the interplay between instinct, emotion, and thought. ...
... The prevailing cultural theory that privileges reason over emotion also lumps emotion and instinct together, saying that emotional processes are automatic. Yet the work of James (1890James ( /1981, MacLean (1990), and many other behavioral scientists refutes the conflation of emotion and instinct. MacLean presented much evidence that instinctual processes are common in reptiles, whereas our richness of emotion arose with parental care that is absent in most, though not all, reptiles and present in mammals. ...
A common cultural belief in technologically advanced societies is that emotion and reason are opposites, with reason superior to emotion. This belief is not supported by recent results in neuroscience and experimental psychology which show instead that emotion and cognition are strongly interconnected and depend on each other). Moreover, the belief is also harmful to society because it contributes indirectly to racism, sexism, homophobia, and the appeal of demagogues. Scientific understanding can help to heal the cultural split between emotion and reason in the service of building a partnership society.
... Its main structures are the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus, whose drives include the recognition of danger, pair bonding, the nurturing of young, and forming of social groups. McLean (1990) says this level assesses everything as either "agreeable or disagreeable." ...
... This part of the brain develops slowly, completing most of its growth when we are in our mid-twenties, although it continues to change and grow throughout our lives, through a process of neural plasticity, the connecting of different brain neurons into new patterns. When we learn anything new (an understanding, a dance step, a new language, or how to adjust breath for a long speech), we have developed new neuronal connections (McLean 1990). ...
This article addresses the question of how poetry and deep body-voice work share an ability to integrate body, mind, and feelings. Identifying five core poetry techniques, it discusses research that explains the way that poetry can affect brain and bodily sensations, as well as emotion and intellect. The relevance of the Triune Brain model to both poetry and voice is described, and a model of brain-voicing links is proposed, with a hypothesis as to why poetry, and certain kinds of voicing—metaphorically and literally—“go deep.” The practice of “free-voicing” is introduced in this context, and its relevance to voice work, therapy, and well-being are discussed.
... In order to understand the emotion, we must understand how our brain works. According to Paul MacLean three layer model, the human brain, in its evolved stage, can be divided in three different regions: the reptilian brain or the brain stem, the limbic, emotional brain and the neocortex [6]. ...
... The thinking brain is the one that differentiates us most from other animals and other life forms, and it is sheltering higher forms of information processing. [6] The three parts of the brain are constantly interconnected and process information in parallel. ...
... Shamanic ritual activities liberate processes of our ancient lower brain systems through disabling of the frontal brain's top-down control, permitting a bottom-up dynamic of information. The ancient brain strata are responsible for behavioral systems of communication exemplified in ritual and the emotional, social, and personal processes of the limbic system mediating interpersonal bonding and religious experiences (MacLean, 1990). ...
Shamanism is a transcultural concept for understanding roles of ritual and psychedelics in the prehistoric origins of religiosity. The origins of religiosity are revealed by parallels of shamanic and chimpanzee collective ritualizations involving group chorusing and drumming with dramatic bipedal displays. This hominid baseline was expanded with mimetic evolution of song, dance and enactment. Psychedelic substances stimulate innate cognitive dispositions manifested in shamanism such as the human-like qualities of spirits, animal identities and other spiritual and mystical experiences. These structural features of consciousness are stimulated by mimetic performances with song, dancing, and drumming; painful and exhausting austerities; and psychedelic substances. These produce altered experiences of the self which are conceptualized within indigenous psychologies as spirits and one’s soul, spiritual allies, and animal powers that can be incorporated into personal powers (i.e., animal transformation). Cross-cultural manifestation of shamanic features reveal that they are based in biology rather than merely cultural traditions.
... In that volume I recall reading papers by Sue Carter and Stephen Porges, described the biology of love. I had also studied the 1990 book from Paul MacLean book called "The Triune Brain" [33]. Together, all these various contributions demonstrated how motivated states, such as love, spring from evolving brain structures. ...
The present paper is the personal narration of the author reviewing her scientific pathways that led her toward the study of oxytocin. My work began with a pioneering study showing a decreased number of the serotonin transporter proteins in romantic lovers. This unexpected finding promoted my interest in the neurobiology of human emotions and feelings, and significantly shifted my research focus from diseases to physiological states that underlie “love.” During this time increasing experimental data broadened the spectrum of activities of oxytocin from female functions, such as parturition and lactation, to modulation of the stress and immune system. The literature also began to reveal an important role for oxytocin in a sense of safety and wellbeing, processes that are critical to both love and survival. I suggest here that future studies should disentangle different emerging questions regarding the exact role of oxytocin within human nature, as well as its possible therapeutic applications in different physiological conditions and pathological states. Understanding these, in turn, holds the potential to improve the lives of both individuals and societies.
... Пол Маклин выдвинул гипотезу, согласно которой в мозге человека можно выделить стволовую часть, идентичную мозгу пресмыкающихся, лимбическую систему (Paleomammalian complex), аналогичную таковой у всех млекопитающих, и неокортекс (Neomammalian complex), более всего развитый у человека (MacLean, 1990). По этой гипотезе поведенческие паттерны, соответствующие активности каждой из этих частей мозга, можно увидеть и в поведении современного человека. ...
What is the meaning of life? What is the nature of the human mind, love, morality? All of these questions tend to be answered and explained in "natural science" terms. Life arose out of inanimate nature by random physical and chemical factors and one should hardly look for any sense in it; man is the product of natural selection and reason, love and morality, are the result of chemical and electrical processes in the brain. Since these questions are among the most important for human beings, due to the unquestionable authority of the natural sciences, the proposed answers can and already do have a major impact on all areas of human life, from economics and politics to mental health and the subjective well-being of the individual. Does this perception of the world and one's place in it make one happy? Sociological studies clearly say no. Adherents of this worldview, however, argue that no matter how unpleasant it may seem, one should have the courage to accept it, because it is consistent with the scientific evidence. But is this true? Does the modern scientific picture of the world really allow for all these far-reaching conclusions? People who are professionally involved in science know that it almost never provides answers to worldview questions. All empirical facts and scientific theories can be interpreted in different ways and the choice of one interpretation or another is largely determined by one's worldview position, not vice versa. Although the book is called "Worldview Problems of Neuroscience", and most of it is indeed devoted to neuroscientific problems and their philosophical interpretation, it deals with a wider range of questions, which form the basis of the worldview of most modern people. Author tries to understand whether the reductionist materialistic worldview that dominates today, especially in the neurosciences, is really capable of plausibly explaining the current evidence about the nature of the relationship between mental processes and the physical world. The book concludes by outlining modern philosophical positions alternative to orthodox physicalism and tries to summarize them in a unified system.
... Paul MacLean described the elaboration of mammalian brains in which information about the natural environment and about relationships is coordinated with internal metabolism of individuals (MacLean 1990). Changes in brains accompanied changes in relationships between kin. ...
... The less elaborated brains of fish (employing air bladders) and anurans (utilizing the larynx) sufficed to underwrite a well-elaborated set of behaviours involving voice production and reception of socially orientated calls. It is commonly held, in the spirit of the triune brain (MacLean, 1990), that the vocal expression of emotion originated with the arrival on earth of mammals (e.g. Newman, 2010). ...
The vocal pattern from its very beginning in evolution and the role of familiarity in vocal communication.
... En [9] se desarrolla un complemento a la teoría del cerebro Tri-uno, en donde expone la composición del cerebro humano, y la divide en la corteza orbito-frontal, también denominada Córtex, que es la parte más racional del cerebro, la cual se encuentra apenas encima de los ojos, y es la parte encargada del planeamiento y el control de los impulsos. El sistema límbico y el sistema reptiliano. ...
The customer has become a source of strategic information about the quality of products and services. For this reason, the objective of this research was to analyze the level of service and mental processes of clients in making decisions to consume milk in the province of Chimborazo. Non-probabilistic sampling was used and data were collected from 50 clients and 75 representatives of small- and medium-sized companies in the city of Riobamba which participated in the Production Exhibition, Macají, Riobamba 2019. An electroencephalogram was used to determine whether the purchasing decisions were made at the unconscious level by reading brain waves. Three brands of milk that are sold locally were used. The study revealed that there were representative differences in stimulating people to different perceptions (visual, olfactory, gustatory) that influence the appreciation and purchasing decisions of milk. Similarly, it was found that there are decisions that the consumer makes unconsciously based on memories and past experiences that influence their present behavior at the time of consumption. The study also revealed the need to improve the level of service. Keywords: neuromarketing, perception, strategies, service level. Resumen El cliente se ha convertido en una fuente de información estratégica sobre la calidad del producto y del servicio. Por este motivo, el objetivo del artículo científico fue analizar el nivel de servicio y los procesos mentales del cliente para la toma las decisiones de consumir leche en la provincia de Chimborazo. El estudio se realizó mediante un muestreo no probabilístico con informaciones de 50 clientes y 75 representantes de pequeñas y medianas empresas de la ciudad de Riobamba que participaron en la Exposición de Producción, Macají, Riobamba 2019. Se utilizó el electroencefalograma para determinar si las decisiones de compra se realizan a nivel inconsciente mediante la lectura de ondas cerebrales. Para ello se utilizaron tres marcas de leche que se comercializan en la localidad. El estudio reveló que existen diferencias representativas al estimular a las personas a diferentes percepciones (visual, olfativa, gustativa) que influyen en la apreciación y decisión de compra de la leche. De igual modo, se constató que existen decisiones que realiza el consumidor de manera inconsciente basada en los recuerdos y experiencias del pasado que influyen en su comportamiento presente al momento del consumo. Asimismo, el estudio reveló la necesidad de mejorar el nivel de servicio. Palabras clave: neuromarketing, percepción, estrategias, nivel de servicio.
... La importancia del desarrollo emocional, es llevado a cabo por medio del sistema límbico, donde cada área cerebral, juega un papel esencial en la consolidación de los procesos sensoriales y motores, este nivel emocional se lleva a cabo por infl uencia de la estructura límbica, capaz de dirigir las relaciones emotivo-volitivas y socio-afectivas, que incluye la manifestación de los sentimientos, regulación endócrina, donde el dolor y el placer es codifi cado por las funciones que desempeña el tálamo, por otra parte, la amígdala desempeña roles ligados a la regulación de la nutrición, mientras que, el hipocampo fortalece la memoria a largo plazo y la pituitaria se encarga de favorecer el funcionamiento del sistema bioquímico del organismo (Maclean, 1990) en la jugadora. Becerra-PatiñoB (2021). ...
Enseñar sin imponer, compartir sin obligar, crear sin destruir, reducir sin fisurar, extender sin fragmentar y conocer sin desvirtuar, deja abierta la puerta a un aprendizaje verdaderamente significativo, por ello, este camino que se abre y expande sus horizontes en cada uno de los capítulos, con las diversas temáticas y las líneas allí consignadas, cobra vida al ser leído, estudiado e interpretado por cada lector, como una nueva experiencia que alimenta el deseo de transformar y retroalimentar nuestra labor docente, tal como lo ha hecho este ejercicio académico conmigo, en esa búsqueda incansable por favorecer un quehacer pedagógico cada vez más holístico, integral, ecológico y humanístico.
La convicción de aprender surge como iniciativa para comprender, entender, socializar y compartir la valiosa y meritoria labor de la enseñanza en la relación armónica de quién aprende, quien enseña aprendiendo y aprende enseñando. Allí, todos están llamados a participar en una construcción solidaria por, para, desde y hacia el desarrollo y crecimiento cuantitativo y, ante todo, cualitativo del fútbol femenino.
Este libro tiene como propósito, servir sin desgastar, favorecer sin obstruir, facilitar sin forzar y experimentar sin cegar, asociando y resaltando las facultades de la mujer en el desarrollo de su ejercicio social, uno alejado del reduccionismo y la comparación de sus capacidades, es más, se revitaliza la praxis de la jugadora como ser-humano-deportista, en toda su dimensionalidad, resaltando sus bondades y sus aptitudes orientadas a favorecer la expresión armónica de su movimiento, el cerebro en función del juego, la atención y selección de la información como mecanismo de regulación motriz, la inteligencia emocional para entender las emociones, en suma, todos elementos constitutivos en la construcción de un modelo de juego particular, característico, específico y distintivo para cada contexto. Es decir, el entrenador será quien determine cómo guía su proceso < >; construcción humanizante de su saber (saber-ser, saber-hacer, saber-pensar, saber-saber, saber-convencer, saber-comunicar y saber-liderar).
En conclusión, este texto se orienta a ser un guía fundamental en el entendimiento de la naturaleza femenina como escenario de acción-reflexión, para así, concebir las lógicas internas-externas y, sobre todo, el proceso holístico que confluye en la integración dinámica de evolución de la mujer deportista en correlación con la dimensión deportiva del fútbol femenino como escenario socio-cultural.
Así, el abordaje en este recorrido, estará mediada por los insumos que pueda extraer el lector para alimentar su conocimiento y el reconocimiento de sus habilidades, destrezas, estrategias y capacidades comunicativas, para transmitir aquello que siente, sabe y es.
En ese mismo sentido, el proceso reflexivo del dialogo académico, producto de leer-analizar-interpretar-proponer del texto, pretende despertar una proliferación de interrogantes comunes, entre los que se destacan:
• ¿Cómo favorecemos el aprendizaje de la jugadora?
• ¿Cuál es el aporte que puedo hacer para el desarrollo, crecimiento y
evolución del fútbol femenino?
• ¿Cómo facilitar y favorecer los procesos de formación deportiva?
• ¿Qué tipo de deportista estamos formando?
• ¿Cuándo aprenden mejor las jugadoras y dónde se puede favorecer
la enseñanza en el fútbol femenino?
• ¿Cuánto conozco del fútbol femenino y de la naturaleza inherente a
la mujer deportista?
• ¿Cómo puedo hacer mejor el ejercicio docente?
• ¿Cuánto invertimos en el fútbol femenino para construir procesos formativos de calidad y cómo invertimos el tiempo y el espacio para
crear una cultura académica del fútbol femenino?
• ¿En qué condiciones se está estimulando la formación integral de la
deportista?
Así, para finalizar, la intención formativa explayada a lo largo del texto
se orienta a sembrar inquietudes, certezas, encuentros y desencuentros epistémicos, conceptuales y metodológicos, en camino hacia ese saber enseñado, proyectando el ejercicio práctico profesional que continuamente desarrolla cada uno de los líderes educativos en la formación de la jugadora y del fútbol femenino: los entrenadores-as.
A lo largo del presente documento, se establecen una comunicación
multidireccional entre el proceso de entrenamiento como medio y dicho aprendizaje derivado de la práctica, en aportes hacia el entendimiento de la jugadora como ser dimensional, dialogo común que surge del estudio de su inherente complejidad como sistema dinámico, sensibilidad al cambio, autoorganización y, esencialmente, el cerebro como facilitador de un movimiento altamente ingenioso
e inteligente.
Cada uno de los nueve capítulos aportan elementos que están pensados para generar reflexión en torno a la comprensión de la jugadora, como ser humano y al fútbol femenino como práctica socio-humano-deportiva, en ella, la relación constante jugadora-entrenador interactúa, comparte, experimenta, practica, siente, percibe, se emociona y, sobre todo, aprende.
Los primeros cinco capítulos buscan generar una aproximación epistemológica en virtud del estudio del cerebro y de la naturaleza femenina, reconociendo en este enlace < >, todas sus bondades, necesidades y posibles prioridades.
El primer capítulo (1) estudia la jugadora en toda su dimensión, y en ese análisis, fragmenta el reduccionismo, el aislamiento selectivo, la desarmonización, la incomunicación, el sometimiento dialéctico y la limitación funcional. Todo esto, responde a entender el movimiento como una producción inteligente de energía y de intercambio químico, en el que el cerebro opera, armoniza, integra y codifica; articulando información a través de su conocimiento en las interacciones ser-conociendo, conocer-siendo y ser-conociendo-siendo, a través del entendimiento de lo que siente, ve, escucha y hace.
El cerebro como posibilidad para organizar el movimiento, abordado
en el capítulo dos (2), busca fragmentar las visiones univariantes, orientadas hacia el androcentrismo, formulándose preguntas de si existen diferencias cerebrales en función del sexo, considerando elementos a tener en cuenta en el proceso de formación de la mujer deportista, buscando así, una comprensión de procesos como la empatía y la inteligencia emocional, avances de las diversas técnicas de neuroimagen implementadas en el deporte, buscando estudiar
el cerebro y con ello, entender los procesos atencionales, memorísticos y perceptivos.
Un tercer capítulo (3), dedicado a la comprensión de los procesos atencionales, recurso limitado en el estudio de las operaciones cognitivas y la selección de los posibles caminos a elegir por la interacción cuerpo-movimiento-juego., esta selección, se lleva a cabo a partir de una diversidad pluripotencial, elevando niveles de comunicación para regular el programa del acto motor a ejecutar. Allí,
también se socializa la influencia de la atención en el juego como génesis de las funciones cognitivas en la tríada: red neuronal del nivel de alerta, red neuronal de orientación hacia estímulos ambientales y red neuronal ejecutiva.
Dentro del cuarto capítulo (4), cobra protagonismo la inteligencia emocional, como un proceso de autoconciencia y auto reconocimiento, orientado a prevalecer ante la adversidad, siendo, al mismo tiempo, un proceso de aprendizaje y de doble respuesta frente al movimiento ejecutado, finalmente, se revela la significación de la formación y del mindfulness en virtud de expresar y propender por alcanzar un rendimiento deportivo en esa multiplicidad de sociedades que provee el juego.
Las emociones tienen una notable influencia en el rendimiento humano-deportivo, así, en el capítulo cinco (5), estas se abordan desde un proceso hermenéutico, destacando la sensibilidad que tiene la emoción en el proceso interno de la jugadora, para favorecer aquello que se proyecta hacer y de cómo esto se traduce en lo que realmente se llega a ser, procesamiento emocional que depende de las múltiples conexiones, relaciones, interacciones e intercomunicaciones de su biosfera ecobiológica femenina.
Más adelante, en el planteamiento del capítulo seis (6), sobresale el dominio de la memoria como recurso y operación cognitiva de activación neuronal, en ella, se destacan los procesos de la memoria explícita regulada por el sistema límbico (amígdala, hipocampo y neocorteza), memoria implícita (ganglios basales y cerebelo), procesos hipocámpicos que estimulan la memoria de trabajo
en forma de secuencia ordenada para activar y regular el grado de fuerza en cada movimiento y, fi nalmente, la influencia de la memoria procedimental, episódica y semántica, para conocer y reconocer que la memoria es un sistema complejo de operativización hacia ese jugar deseado, pensado, trabajado y, explícitamente inacabado.
Por otra parte, el capítulo siete (7), ofrece una visión del rol y la función que cumple la portera en el juego, principalmente, por todas sus particularidades reglamentarias y con ello, las variaciones a nivel morfológico-funcional para utilizar su longitud en los desvíos y las prolongaciones, fisio-condicional para utilizar su fuerza útil en los despegues, técnico-creativa para evaluar el tiempo y el espacio para saber en qué lugar y en qué momento caerá el balón, socioafectiva
para comunicarse, emotivo-volitiva para reponerse a la adversidad,
aprendiendo a convivir con el error, el estrés y la frustración, psico-cognitiva para evaluar el movimiento del balón y las posibles ocupaciones de espacio que tiene de sí misma con relación a su línea defensiva y táctico-expresiva para manifestar su comportamiento motor, buscando con ello, proveer soluciones ante un juego
altamente cambiante, dinámico, azaroso, impredecible y novedoso.
Así mismo, en la segunda parte (II), se socializa una propuesta didáctico-metodológica aplicada al jugar sistémico en el fútbol femenino a lo largo del capítulo ocho y nueve (8-9), en la que se establecen algunas consideraciones a partir del estudio del modelo de juego, las características de la naturaleza femenina y las posibilidades de interacción que ofrece cada dimensión de la jugadora como SER-JUGADORA al servicio de la táctica colectiva.
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... However, the Triune Brain is especially important in better understanding the highly intuitive nature of humans' preferences, choices, decisions and actions: the new brain, the middle brain and the reptilian brain, corresponding to the neocortex, the limbic system and the reptilian complex. The three brain areas are also called (1) the rational brain, (2) the emotional brain and (3) the instinctual brain, therefore it can be posited that the first brain thinks, the second brain feels while the third (old) brain decides (MacLean, 1990). ...
Although mainly identified as the propensity for overeating in response to negative feelings, emotional eating still remains a poorly defined construct. Based on Lovejoy and other scholars’ holistic world view, the current study presents a brief analysis of emotional eating from an interdisciplinary perspective: psychology, nutrition, willpower and self-control, literature, cultural studies, macroeconomics, consumer behaviour, behavioural economics and neurosciences, behavioural-change theories, game theory and mathematics. While each area of interest will approach the topic differently, putting together all these views can open a pathway towards comprehensive studies and meta-analyses that could help solve the intricate puzzle of weight gain and poor health in connection with emotional eating. Since the purpose of any research is ultimately to serve life and benefit humankind, the current study proposes to demonstrate indirectly that sciences and humanities can provide together a bird’s eye view of such a complex phenomenon as emotional eating.
... El decenio de 1990 fue conocido como la «década del cerebro», debido a que proliferaron investigaciones sobre el funcionamiento del cerebro, entre las que destacó la realizada por Herrmann (1994) por su propuesta de dividir el cerebro en cuatro cuadrantes, que fusionó el modelo de los hemisferios de Sperry (1973) y el de los cerebros límbico y cortical de MacLean (1990). ...
... В прошлом веке нейрофизиолог MacLean P предложил трёхуровневое функциональное описание мозга человека, где первый уровень выполняет базовые соматические реакции, второй является трансформатором непосредственно входящей информации в сигналы первому уровню, а третий уровень обеспечивает возможность мышления абстракциями [11]. Все три находятся в тесном взаимодействии, и, несмотря на условность этого концепта, абстрактные переживания действительно переходят в соматические. ...
In the biosocial paradigm of human nature, we can consider not only the concept of health, as it is derived from the definition of the World health organization, but also the socio-cultural aspects of life. Ethics is an integral part of society, and it is all the more critical for medicine.Studies of the evolution of morality contain not only and not so much information about the behavior of our ancestors, but also about the nature of our behavior, and the mechanisms of choice regarding the phenomena of cooperation, trust, mutual assistance, justice, and others. Some of them are directly related to the doctorpatient relationship.The nature of these phenomena is described from the perspective of different disciplines: ethology, neurophysiology, evolutionary psychology, and game theory. All these disciplines in total can indeed form recommendations for interaction with patients and can be useful to a doctor, especially those who need to maximize the effectiveness of their communication while saving resources. A patient is also interested in the treatment and saving of his emotional resource, which defines the doctor-patient relationship as an interaction with a common interest or a non-zerosum game. Behavioral economics is also included in this interaction, considered in the context of strategy choice by agents (in this case, doctor and patient), but not in the context of resource allocation. This is of practical significance in the context of working with psychosocial risk factors.
... З точки зору психології у кожної людини мозок складається з трьох частин: мозку рептилії, який є найдревнішим та відповідає за інстинкти, мозку ссавця, який відповідає за мозок в цілому та почуття і неокортексу, який відповідає за те, що робить нас людьми із здатністю мислити абстрактно, раціонально та логічно, усвідомлюючи власні почуття та думки [8]. ...
... Many studies have shown that: mammals (including humans) can unconsciously process emotional sensory stimuli (Panksepp, 2010) [19]. "Unconscious processing" of emotional stimuli can induce instinctive emotional behaviors in individuals (MacLean, 1990) [20]. Some researches on unconscious emotional priming on attention mainly focus on the unconscious level of individuals, while there are few researches on the level of consciousness or attention. ...
... One of the major, and still influential, views about the evolution of the vertebrate brain is the triune brain concept developed by the eminent neuroscientist Paul MacLean and advanced in several influential articles and a book (e.g. MacLean, 1973MacLean, , 1985MacLean, , 1990. The triune brain concept derived from the idea that the neocortex is the most recently evolved brain area and the seat of advanced mental processes such as planning, language, reasoning and awareness. ...
An appreciation of the diverse roots of animal behaviour study is essential for informed teaching and stimulating current research and scholarship. Insights by early seminal authors are often ignored, insights that may have avoided subsequent controversies or spawned productive research. Even with internet access now available for much early work, historical perspectives are increasingly being lost. Animal behaviour textbooks are often misleading and simplistic on historical matters. In this paper, I document how four authors writing 100 or more years ago greatly influenced my research on nonavian reptile behaviour. These four authors, which merit serious re-reading by students of virtually any taxa and topic, are Jakob von Uexküll, Margaret Floy Washburn, James Mark Baldwin and Wallace Craig. There are also current and upcoming challenges and risks impacting animal behaviour research that may affect how today's research will be viewed in historical perspectives 50, 100 or more years from now.
... By usefulness we mean that the extracted representation would improve downstream learning tasks; for example, by modifying point neighborhood relations and data space metrics. The name lizard brain is inspired by the triune brain theory, stating the existence of several layered mammalian brain substructures sequentially evolved and specialized in different types of animal behaviors (MacLean, 1990). We do not claim that the real reptilian brain or the reptilian complex is of low-dimensional nature: here we use this metaphor only to underline that an effective learning system should be composed of several parts, built on top of each other and dealing with opposite aspects of the high-dimensional world. ...
Machine learning deals with datasets characterized by high dimensionality. However, in many cases, the intrinsic dimensionality of the datasets is surprisingly low. For example, the dimensionality of a robot's perception space can be large and multi-modal but its variables can have more or less complex non-linear interdependencies. Thus multidimensional data point clouds can be effectively located in the vicinity of principal varieties possessing locally small dimensionality, but having a globally complicated organization which is sometimes difficult to represent with regular mathematical objects (such as manifolds). We review modern machine learning approaches for extracting low-dimensional geometries from multi-dimensional data and their applications in various scientific fields.
... From the perspective of evolution, Jaak Panksepp, the founder of the academic domain called affective neuroscience, notes that "many of the ancient, evolutionarily derived brain systems all mammals share still serve as the foundations for the deeply experienced affective proclivities of the human mind. Such ancient brain functions evolved long before the emergence of the human neocortex with its vast cognitive skills" (Panksepp, 1998, p.4). Panksepp's explanation is complemented with the famous "triune brain" model of cerebral evolution (MacLean, 1990). According to the triune brain model, the limbic system, which is involved in emotional behavior and the subjective experience of emotion (p.247), is layered beneath the neocortex, which is the seat of higher cognition that only humans are reported to have (for its pictorial image, see Barrett, 2017, p.82). 3) Limbic system phylogenetically and ontogenetically precedes neocortex and has a strong connection to the socalled reptilian brain, which is allegedly the seat of survival mechanism and biological homeostasis control system. ...
This paper investigates the new and better understanding of emotion, cognition, body, and their organically interconnectedness from multidisciplinary perspectives. First, perspectives from such domains as physics, sociobiology, psychopathology, cognitive science, neurobiology, educational psychology, neurology, behavioral economics, kansei engineering, developmental psychology, evolution science, artificial intelligence, and SLA (second language acquisition) are introduced and argued. Second, neuroscientific facts are provided and state-of-the-art findings are discussed. A plethora of theories, cases, quotes, and information sources are utilized to support and to explicitate the active, dynamic, and organic view of emotion, cognition, and body. Finally, it concludes with future prospects toward better educational theory and practice with special focus on foreign language acquisition.
本論では学際的観点から、情動・認知・身体とその有機的に不可分の関係のより良い理解を考察する。まず、物理学・社会生物学・精神病理学・認知科学・神経生物学・教育心理学・神経心理学・神経学・行動経済学・感性工学・発達心理学・進化論・人口知性・第二言語習得といった諸分野の関連理論や先行研究を紹介・議論する。次に、神経科学的事実が説明され、脳科学の最新の知見が紹介される。能動的・動的・有機的な情動観が、数多くの理論・実例・引用・情報源を通して支持され、明示化される。最後に、より良い教育理論や実践に向けた展望が、外国語学習に着目して提起される。
https://kwansei.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_view_main_item_detail&item_id=27570&item_no=1&page_id=30&block_id=85
... Moreover, we found that submissive behavior was a protective factor for depression in the multivariate regression models. It may be that submissive behavior plays a vital role in group cohesion and the control of agonistic behavior [25], CI Confidence interval; ORu Univariate odds ratio, AOR Adjusted OR, odds ratios adjusted for highest education level; ORm Odds ratio obtained from forward stepwise multivariate logistic regression using significant variables from the univariate analysis as input. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 maintains the individual's social position, and redirects behavior toward more productive pursuits. ...
Background:
Involuntary subordination is a mechanism that switches off fighting behaviors when a losing organism is unable to continue in a struggle. The study aim was to investigate the association between involuntary subordination and the common mental disorders of anxiety and depression among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Shanghai, China.
Methods:
A cross-sectional study was conducted of 547 MSM in four Shanghai districts. Sociodemographic and psychosocial participant data were collected. Logistic regression was used to assess the association between anxiety, depression, and involuntary subordination.
Results:
12.2 and 30.9% Of the MSM demonstrated high levels of anxiety and depression respectively. Univariate analysis showed that involuntary subordination and the involuntary subordination constructs of defeat, social comparison, submissive behavior, and entrapment were associated with anxiety and depression. Multivariate analysis indicated that defeat (ORm = 1.091, 95% CI = 1.004-1.185) and entrapment (ORm = 1.174, 95% CI = 1.079-1.278) were significantly associated with anxiety. Defeat (ORm = 1.265, 95% CI = 1.166-1.372), social comparison (ORm = 1.119, 95% CI = 1.061-1.181), entrapment (ORm = 1.132, 95% CI = 1.047-1.224), and submissive behavior (ORm = 0.897, 95% CI = 0.825-0.975) were significantly associated with depression.
Conclusions:
The findings confirmed an association between anxiety, depression, and involuntary subordination among MSM. These findings could form the basis of a new, integrated, and holistic approach to the identification of high-risk groups and the development of interventions for anxiety and depression among MSM.
This article aims to examine neuromarketing and neuromarketing techniques, to reveal the effect of neuromarketing on consumer behavior and advertising. Due to today’s increasing competition conditions, manufacturers want to read the minds of consumers to promote their products and achieve brand success. For this reason, it is very important to determine consumer behavior and the factors that trigger the purchase. Consumers’ perception of the advertisement and how they remember it is of great importance for marketing and brand success. What consumers say and think about the advertisement may not be consistent in some cases. So how can we identify the factors that cause the brain to buy a particular product? At this point, the importance of neuromarketing in discovering the subconscious thoughts of consumers emerges. Neuromarketing is of great importance in making advertising more effective. It can be determined by neurological methods how consumers are affected by which advertisements and which advertisements do not cause a reaction in them. In this context, it is considered necessary to examine neurological methods, the subconscious of consumers, and their relationship.
Sulla nave che lo portava verso le Clark lectures negli Stati Uniti, Jung racconta a Freud un sogno, divenuto famoso, in cui una casa a quattro piani, o livelli, sembra rappresentare la struttura di una psiche fondata sull'inconscio archetipico. Nonostante l'idea di archetipo sia stata più volte oggetto di critiche, a partire dalla seconda metà del 1900 gli studi scientifici sull'organizzazione del cervello umano hanno confermato l'ipotesi di una stratificazione delle funzioni mentali e di una determinazione prevalentemente istintuale ed ereditaria del primo e più antico strato dell'evoluzione neuropsichica. Pertanto, riprendendo la struttura della casa sognata da Jung, in questo articolo proponiamo l'idea di una stratificazione psico-neuro-archeologica suddivisa in 3+1 strati sovrapposti che costituisce una elaborazione del modello neuro-archeologico ternario elaborato da Paul MacLean prima e da Jaak Panksepp poi, in cui l'affettività rappresenta il fattore organizzativo fondamentale del cervello-mente. Lo strato più evoluto, caratteristico della specie umana, è quello dell'auto-coscienza riflessiva. Subito sotto si trova il livello della coscienza intersoggettiva, caratteristico delle specie omeoterme (mammiferi ed uccelli) e legato all'evoluzione di un complesso di strutture corticali mediali chiamate Default-Mode-Network. Ancora sotto si trova lo strato della coscienza cognitivo-immaginativa, evolutasi nei vertebrati dotati di corteccia cerebrale. Infine, il primo e più antico strato, è quello della consapevolezza affettiva, legato al funzionamento delle strutture sottocorticali mediali (core-Self), dove risiedono i circuiti istintuali ed archetipici individuati negli studi neuro-etologici di Panksepp.
The primary aim of this study was to determine the role of psychometric intelligence (IQ), emotional intelligence (EQ), and emo-sensory intelligence (ESQ) in university students’ academic achievement. To this end, 212 university students at different academic levels, composed of 154 females and 58 males, were asked to complete the Raven’s Progressive Matrices, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory, and the Emo-Sensory Intelligence Scale. Data were then matched with students’ Grade Point Averages as a measure of their academic achievement. The results revealed that students’ level of IQ and EQ could positively predict their academic achievement. In the case of their ESQ level, its auditory sub-component was found to be a positive predictor of academic success. Results were discussed, and possible implications and applications for increasing students’ chances for success were presented.
Ética animal: antropomorfismo; ceticismo; moralidade animal
Ana Pedro
Muito embora o estudo sobre a filosofia animal seja um tema tradicional que sempre mereceu a atenção dos filósofos desde a antiguidade grega (ex: Aristóteles), a verdade é que nos últimos dez anos tem-se registado um interesse global sem precedentes sobre ética e cognição animal não só entre os filósofos da ética animal, mas também entre os etologistas cognitivistas, psicólogos (psicologia comparada), biólogos evolucionistas e neurocientistas. Esta obra pretende apresentar e discutir, de uma forma acessível, algumas das principais questões em torno da ética animal, sejam elas de natureza epistemológica - os animais possuem crenças, desejos e intencionalidade? Têm mente? Que estados mentais possuem? – metafísica – será que os animais sem linguagem podem pensar ou raciocinar? – ou ética - Existe uma moralidade animal? Serão os animais seres morais? E, será que podem ser considerados agentes morais? Porém, cada uma destas abordagens tem-se deparado com alguns problemas, nomeadamente, de índole antropomórfica que ressalta de algumas investigações empíricas levadas a cabo pela etologia e psicologia comparada e que tem conduzido a um certo ceticismo em torno das questões acima colocadas. É neste contexto contemporâneo que os filósofos têm sido chamados a intervir e a contribuir com as suas reflexões e argumentos (pró e contra) para este debate sobre a ética animal que realça perspetivas radicalmente diferentes de ver a moralidade ou a consciência nos animais
The collection presents abstracts of reports at the International scientific-practical conference Socially competent management of corporations in a behavioral economy, February 18, 2021. They reflect the theoretical foundations, prospects for ensuring the efficiency of economic entities, prospects for the development of corporations in the development of neo-industrial economy.
Belonging to social groups is an important need for human beings and social exclusion has a significant psychological impact on individual wellbeing. Social neuroscience has clarified the similarity of the neuronal substrate between physical pain and social pain during the experience of social exclusion. Pain is the oldest signal that something is wrong for our brain, and the anticipation of pain motivates a move away from perceived dangerous or noxious stimuli. The Evolutionary Theory of Motivation (ETM) considered group affiliation as an adaptive goal that supports the individual\'s adaptation to the environment; however, invalidating experiences may induce avoidance of its pursuit. In this perspective, social exclusion could thus be considered as the result of failures at one or more levels of the human motivational systems. This chapter attempts to understand the neuroscience findings on social exclusion in this theoretical framework.
Business is a minefield with many actors and it's easy to get lost. Looking at distribution channels, the higher up a company is on the distribution ladder, less they know about the end-consumer, how they behave or what they even do with the products they buy. Consumer behaviours are shaped by fundamental motives: affiliation, self-protection, status attainment, mate attraction and retention and child-bearing. These motives are themselves shaped by a cascade of biochemical reactions within the body which have been neglected by marketing and human resources teams around the globe. In this thesis, we will take a deep dive into how business is slowly becoming shaped by science through different intersecting fields of research. We will look into some of our most important biochemical actors, hormones, and explain what they do to us, our brains and our thoughts and how we can yield the best results knowing we can't change their activity, but they can change ours.
Las diferencias de funcionamiento y el neurodesarrollo han sido de interés de la neuropsicología y psicología educativa, por ser conocimiento que posibilita generar mejoras en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, a partir de estrategias pedagógicas respondientes a las funciones ejecutivas y estilos de aprendizajes, favoreciendo tanto el rol docente como estudiante. Cabe resaltar, que en la historia escolar la adolescencia representa periodo de cambios y fluctuaciones en el desempeño académico, por las exigencias, evaluaciones estatales y decisiones vocacionales que deben tomar los adolescentes. Del mismo modo, en la adolescencia se
estima finalice el proceso madurativo de las funciones ejecutivas, permitiendo que el humano adolescente se inserte a la vida adulta con recursos cognitivos pertinentes para las exigencias del entorno.
The collection presents abstracts of reports at the International scientific-practical
conference Socially competent management of corporations in a behavioral economy,
February 18, 2021. They reflect the theoretical foundations, prospects for ensuring the
efficiency of economic entities, prospects for the development of corporations in the
development of neo-industrial economy.
The collection presents abstracts of reports at the International scientific practical conference Socially competent management of corporations in a behavioral
economy, February 18, 2021. They reflect the theoretical foundations, prospects for
ensuring the efficiency of economic entities, prospects for the development of
corporations in the development of neo-industrial economy.
The philosophical thought of modern times, which I have encompassed under the notion of Harmony in previous works, was based on three pillars that, still today, are the crucial axis of contemporary thought: 1) the human mind has access to reality as it is, it can know the true essences that underlie the existence of the particulars; 2) the human mind can know universal ethical truths, which are at the root of human rights, as well as of political and economic individual freedoms; 3) the social universe does not have an essential order, therefore it cannot be known through reason; it is the outcome of social will, consequence of political freedom. Since social will is expressed nationally, under the logic of Harmony, once democracy in every nation and global economic freedom are achieved, human prosperity will necessarily follow. However, reality has not behaved like that. The lack of global governance has created all sort of problems, ranging from the mismanagement of the 2008 financial crisis and the 2020 pandemic, to global poverty, pollution and crime. Something is wrong. Harmony as a conceptual system of thought is not compatible with the reality of the contemporary world. science has shown that the human mind does not have access to any essential truths, not to universal ethical principles. To be consequential, in this book we propose to substitute the pre assumed initial essential truths of Harmony with the accumulated scientific knowledge. This simple shift allows us to develop a new conceptual system of thought, which we are calling The Philosophy of Belonging. And with this framework we review traditional philosophical thinking in areas such as: metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, the philosophy of justice, aesthetics, political philosophy, the philosophy of self, and the philosophy of economics. Among many other results, The Philosophy of Belonging shows that Harmony is a conceptual system that corresponds to a particular historical time of the Western societies. Other societies have evolved different conceptual systems; and therefore are, and will be, unwilling to embrace Harmony. Thus, Harmony is unsuitable to face the problems of the globalized world of today. The globalization of information, communications, technology, science, life styles, industrial production, and so on, has brought us together; in these times, it is imperative to construct a new institutional arrangement that truly reflects the diversity in national interests, and in conceptual systems of thought, that the world has. The main proposal in this manuscript is: that it is time to let Harmony go, and embrace the new conceptual system of Belonging.
This review illustrates the relevance of shamanism and its evolution under effects of psilocybin as a framework for identifying evolved aspects of psychedelic set and setting. Effects of 5HT2 psychedelics on serotonin, stress adaptation, visual systems and personality illustrate adaptive mechanisms through which psychedelics could have enhanced hominin evolution as an environmental factor influencing selection for features of our evolved psychology. Evolutionary psychology perspectives on ritual, shamanism and psychedelics provides bases for inferences regarding psychedelics’ likely roles in hominin evolution as exogenous neurotransmitter sources through their effects in selection for innate dispositions for psychedelic set and setting. Psychedelics stimulate ancient brain structures and innate modular thought modules, especially self-awareness, other awareness, “mind reading,” spatial and visual intelligences. The integration of these innate modules are also core features of shamanism. Cross-cultural research illustrates shamanism is an empirical phenomenon of foraging societies, with its ancient basis in collective hominid displays, ritual alterations of consciousness, and endogenous healing responses. Shamanic practices employed psychedelics and manipulated extrapharmacological effects through stimulation of serotonin and dopamine systems and augmenting processes of the reptilian and paleomammalian brains. Differences between chimpanzee maximal displays and shamanic rituals reveal a zone of proximal development in hominin evolution. The evolution of the mimetic capacity for enactment, dance, music, and imitation provided central capacities underlying shamanic performances. Other chimp-human differences in ritualized behaviors are directly related to psychedelic effects and their integration of innate modular thought processes. Psychedelics and other ritual alterations of consciousness stimulate these and other innate responses such as soul flight and death-and-rebirth experiences. These findings provided bases for making inferences regarding foundations of our evolved set, setting and psychology. Shamanic setting is eminently communal with singing, drumming, dancing and dramatic displays. Innate modular thought structures are prominent features of the set of shamanism, exemplified in animism, animal identities, perceptions of spirits, and psychological incorporation of spirit others. A shamanic-informed psychedelic therapy includes: a preparatory set with practices such as sexual abstinence, fasting and dream incubation; a set derived from innate modular cognitive capacities and their integration expressed in a relational animistic worldview; a focus on internal imagery manifesting a presentational intelligence; and spirit relations involving incorporation of animals as personal powers. Psychedelic research and treatment can adopt this shamanic biogenetic paradigm to optimize set, setting and ritual frameworks to enhance psychedelic effects.
Attachment theory is useful, but per se it may not be sufficient to understand the complexity of human relationships. For this reason, we believe that there is the need to refer to a broader (evolutionary theory of motivation; Liotti, Psychoanal Inquiry 37(5):319–331, 2017) that considers normal functioning as the result of the harmonious activation of various motivational systems, each aimed at achieving an objective of high evolutionary value (adaptive for the individual, the social group, and the species). In this approach, pathology results from the disharmonious and dysfunctional activation of one or more motivational systems. This leads to a theory of care aimed at modulating the maladaptive activation of motivational systems by recognizing each patient’s dysfunctional interpersonal schemas and restoring his ability to function in more flexible ways. Motivational monitoring allows us to recognize impasses/ruptures within the therapeutic alliance and effectively use interventions to restore it. It may enhance patients’ emotional regulation and the interpersonal attunement between patient and therapist, reducing the risk of dropouts and leading to better therapeutic outcomes.
William James wrote that the life of religion "consists of the belief that there is an unseen order, and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto." Naturalism organizes our experiences of the universe within a science-grounded philosophical and/or religious framework aligning it with what is supremely good for our lives. This article describes a science-grounded specific "Framework of Spirituality" identifying part of this unseen order that opens a "spiritual core" within persons as a source of healing and happiness. A cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) expanded process shows how experiences of human worth and dignity are keys to this new awareness and provides speculation for a brain function and evolutionary explanation. Details of this knowledge are related to various perspectives and authors of naturalism-scientific, religious, ecstatic, and ecological-to contribute to a future direction for the understanding , development, and further expression of naturalism.
To make TCE behavioral and then apply it in empirical settings, a clear understanding of how to model bounded rationality is indispensable, considering some common confusions surrounding (bounded) rationality. We overcome these confusions by distinguishing between the brain, the mind, and the self, and presenting the triune theory of the brain and the eight-consciousness model of the mind. We then propose that cognitive bounds (as a property) and rationality (more accurately rationalizing, as a process) should be conceptually separated. We suggest that cognitive bounds can be socially affected and cultural distance reflects change in cognitive bounds. We conclude by suggesting that ‘bounded rationalizing process’ should be modeled from a critical realism perspective through the diminishing effects of cognitive bounds, which consider human agency through learning.
The use of psychedelic substances for medicinal and therapeutic purposes has been around for many thousands of years. These practices are closely related to shamanism, which has an antiquity stretching back to the dawn of modern human cultural capacities. Shamanism and the ritual use of psychedelic plants co-evolved deep in prehistory, as hunter-gatherer diets inevitability included psychedelic mushrooms, contributing to selection for the characteristics of our evolved psychologies and ideal set and setting. Clinical management of psychedelic medicines is central to shamanic healing traditions which are repositories of millennia of clinical experience and knowledge regarding the best applications of these substances. These ethnomedical traditions constitute a clinical science with important guidelines relevant to contemporary applications of these substances, providing a range of strategies and "best uses" approaches regarding the application of psychedelic medicines. This knowledge includes ritual structures in preparation for their use, guiding their application and producing optimal effects; conceptual frameworks for managing these entheogenic experiences, and preparatory practices that enhance their psychoactive effects and therapeutic processes.
Based on the extensive literature review, and the deduced holistic and synergetic approach to human brain functioning, the author argues for the necessity of working out Neuromarketing Strategic Engineering (NSE) as a system. The author offers her conceptualization of NSE as well as its basic methodological approaches - global, local and transnational - with the purpose of making the elaboration of sustainable competitive advantages of a company or a state at global market to be more effective. The author also applies multidisciplinary and system approaches and the Case Study method in her research. The article represents an initial contribution to the methodological framework design on NSE.
The term “limbic” was first used in 1664 by Thomas Willis to describe the cortical structures on the medial side of the cerebral hemisphere, surrounding the brain stem. Two centuries later, Paul Broca noticed that the cingulate gyrus and the parahippocampal gyrus form a border (limbus) around the corpus callosum and the brain stem. Broca subdivided his grand lobe limbique into inner (the hippocampus) and outer (the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri) rings. During the last decades of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century, it was generally believed that most if not all structures of Broca’s limbic lobe were dominated by olfactory input and therefore form part of the rhinencephalon. In 1937, James Papez proposed that these structures are involved in a closed circuit. The circuit of Papez includes projections from the hippocampus via the fornix to the mamillary body and then via the mamillothalamic tract of Vicq d’Azyr to the anterior thalamic nucleus, from here to the cingulate gyrus, and as last step from the cingulate gyrus back to the hippocampus. Papez suggested that his circuit formed the anatomical basis for emotions. In 1952, Paul MacLean included the circuit of Papez with the amygdala and the hypothalamus into his limbic system, supposed to be responsible for emotional behaviour (the “visceral” or “emotional” brain). Lennart Heimer promoted an expanded version of the classic limbic lobe of Broca, which contains all non-isocortical parts of the cerebral hemisphere together with the laterobasal-cortical amygdaloid complex, with several output channels in the basal forebrain. Thus defined, the limbic lobe contains all of the major cortical and amygdaloid structures known to be especially important for emotional and behavioural functions. Experimental studies in the early 1970s identified the output channels of the limbic lobe in the basal forebrain as the ventral striatopallidal system, the extended amygdala and the basal nucleus of Meynert.
The verbal and nonverbal dimensions of social intelligence are genetically linked. That which is verbal in social intelligence today is based on 15 adaptive, nonverbal steps that led to the origin of gestural and vocal language in genus Homo. Each step worked its way into tissues of the human nervous system. In combination and in synergy, the steps enabled linguistic communication in Homo sapiens. The neuromuscular changes occasioned in each step—and their roles in gestured and spoken language—are herein outlined and explored.
The reaction under mild conditions between formaldehyde and phenylalanine and phenylethylamine derivatives has been studied. When the amines included in a dried protein film were exposed to formaldehyde vapour a very intense green to yellow fluorescence was give only by those that as well as being primary amines also have hydroxyl groups at the 3 and 4 positions (3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, dopamine, noradrenaline). The 3-OH group seems to be esssential for the reaction. The catechol amines, which are secondary amines (adrenaline, epinine), gave a much weaker fluorescence that developed more slowly.
The results obtained on further examination of the reaction favour the view that the amines primarily condense with formaldehyde to 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolines which are involved in a secondary reaction to become highly fluorescent and at the same time insoluble. This secondary reaction may be a binding to protein, and oxidation with the formation of double bonds in the heterocyclic ring, or both.
The distribution of neurons in the basal telencephalon, the diencephalon, and the brainstem that project to the hippocampal formation has been analyzed in mature cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) by the injection of horseradish peroxidase into different rostro-caudal levels of the hippocampal formation. After injections which involve Ammon's horn, the dentate gyrus, and the subicular complex, retrogradely labeled neurons are found in the following regions: in the amygdala (specifically in the anterior amygdaloid area, the basolateral nucleus, and the periamygdaloid cortex); in the medial septal nucleus and the nucleus of the diagonal band; in the ventral part of the claustrum; in the substantia innominata and the basal nucleus of Meynert; in the rostral thalamus (specifically in the anterior nuclear complex, the laterodorsal nucleus, the paraventricular and parataenial nuclei, the nucleus reuniens, and the nucleus centralis medialis); in the lateral preoptic and lateral hypothalamic areas, and especially in the supramammillary and retromammillary regions; in the ventral tegmental area, the tegmental reticular fields, the raphé nuclei (specifically in nucleus centralis superior and the dorsal raphé nucleus), in the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis, the central gray, the dorsal tegmental nucleus, and in the locus coeruleus.
A survey of more than 5000 years of art work, encompassing 1180 scorable instances of unimanual tool or weapon usage, revealed no systematic trends in hand usage. The right hand was used in an average of 93 percent of the cases, regardless of which historical era or geographic region was assessed.
In this paper I deal with the question of forebrain mechanisms underlying species-typical communicative behavior that is basic for self-preservation and the survival of the species. In my own research on this problem I have taken an evolutionary approach, which has the advantage that it allows one to telescope millions of years into a span that can be seen all at once and, as in plotting a curve, to detect trends that would not otherwise be apparent.
The first part of the paper deals with the relations between the olfactory bulb and the olfactory cortex, represented by the rat and to a lesser extent the rhesus monkey. The second part addresses itself to the olfactory tubercle and its relation to the olfactory system on the one hand, and to the basal ganglia on the other. The discussion related to the second part is to a certain extent supported by recently obtained data, that are either in press or in the process of being prepared for publication. It is also somewhat theoretical. A speculative approach, however, may be justified in a volume commemorating James Papez, especially if it serves to focus attention on a poorly understood area of the basal forebrain. The reference to James Papez is appropriate also from another point of view. Part of our presentation pertains to the concept of the ventral strio-pallidal system, and although this concept is not directly comparable to Papez’s notion of the “motor olfactory striatum” (Papez, 1929), we have no doubt been inspired by his insight and imagination.
It has often been assumed that memory depends upon the total action of the brain rather than upon some specialized intracerebral neuron mechanism. There is recent evidence, however, in support of the view that the recording of experience is localizable in the same sense that sensory functions and speech functions are localizable. Obviously, none of these subdivisions is separable from the work of the brain as a whole.
The following study shows that the capacity to record the daily current of conscious experience may be lost when there is bilateral destruction of a man's hippocampus and hippocampal gyrus. Functional paralysis of this recording mechanism does not, however, interfere with the patient's intellectual performance in other psychological tests not dependent on recent memory. Skills, language, and all those things which have already been learned are not lost.
This inability to record new experience is not found in cases of strictly unilateral
Despite their invariable coexistence in the mammalian brain, limbic system (hippocampus and amygdala) and corpus striatum (striatum or caudatoputamen, and pallidum or globus pallidus) have long made the impression of being two mutually isolated neural mechanisms. Until about twenty-five years ago, these two major components of the forebrain seemed to lack any direct interconnection; for an even longer time they appeared to have no common sources of afferent supply, and their respective efferent fiber pathways until very recently, seemed to have no points of convergence anywhere along their course. To be more specific: until about twenty years ago, known or suspected neocortical afferents to the limbic system were limited to the cingulo-hippocampal connection suggested by Cajal (1911) and later by Papez (1937), whereas cortical afferents to the corpus striatum were generally believed to originate largely or even entirely from the sensorimotor cortex; neither were any other sources of afferents known to be shared by limbic system and corpus striatum. As to the efferent connections of these two forebrain mechanisms: those of the corpus striatum until only a few years ago were thought to be distributed exclusively to the substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus, centrum medianum and VA-VL complex of the thalamus, and to certain mesencephalic regions (see Nauta and Mehler, 1966, for a review). In none of these distributions did the projections of the corpus striatum seem to overlap the efferents of the limbic system. The latter, instead, have been traced to the anterior and mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus, as well as to the subcortical continuum formed by the septum, preoptic region and hypothalamus, and extend caudally beyond the hypothalamus over the ventral tegmental area throughout the paramedian region of the midbrain, partly by way of the medial forebrain bundle, partly also by a more dorsal route composed of the stria medullaris, habenular nuclei, and fasciculus retroflexus. It is important to note that a substantial second component of the medial forebrain bundle deviates laterally from the main bundle and distributes itself largely to more lateral regions of the midbrain tegmentum (see below).
Palaeomagnetic evidence indicates that the continents have been in a
more-or-less continuous relative motion. At the end of the Palaeozoic
there was a redistribution of the major continental blocks that occurred
without the formation of new ocean between them. Wegener's Pangaea seems
only to have lasted a few tens of millions of years.
This book brings to date the reports and conclusions from the Montreal Neurological Institute's clinical, physiological, and neuro-surgical studies of epilepsy, and is, in a sense, a sequal to "Epilepsy and cerebral localization," published in 1941. There is extensive addition of new material on subcortical mechanisms, functional cortical localization, surgical and medical treatment and electroencephalography. The book is illustrated with 8 color plates and 314 black and white illustrations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
4 factors are essential to learning: drives, cues, responses, and rewards. Social motivations which are secondary drives include imitativeness, a process by which matched acts are evoked in two people and connected to appropriate cues. "In
matched-dependent behavior, the leader is able to read the relevant environmental cue, but the follower is not; the latter must depend upon the leader for the signal as to what act is to be performed and where and when." In copying behavior "the copier must slowly bring his response to approximate that of a model and must know, when he has done so, that his act is an acceptable reproduction of the model act." The authors present not only a theoretical analysis of these problems but also experiments on rats and children where the problem has been to teach the subject to imitate. There is a discussion of crowd behavior, an analysis of a case of lynching, and a discussion of the diffusion of culture. Appendices present a revision of Holt's theory of imitation and a historical review of the general topic. "Our position is that if there are any innate connections between stimuli and responses of the initiative type, they are few and isolated." "In summary, imitation can greatly hasten the process of independent learning by enabling the subject to perform the first correct response sooner than he otherwise would… . In order for imitation to elicit the first correct response, the essential units of copying or matched-dependent behavior must already have been learned." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the book, Psychosurgery in the treatment of mental disorders and intractable pain by W. Freeman and J. W. Watts (see record 1950-03261-049). According to the reviewer, this second edition of the book that marked a new era in psychiatric treatment has been extensively rewritten, but without greatly adding to the scientific significance of the first. Follow-up data are provided for a longer span of time, together with statistics for the more recently developed transorbital operations; new psychometric data have been obtained and are reported by Dr. Mary Frances Robinson. For psychologists, these latter data are the most significant of the new edition. The reviewer states that though rewriting has improved its coherence, the organization of the book is still poor, and it is still far from being a scholarly production. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Projections from the area postrema and adjacent parts of the medial solitary nucleus are demonstrated with the Nauta method following lesions limited exclusively to these structures. Experiments are controlled with lesions involving adjacent bulbar regions, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Ascending pathways in the dorsal and lateral columns of the spinal cord project ipsilaterally to the area postrema and bilaterally to a para-alar nucleus in the ventral periphery of the nucleus gracilis. Neurons in the area postrema project mainly inspilaterally to the dorsal and medial regions of the medial solitary nucleus. Neurons in the posterior half of the medical solitary nucleus project ipsilaterally to the lateral solitary nucleus, dorsal vagal nucleus, ambigus, retrofacial nucleus, and dorsal and lateral bulbar reticular formation. Projections to nuclei intercalatus and prepositus hypoglossi, bilaterally, and to the ipsilateral dorsal tegmental nucleus by way of the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus are also shown. No direct projections to the diencephalon are demonstrated. Control lesions in the dorsal column nuclei reveal projections to the contralateral inferior olive and thalamic reticular and ventrobasal nuclei, but not to the projection sites of the solitary nucleus. Evidence is given to support the hypothesis that ascening visceral pathways are interruped in the bulbar reticular formation and dorsal tegmental nucleus before reaching the diencephalon. Correlations are suggested with functional aspects of the central autonomic and reticular activating systems.
The cells of origin of the afferent connection of the amygdala in the rhesus and squirrel monkeys were analyzed by means of the retrograde axonal transport of the enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRP) injected into various quadrants of the amygdala. Tabulation of the relative numbers of HRP labeled cells found in each brain section through various nuclei in a series of injected brains revealed several patterns of ipsilateral subcortical nuclear connections with the amygdala. The dorsal thalamic nuclei most consistently exhibiting large numbers of labeled cells in all experiments were the ipsilateral halves of the midline nucleus paraventricularis thalami and both the parvo‐ and magnocellular parts of the nucleus subparafascicularis. All of the subdivisions of the midline nucleus centralis complex (Olszewski, '52) exhibit HRP labeled cells in most cases. A cell group corresponding to the nucleus reuniens ventralis (Kuhlenbeck, '54) and one identified as the nucleus interventralis of Aronson and Papez ('34) also were found to contain labeled cells.
The largest populations of HRP labeled cells in the hypothalamus appear chiefly in the middle and posterior parts of the ipsilateral, lateral hypothalamic area in all cases and densely in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus only in cases with medial amygdalar quadrant injections. Scattered HRP positive cells frequently can be found in the supramammillary and dorsomedial nuclei and the posterior hypothalamic area. A limited but consistent number of labeled cells can be located in Tsai's ventral tegmental area. In the midbrain some labeled cells can be demonstrated in the rostral and caudal subdivisions of the nucleus linearis, and scattered groups of HRP positive cells can be localized in the dorsal raphe nucleus, chiefly on the side ipsilateral to the injection.
The most conspicuous subdiencephalic source of amygdalar afferent connections found in the present study is the pars lateralis of the nucleus parabrachialis located in the dorsolateral pontine tegmentum. Cells in this nucleus are heavily labeled in all cases, while only a few HRP positive cells are occasionally found in the pars medialis. A few labeled cells can be differentiated from pigmented cells in the locus coeruleus, but the labeling of cells scattered throughout the caudal half of the nucleus of the tractus solitarius and in a paravagal cell group is accepted with reservations because both cell groups frequently display endogenously pigmented cells in normal, non‐injected monkeys.
The report attempts to delineate certain residual learning capacities of H.M., a young man who became amnesic in 1953 following a bilateral removal in the hippocampal zone. In addition to being able to acquire new motor skills (CORKIN [2]), this patient shows some evidence of perceptual learning. He also achieves some retention of very simple visual and tactual mazes in which the sequence of required turns is short enough to fit into his immediate memory span; even then, the rate of acquisition is extremely slow. These vestigial abilies, which have their occasional parallels in the patient's everyday life, are assessed against the background of his continuing profound amnesia for most on-going events, an amnesia that persists in spite of above-average intelligence and superior performance on many perceptual tasks.
The present study is concerned with identifying brain mechanisms underlying a basic mammalian vocalization known as the isolation call. The call serves to reestablish contact of separated individuals. Adult squirrel monkeys were used as experimental subjects because the isolation call in these animals has been shown to be stable, well-defined, and readily elicited under experimental conditions. Bilateral, symmetrical electrocoagulations in certain parts of the tegmentum and core gray matter of the thalamus and midbrain variously altered the character and production of isolation calls, but had no apparent effect on other vocalizations. In respective cases the changes were characterized by: (1) reduction in number of calls; (2) calls with abnormal structure; and (3) calls of infantile character. As opposed to earlier investigations on mammals, the present study has shown that damage to certain brain structures may not only affect the production of a vocalization but also its physical characteristics.
The ascending monoamine pathways in the rat brain are demonstrated by the pile up of fluorescent material occurring in the axons after various types of lesions. The anatomy of the pathways is outlined in drawings of frontal sections of the brain and the origin and termination of several pathways is determined by studying the anterograde and retrograde degeneration occurring after well localised lesions. It is possible to separate the ascending NA pathways into a dorsal and a ventral bundle of axons. The dorsal bundle innervates the cortex and the hippocampus and the ventral bundle supplies NA nerve terminals to the medulla, the pons, the mesencephalon and the diencephalon. The dorsal bundle is found to originate in the locus coeruleus. Lesions of this nucleus abolish the nerve terminals in all cortical areas and in several other areas of the brain indicating a unique role for the locus coeruleus in influencing the activity of the entire brain. The 5-HT pathways have a distribution similar to the ventral NA pathyway. The course of the nigro-striatal and the meso-limbic DA pathways is presented in detail.
An autoradiographic study of the subcortical projections of the rat hippocampal formation shows that the efferent fibers of the hippocampus proper (fields CA1-4 OF Ammon's horn) do not project to the hypothalamus but are confined to the precommissural fornix, ending primarily in the septum. The fibers that are distributed by way of the fornix system to the hypothalamus (principally the arcuate-ventromedial region and the mammillary nuclei) and the anterior thalamus arise from the subicular region of the cerebral cortex (that is, the subiculum, presubiculum, and parasubiculum).
The organization of the brainstem serotonin neuron projection to the hippocampal formation was analyzed in the rat. This projection arises in the raphe nuclei of the midbrain. Following destruction of the midbrain raphe nuclei, chiefly nucleus centralis superior, there is a 72% decrease in hippocampal serotonin content. Injection of tritiated amino acid into the midbrain raphe nuclei results in transport of tritiated protein to the hippocampal formation and this transport is blocked in animals pretreated by intraventricular administration of 5,6-dihydroxytryptamine (5,6-DHT). Autoradiographic analysis indicates that the transport reaches the hippocampal formation primarily via two major pathways, the cingulum and the fornix. Cingulum fibers terminate predominantly in the dorsal hippocampus whereas the fornix distributes throughout the entire hippocampal formation. Some fibers reach the ventral hippocampus from the entorhinal area. Within the hippocampus there is dense labeling in a restricted lamina of the CA1 stratum lacunosum-moleculare with moderate labeling in stratum radiatum. Stratum oriens is sparsely labeled in CA1 and moderately so in CA2 and CA3. Stratum radiatum and stratum lacunosum-moleculare are moderately densely labeled in CA2 and Ca3. The area dentata is sparsely to moderately labeled in the molecular layer and heavily labeled in a thin lamina of the hilar zone immediately beneath the granule cell layer. The remaining hilar zone is moderately labeled. All of the discrete labeling of the hippocampus and area dentata described above is absent in animals pretreated with 5,6-DHT. These observations indicate that serotonin neurons of the midbrain raphe provide a highly organized innervation of the hippocampal formation in the rat.
As part of an attempt to clarify the nature of inputs to the limbic cortex, the thalamic intralaminar and juxtalaminar nuclei were explored for unit responses to vagal volleys in awake, sitting squirrel monkeys. Vagal shocks elicited responses of a large percentage of units in the anterior medial, paracentral, lateral dorsal, and lateral, and medial dorsal nuclei, as well as in part of the ventral lateral nucleus adjacent to the paracentral. Responsive units showed either initial excitation or initial inhibition. As in the preceding study on the cingulate and supracingulate cortex, there were two main types of initially excited units: type 1 responded with a discharge of 1-3 spikes at relatively short and constant latencies, while type 2 units were characterized by a burst of 3-14 spikes at longer and more variable latencies. Although the findings were compatible with the hypothesis that the anterior and paracentral nuclei transmit vagal impulses to the cingulate and supracingulate cortex, an analysis of latencies suggested that a more rapidly conducting pathway(s) accounts for latencies as short as 12 msec of some cingulate units. Twenty-eight percent of 367 units in the medial dorsal nucleus responded to vagal volleys. This finding gives substantial support to the traditional view that the medial dorsal nucleus transmits interoceptive information to limbic and neocortical areas of the orbitofrontal region.
In this investigation the projections of the hippocampal formation to the septal area and hypothalamus were studied in the rat with the combined use of 3H-amino acid radioautography and horseradish peroxidase histochemistry. The results indicate that all of the fibers which project to the hypothalamus and the majority of fibers which project to the septum arise from the subicular cortex and not from hippocampal pyramidal cells. The projection to both of these areas are topographically organized along the longitudinal axis of the hippocaapal formation. Specifically, fibers from subicular cortical cells situated at the septal end of the hippocampal formation which project through the medial part of the dorsal fornix terminate in the dorsomedial quadrant of the lateral septal nucleus and in the dorsal portion of the pars posterior of the medial mammillary nucleus. Fibers from progressively more posteroventral levels of the hippocampal formation which project through more lateral portions of the dorsal fornix and fimbria terminate in progressively more lateral and ventral quadrants of the lateral septal nucleus and in progressively more ventral portions of the pars posterior. Concerning the specific origin of the fornix system, fibers from only the prosubiculum and subiculum project through both the pre- and postcommissural fornix. Hippocampal pyramidal cells from all CA fields have a restricted projection through the precommissural fornix and terminate in the caudal half of the septum while the presubiculum projects solely through the postcommissural fornix.
In a study of brain mechanisms underlying species-typical communication, systematic testing has been conducted on the effects of cerebral lesions on the mirror display of squirrel monkeys. The mirror display is a highly predictable variation of a naturally occurring display used by male squirrel monkeys in a show of aggression, in courtship and in greeting. Of the 5 features of the display, vocalization, thigh-spreading and forward thrusts of the erect phallus are the major and most regularly occurring manifestations, constituting the so-called trump display. Testing has been performed on more than 100 animals with lesions in various structures of the brain. The present report describes the positive effects of electro-coagulation of certain parts of the globus pallidus. Lesions of the medial segment have resulted in an enduring elimination or fragmentation of the trump display. Recovery of the display may occur with lesions predominantly involving the external segment, while destruction of the caudalmost pallidum is without effect. A variety of evidence indicates that the behavioral changes are not due to a deterioration of health, motor disabilities, seasonal factors or motivation. When weighed against the negative or transitory effects of lesions of numerous other structures of the brain, the present findings support the hypothesis that the striatal complex plays a basic role in the organized expression of species-typical behavior.
Topographical localization of parabrachial nucleus (PBN) neurons projecting directly to the thalamus or the amygdala was examined in the cat by the horseradish peroxidase (HRP) method. After HRP injection in the central nucleus of the amygdala, PBN neurons labeled with the enzyme were seen ipsilaterally in the ventral portion of the lateral PBN as well as in the medial PBN. When the HRP injections were centered on the parvocellular portion of the posteromedial ventral nucleus of the thalamus (VPMpc), HRP-labeled neurons were observed ipsilaterally in the dorsal portion of the lateral PBN as well as in the medial PBN. Within the medial PBN, the distribution of neurons projecting to the amygdala overlapped that of neurons projecting to VPMpc; the cell bodies of the former neurons, however, tended to be more elongated than the latter, and the mean of the average soma diameters of the former was significantly larger than the latter. On the other hand, in the lateral PBN no significant differences were noted between the means of the average soma diameters of neurons projecting to VPMpc and those projecting to the amygdala. The PBN neurons in the cat were presumed to transmit gustatory and general visceral information ipsilaterally to the thalamic taste region and the limbic areas in the basal forebrain.
In a comparative study of forebrain mechanisms of species-typical behavior, unilateral lesions were placed in the subpallial telencephalon of male green anolis lizards (Anolis carolinsis), in which there is an almost complete decussation of the optic nerve. Responses to a conspecific male antagonist in a territorial confrontation were then tested when the subject's vision was limited to an eye leading to either the normal or lesioned hemisphere. In lizards with lesions involving the paleostriatum and lateral forebrain bundle, there was an elimination of or marked deficit in the performance of the challenge display while signature displays and measures of general activity were not significantly affected. Lesions predominantly in anterior or posterior dorsal ventricular ridge resulted in no significant deficit in any behavioral measure.
The afferent and efferent connections of the rat's midline nucleus reunions thalami (reuniens) were studied by experiments using the methods of retrograde cell marking by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and anterograde fiber tracing by autoradiography. A microelectrophoretic deposit of tritiated amino acids in reuniens provided the first evidence of a direct thalamo‐hippocampal connection. Labeled reuniens efferents ascend to the genu of the corpus callosum and turn caudally in the cingulate fasciculus, from which fibers distribute to layer I of the anterior medial, cingulate, and retrosplenial cortices. A longer component of this system curves around the callosal splenium and forms a massive rostrally directed fiber sheet that innervates entorhinal and parahippocampal areas and Ammon's horn. Entorhinal afferents are localized to layers I and III, whereas the hippocampal afferent plexus is remarkably restricted to the stratum lacunosum‐moleculare of the CA1 field and the corresponding stratum of the ventral subiculum.
Reuniens projects more sparsely and diffusely to many subcortical structures, a number of which lie in the limbic domain: the anterior olfactory nucleus, nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle, amygdala, claustrum, septum, preoptic area, medial and lateral hypothalamic regions, deep portions of the pretectum and superior colliculus, rostral levels of the ventral tegmental area and central gray substance and, perhaps, the median eminence.
The efferent connections of reuniens were examined with HRP. HRP deposited in the nucleus labeled small to moderate numbers of neurons in many structures extending from the frontal cortex to caudal midbrain levels. The appearance of cell labeling in regions projected upon by reuniens suggests a reciprocity of connections between it and the medial cortex, septum, preoptic area, amygdala, medial and lateral hypothalamic regions, ventral tegmental area, central gray substance, pretectum, superior colliculus and the subiculum. Cell labeling in regions not receiving its efferents – the ventral thalamus, midbrain tegmentum, mesencephalic raphe, and parabrachial nuclei – may hold another clue to the future understanding of the role of the nucleus reuniens in limbic functions.
Ascending projections from the caudal (general-visceroceptive) part of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) were studied experimentally in the rat by the aid of the anterograde autoradiographic and the retrograde horseradish peroxidase (HRP) tracer techniques. Microelectrophoretic deposits of tritiated proline and leucine which involved the caudal part of the NTS, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (dmX), and portions of the hypoglossal nucleus, nucleus intercalatus and/or nucleus gracilis were found to label ascending fibers that, besides going to numerous brain stem territories that included prominently the parabrachial area, could also be traced to several forebrain structures, namely, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), the paraventricular (PA), dorsomedial (HDM) and arcuate (ARC) nuclei of the hypothalamus, the central nucleus of the amygdaloid complex (AC), the medial preoptic area (PM) and the periventricular nucleus of the thalamus (TPV). Smaller isotope injections almost completely confined to the NTS and dmX resulted in lighter labeling of a similar set of parabrachial and forebrain projections, whereas in another case, in which the deposit was almost exclusively limited to the nucleus gracilis, no label was seen in the aforementioned structures. In another series of experiments, aimed at further localizing the neurons of origin of the prosencephalic projections under consideration, small microelectrophoretic HRP injections confined almost totally to BST, PA, HDM, AC, PM or TPV, as well as both small and large injections involving ARC, resulted in labeled neurons situated in the dorsal medullary region, mainly in the medial portion of the NTS at the level of and caudal to the area postrema.
The projections of a third order gustatory relay in the dorsal pons of rats have been traced using tritiated proline autoradiography and antidromic activation of pontine neurons from electrodes in the thalamus and amygdala. Labelled axons collect in the central tegmental tract and ascend to the thalamic taste area in the medial extension of the ventrobasal complex. The majority of the fibers remain ipsilateral, but a few cross in the rostral pons and midbrain. The largest crossing occurs at the level of the thalamic termination. Many fascicles of fibers continue rostrally by passing beneath the thalamic taste area, piercing the medial lemniscus, and spreading out along the dorsomedial corner of the internal capsule (IC). The terminal field at this level caps IC from the subthalamic nucleus down into the far-lateral hypothalamus. Labelled axons grandually penetrate through the internal capsule, and ramify throughout the underlying substantia innominata. This terminal zone extends laterally into the rostral end of the central nucleus of the amygdala, which is densely labelled to its caudal exremity. At the caudal end of the amygdala labelled fibers are visible in one component of the stria terminalis. These fibers can be followed over the dorsal thalamus into a smaller, but equally dense terminal area in the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. The electrophysiological data demonstrate that pontine gustatory units can be antidromically activated by electrodes located in or near the central nucleus of the amygdala. Since many of the same units can also be driven from the thalamic taste area, at least some of the axons traced autoradiographically probably convey gustatory information to the hypothalamus and amygdala.
This paper deals primarily with the effects of anterior and posterior hippocampal volleys on unit activity in the hypothalmus, preoptic region, and basal forebrain of awake, sitting squirrel monkeys. It includes additional observations on the effects of hippocampal seizures, as well as the responsiveness of units to visual, auditory, and somatic stimulation. Hippocampal volleys elicited responses in a significantly larger proportion of units in the basal forebrain and preoptic region than in the hypothalamus. Of a total population of 666 units, 22% were responsive, and of these more than 83% in each region showed initial excitation. The rest were initially inhibited. About 2/3 showed purely excitatory effects, while the response patterns of the remainder usually combined alternating phases of excitation and inhibition. These results were analyzed with respect to the spontaneous firing rate. 11 structures which contained units that regularly responded with latencies ranging from 9.5 to 12.5 msec have since been found in a neuroanatomical study to receive projections from the fornix. For the 3 regions combined, stimulation of the ipsilateral anterior hippocampus activated a significantly larger percentage of units than the posterior hippocampus. The discrepancy could not be explained by differences in the location of the stimulating electrodes. As in the case of hippocampal volleys, units were more commonly excited than inhibited during hippocampal afterdischarges. Units showing excitation during an afterdischarge usually became silent after the discharge, and vice versa. Such changes persisted for periods ranging from 50 sec to 11 min. Except for a few units which responded to auditory stimulation and 2 which were visually excited by an approaching object, the results of sensory stimulation were negative. The effects of hippocampal stimulation on unit activity are discussed in the light of current concepts of hippocampal function. Particular attention is called to the new electrophysiological and anatomical findings on the perifornical and preoptic areas.