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Some Behavioral Effects of the Physical Environment
Abstract
It was hypothesized that the physical environment elicits an emotional response, which then influences subsequent behaviors. Settings presented by photographic slides were first rated on their pleasantness, arousing quality, and dominance-eliciting quality. A separate sample of subjects was then asked to rate their desire to drink, smoke, affiliate, explore, and stay in those settings. As hypothesized, pleasure due to the setting increased affiliation, exploration, and staying. The familiar inverted-U hypothesis, that these three behaviors are all maximized at moderate levels of arousal, must be modified to include an interaction effect with pleasure: The optimum level of arousal is positively correlated with pleasure. It was found that dominance mediated the effect of the setting on affiliation and that smoking and drinking occurred while in a mood created by having been in undesirable settings. The results confirmed predictions based on a review of studies that used diverse methodologies, and thus indicated that slides provide a valid method of studying the effects of environments on behavior.
... Third, most studies have neglected to study dominance as an important emotional response, with a few exceptions (Lunardo & Mbengue, 2009;Ward & Barnes, 2001). This is partly due to an assertion by Russell and Mehrabian (1976) that both arousal and pleasure explain most of the variances and thus dominance is seen as redundant, which in turn results in insufficient empirical studies (Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn, & Nesdale, 1994). Previous studies thus have focused on identifying the relative impact of arousal and pleasure on behavioral measures. ...
... These three emotional reactions were considered in previous studies to be independent of each other across individuals (Donovan et al., 1994;Kuppens, 2008;Massara, Liu, & Melara, 2010;Menon & Kahn, 2002;Russell & Mehrabian, 1976). However, a few studies, if not many, have challenged this proposition and suggested that these affective reactions are interdependent. ...
... Pleasure is assumed to have a positive impact on behavior. Russell and Mehrabian (1976) defined dominance as the extent that a person feels powerful vis-à-vis the environment that surrounds him/her. According to them, a person feels dominant when he/she is able to influence or control over the situation he/she is in; he/she feels submissive when the environment influences him/her. ...
... They define it as feeling "unrestricted or free to act in a variety of ways" (Mehrabian and Russell 1974, p. 291). Put differently, perceived control represents the extent to which customers feel in control of their environment (Lunardo 2011;Lunardo and Mbengue 2009;Mehrabian and Russell 1974;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). Customers feel more (less) in control when they believe that they can exert more (less) influence over their environment (Lunardo 2011;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). ...
... Put differently, perceived control represents the extent to which customers feel in control of their environment (Lunardo 2011;Lunardo and Mbengue 2009;Mehrabian and Russell 1974;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). Customers feel more (less) in control when they believe that they can exert more (less) influence over their environment (Lunardo 2011;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). ...
Companies increasingly use personalization to offer a better experience to their customers. Online personalization enables them to learn from customers’ data and adapt their website content accordingly. Although customers may value personalization, it may also trigger privacy concerns. In this context, both regulators and firms need a better understanding of the process underlying the effect of personalization on privacy concerns, as well as the role of information transparency in this process. Drawing on signaling theory, the authors propose how perceived control may mediate the negative impact of personalization on privacy concerns and hypothesize that the interaction effect of personalization and information transparency depends on customer need for cognition. Findings from two experimental studies show that perceived control is lower on personalized websites than on nonpersonalized websites, which leads to privacy concerns. However, the presence of a transparency message can mitigate the negative effect of website personalization for customers who are in low need for cognition.
... They define it as feeling "unrestricted or free to act in a variety of ways" (Mehrabian and Russell 1974, p. 291). Put differently, perceived control represents the extent to which customers feel in control of their environment (Lunardo 2011;Lunardo and Mbengue 2009;Mehrabian and Russell 1974;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). Customers feel more (less) in control when they believe that they can exert more (less) influence over their environment (Lunardo 2011;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). ...
... Put differently, perceived control represents the extent to which customers feel in control of their environment (Lunardo 2011;Lunardo and Mbengue 2009;Mehrabian and Russell 1974;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). Customers feel more (less) in control when they believe that they can exert more (less) influence over their environment (Lunardo 2011;Russell and Mehrabian 1976). ...
Companies increasingly personalize their website content to offer an optimal online experience to their customers. Personalization enables them to automatically adapt their content based on customers’ data. Although customers may value personalization, they may also have negative responses to it, such as privacy concerns. In this context, companies expect that information transparency about data collection and use will help mitigate negative responses to personalization (Kim et al. 2018).Prior studies investigating the role of information transparency in the personalization process were mainly conducted in the advertising context. While some prior research found that information transparency may improve click-through rates of personalized ads (Aguirre et al. 2015) a recent research found that it may also decrease behavioral intentions depending on the type of data being collected to personalize content (Kim et al. 2018). We still have limited knowledge about how information transparency influences the effect of personalization on online customer experience. In addition, we still have limited knowledge about the influence of customer characteristics in the processing of transparency message.This research aims at investigating the backfire effects of personalization on online customer experience. It also aims at examining the role of information transparency and need for cognition in this process. Need for cognition has been identified as an important personality trait in the processing of messages (Cacioppo and Petty 1982; Sicilia and Ruiz 2010). The results of two experiments show that perceived control is lower on personalized websites and that this perceived loss of control triggers privacy concerns. However, the presence of information transparency can reduce these backfire effects depending on customer need for cognition.This research contributes to prior research on personalization and customer experience by further investigating the backfire effects of personalization and by providing a better understanding of the role of information and need for cognition in this process.KeywordsInformation transparencyNeed for cognitionOnline customer experiencePersonalization
... There is an increasing body of research, especially in the area of environmental psychology, that demonstrates how contact with natural environments can enhance positive affect (Russell & Mehrabian, 1976); reduce levels of stress (Baum, Singer, & Baum, 1982;Ulrich & Simons, 1986); improve parasympathetic nervous system functioning (Ulrich, Dimberg, & Driver, 1991); increase physical health (Reitman & Pokorny, 1974;Wright, 1983); promote more healthoriented behaviors (Russell & Mehrabian, 1976); reduce the length of hospital stays (Jerstad & Stelzer, 1973;Lowry, 1974;Ulrich, 1984); enhance selfconcept, self-esteem, and self-confidence (Wright, 1983); improve staff-patient relationships (Reitman & Pokorny, 1974;Ulrich, 1984); and benefit the treatment of the mentally ill (Levitt, 1991). ...
... There is an increasing body of research, especially in the area of environmental psychology, that demonstrates how contact with natural environments can enhance positive affect (Russell & Mehrabian, 1976); reduce levels of stress (Baum, Singer, & Baum, 1982;Ulrich & Simons, 1986); improve parasympathetic nervous system functioning (Ulrich, Dimberg, & Driver, 1991); increase physical health (Reitman & Pokorny, 1974;Wright, 1983); promote more healthoriented behaviors (Russell & Mehrabian, 1976); reduce the length of hospital stays (Jerstad & Stelzer, 1973;Lowry, 1974;Ulrich, 1984); enhance selfconcept, self-esteem, and self-confidence (Wright, 1983); improve staff-patient relationships (Reitman & Pokorny, 1974;Ulrich, 1984); and benefit the treatment of the mentally ill (Levitt, 1991). ...
... Perceived control was measured with Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) six-item semantic differential to assess a person's feeling of dominance (controlled ¼1/controlling¼7, influenced/influential , cared-for/in control, awed/important, submissive/dominant, guided/autonomous; Cronbach's a¼.82). The conceptualization of perceived control as a person's feeling of dominance in an environment was suggested by Russell and Mehrabian (1976) and has been used in several empirical studies (Hui and Bateson, 1991; Ward and Barnes, 2001). Customers' emotions were measured with items from the PANAS scale (Watson et al., 1988) rated on seven-point scales (where 1¼not at all and 7¼very much). ...
... Perceived control was measured with Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) six-item semantic differential to assess a person's feeling of dominance (controlled ¼1/controlling¼7, influenced/influential, cared-for/in control, awed/important, submissive/dominant, guided/autonomous; Cronbach's a¼.82). The conceptualization of perceived control as a person's feeling of dominance in an environment was suggested by Russell and Mehrabian (1976) and has been used in several empirical studies (Hui and Bateson, 1991;Ward and Barnes, 2001). ...
Recent empirical evidence shows that the effect of customer density in retail stores on customers’ emotions and behavioral responses follows an inverted U-shaped trend. Previous research identified perceived control as an important mediator that explains the downward slope in this trend. Yet, the processes that explain the upward slope in the relationship between customer density and shopper outcomes have not been studied. This study examines how perceived control mediates customer density effects across four levels of density in a retail setting. An experimental study shows that perceived control mediates both the negative effects of customer density on shoppers’ emotions in high-density situations and the positive effects of customer density in low-density situations. In addition, a three-path mediational chain consisting of perceived control and the emotions of joy, interest, nervousness and anger transfers these curvilinear effects of customer density to customers’ behavioral intentions.
... The influence of the store environment in shopping behaviour has been widely addressed in previous research. Donovan and Rossiter (1982) introduced the Mehrabian-Russell environmental psychology model based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm which measures the emotions produced by the shopping environment and their influence on consumers' approach and avoidance behaviours in terms of consumers' attitudes and intentions (Russell and Mehrabian, 1976). This model was expanded in later research to actual purchase behaviour demonstrating that the pleasure induced by store environments is a strong cause for spending extra time and extra money in the store (Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn and Nesdale, 1994). ...
... During arousal, a person will feel enthusiastic, alert, and active [23]. Based on Russell and Mehrabian [24], we can define dominance as the degree to which a person feels powerful regarding their environment. If he can control or influence the situation surrounding him, it makes him feel dominant [19]. ...
Social media has become a very commonplace way for many people to have social interactions. The role of social media has changed from what was originally only a way to bridge social interactions, to becoming a business tool in various industries, one of which is the tourism industry. The interaction between social media users can create new ways to increase public awareness of existing tourist objects. One way to achieve that goal is by utilizing social media influencers. This study aims to identify the factors that influence the intention of the followers to follow the travel recommendations given by the influencer. This study uses the theory of follower-influencer experience and the theory of emotional dimensions, as well as their effect on the level of commitment and intention to follow the recommendation. This research was conducted by distributing surveys through social media and we managed to obtain a total of 203 valid respondents. The results of the
study were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM), which showed that information
experience and homophily experience had a significant effect on pleasure, arousal, and dominance.
Pleasure and dominance have a significant effect on commitment, and commitment has a significant
effect on the intention to follow the recommendation.
... In psychology, novelty is the degree of contrast between current perception and past experiences (Jang & Feng, 2007, p. 582). With reference to the new and previously unrecognized features (Berlyne, 1971, p. 142), novelty is defined as unexpected, surprising, new and unknown (Russell and Mehrabian, 1976). In the tourism literature, novelty and novelty seeking have been examined as one of the main travel motives (Cohen 1972;Crompton, 1979;Lee & Crompton, 1992;Dann, 1981;Yuan & McDonald, 1990). ...
... It was hypothesized that the physical environment elicits an emotional response, which then influences subsequent behaviors (Russell & Mehrabian, 1976). In extracts of his PhD Thesis "Architecture, Urbanism, Design and Behavior", Lecton (2011) reported that in designing and constructing environments for work and living, professionals such as architects and planners must be involved in influencing human behavior in the environment. ...
The paper highlights how climate change, desertification, and other environmental factors have contributed to the escalating insecurity in northwestern Nigeria. He argues that the depletion of natural resources, such as water and grazing land, has led to increased competition between farmers and herders, which has resulted in clashes and violence. Additionally, he states that climate change has made it increasingly difficult for farmers to cultivate crops, further exacerbating the socio-economic challenges in the region. Furthermore, the author suggests that the government should prioritize measures to tackle environmental degradation and preserve natural resources in the affected areas as part of its efforts to address insecurity in northwestern Nigeria.
... The influence of the store environment in shopping behaviour has been widely addressed in previous research. Donovan and Rossiter (1982) introduced the Mehrabian-Russell environmental psychology model based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm which measures the emotions produced by the shopping environment and their influence on consumers' approach and avoidance behaviours in terms of consumers' attitudes and intentions (Russell and Mehrabian, 1976). This model was expanded in later research to actual purchase behaviour demonstrating that the pleasure induced by store environments is a strong cause for spending extra time and extra money in the store (Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn and Nesdale, 1994). ...
Flagship stores are luxury retailers' most prestigious market entry method and serve as impressive representations of their brand image. However, there is a lack of extant research investigating how the holistic experience created in luxury flagship stores has an effect on consumers' purchase behaviour. This study aims to fill this gap in the academic literature by using a qualitative methodology to explore how the atmospheric cues in luxury flagship stores influence consumers' impressions of the brand and, ultimately, their impulse and non-impulse purchase behaviour. The findings show that atmospheric cues and design features have a significant impact on the perceived brand image and on both impulse and non-impulse purchase behaviour. Furthermore, the results show that the most influential atmospheric cues on purchase behaviour are the customer service provided, followed by the product displays, the layout of the store and the design and experience of the fitting rooms.
... The results support that the three-factor structure of affective appraisal proposed in the present study is consistent with Mehrabian and Russell's PAD emotional state model (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Most prior studies have overlooked the importance of 'dominance' as an emotional response (Lunardo & Mbengue, 2009), likely due to Russell and Mehrabian's assumption that 'dominance' is superfluous because 'arousal' and 'pleasure' explain the differences between the majority of the variables (Russell & Mehrabian, 1976). In fact, this speculation has been shown to be insufficiently supported by empirical evidence (Donovan et al., 1994). ...
Communities generate stimuli that elicit emotional reactions from residents. The purpose of this research is to elicit resident perceptions of their community environments and to identify the set of key factors that are perceived as constituting this environment. These factors mainly refer to the outdoor environment, as many studies have found that indoor living conditions do not factor significantly into resident perceptions of their community environment. The method comprised a survey and analysis of 473 residents based in 5 communities in southern Taiwan. The results indicated a positive effect of the community environment on the affective appraisal of community residents. The results also indicated that both the material and perceptive environments should be considered when planning and creating happy communities. Impact of the context aspect was found to predominate when the effect sizes for the physical environment and service function aspects were similar. Green space, layout, aesthetics, and streetscape in the aspect of physical environment; and transport service, social welfare service, and recreational service in the aspect of service function were all correlated with affective appraisal. Effect sizes ranged from small to medium. Similarly, physical environment evaluation, social environment, and time in the aspect of context were all correlated with affective appraisal, with medium effect sizes. Furthermore, the four factors of layout, traffic function, social environment, and time respectively influenced the participants’ affective appraisals of pleasure, arousal, and control. These findings provide important new insights that urban and architectural professionals may use to create communities that are more livable and attractive for their residents.
... However, previous researchers have been reluctant to investigate dominance and other emotional responses. This research tradition stems from Russell and Mehrabian (1976), who suggest that arousal and pleasure explain most of the variances, and thus dominance is a redundant variable (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982). Including emotional responses other than pleasure and arousal may contribute to extending our knowledge in retail studies. ...
The present study deals with the S-O-R framework. The past five decades of research have successfully validated the S-O-R model in offline and online contexts. However, there is still room for improvement. In particular, hedonic aspects have been proposed as distinctive aspects to differentiate companies from their competitors. Previous researchers have (1) been somewhat reluctant to investigate dominance and other emotional responses, and (2) produced mixed results regarding the impact of atmospherics and emotional responses on behavior. Building on this tradition of research, this study investigates the S-O-R model by incorporating delight as an additional emotional response and tests the moderating effects of consumers' involvement and shopping environments (three-way interactional effects) in connection with the links among atmospherics, emotions, and intentions. The current findings demonstrate that the model fit better for low-involvement consumers than for high-involvement consumers. This was true for both offline and online environments. The results show that layout and information are two important factors in pleasing and arousing consumers,especially in the case of low-involvement consumers, and that delight is determined by both arousal and pleasure but is a determinant of both intention and word-of-mouth only for consumers with low involvement, whether they are in offline or online environments. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed in the conclusion. © 2015 Korean Scholars of Marketing Science. All rights reserved.
... Aesthetic formality has a significant and positive influence on aesthetic appeal. Russell and Mehrabian [38], and Russell et al. [39], have found that both arousal and pleasure can explain most of the variances of emotions and the dominance can be seen as redundant in a sense. Thus, the dominance was not considered in this study. ...
... The second type of study uses photographs to investigate the effects of different scenes on cognition and emotions (Coughlin & Goldstien 1970;Shafer & Richards 1974;Zube et al. 1974;Sorte 1975;Russell & Mehrabian 1976). For example, in a comparison of videos of different roadside corridors on a virtual drive to work, the urban drive was more stressful and drives through nature were more protective against stresses that subsequently arose during the working day (Parsons et al. 1998). ...
Mental ill-health, obesity, physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease are all on the increase, along with a growing trend towards urbanised living. However, exposure to nature and greenspace positively affects health and well-being. Thus, some of these health challenges could be addressed by providing accessible urban and rural spaces for recreation and interaction with nature, also termed 'green exercise'. Engaging in green exercise activities has both direct and indirect health benefits. Direct benefits include both mental and physiological health gains. Green exercise improves self-esteem and mood, facilitates feelings of relaxation and enhances happiness. It also reduces blood pressure, heart rate, stress biomarkers, Body Mass Index (BMI), risks of all cause and circulatory disease mortality and improves immune function. The restorative function of nature, its aesthetic appeal and provision as a setting for green exercise also facilitates social contact, representing an indirect health benefit. A number of different approaches have been shown to facilitate green exercise behaviour and thus have both direct and indirect benefits on health and social care. These include 'green exercise therapy' for vulnerable groups; introducing green education and different green exercise experiences at a young age; and encouraging green design to ensure maximal opportunities for green exercise. Evidence suggests that facilitated green exercise activities may have therapeutic applications, which may play a key role in managing and supporting recovery from mental ill-health. Experience of natural environments during childhood impacts upon adult behaviour. Therefore, increasing ecological knowledge in younger generations could well provide a means of heightening the interest of young people in their local environment and increasing outdoor engagement and green exercise activities throughout adulthood. Incorporating greenspaces into landscapes can also facilitate opportunities for green exercise and simply having access to green views can create a greater perceived level of restoration than no view or a view of a brick wall. Thus, these findings suggest that attention could be given to developing the use of green exercise as a therapeutic intervention, that planners and architects should improve access to green space (green design), and that children should be encouraged to spend more time engaging with nature and given opportunities to learn in outdoor settings (green education). Some of the substantial mental health challenges facing society and physical challenges arising from modern diets and sedentary lifestyles could be addressed by increasing green exercise participation.
... The second type of study uses photographs to investigate the effects of different scenes on cognition and emotions (Coughlin & Goldstien 1970;Shafer & Richards 1974;Zube et al. 1974;Sorte 1975;Russell & Mehrabian 1976). For example, in a comparison of videos of different roadside corridors on a virtual drive to work, the urban drive was more stressful and drives through nature were more protective against stresses that subsequently arose during the working day (Parsons et al. 1998). ...
... The present study aimed to focus on the relation between the environmental aesthetic variables and expected house prices (sale or rental) ''directly'' and attempted to understand how people's price estimations vary for aesthetically pleasing and unpleasing environments. Previous studies on environmental aesthetics mostly used real photographs or computer-simulated images (Shafer and Richards 1974;Zube et al. 1975;Russell and Mehrabian 1976;Coughlin and Goldstein, 1970;Nasar 1983Nasar , 1989Fenton 1992;Nasar et al. 1992;Nasar 1992b, c;Hanyu 1997Hanyu , 2000Riccardo et al. 2012). In parallel, computer-simulated images were used to simulate real environments in this study. ...
Previous studies on house prices tend to focus on parameters such as location, size and view. Such studies ignored the influence of environmental aesthetics on house prices. Considering the scientific evidence that showed a significant effect of environmental aesthetic on people’s environmental preference and behaviour, this study aims to investigate the influence of environmental aesthetic on estimated house prices. Twelve computer-simulated residential environments were created. Computer-simulated images vary on three categories to manipulate complexity and coherence along a street: (1) building location (attached, detached and both), (2) building height (same and different) and (3) building setback (same and different). Forty-seven university students viewed the computer-simulated environments and answered questions to evaluate aesthetic and economic values of each street. For the aesthetic value, participants evaluated the extent to which the environment is arousing, pleasant, exciting, relaxing, complex, coherent and safe. For the economic value, participants estimated market price (for sale and for rent) of a specific apartment on a computer simulation of a residential street. Results showed that estimated sale price was influenced by excitement, coherence and pleasantness; estimated rental price was influenced by complexity, arousal, coherence and pleasantness. This study aimed to pave the way for such studies by introducing an inspiring methodology and highlighting the importance of environmental aesthetics on house prices. Moreover, the findings have applied value for planners, urban designers and real estate agents.
... However, only a few studies have analysed the effect of dominance as an important emotional response (e.g. Ward & Barnes, 2001;Lunardo & Mbengue, 2009). This may be influenced by the initial findings of Russell and Mehrabian (1976), who consider both arousal and pleasure as explaining most of the variances in environmental responses. Nevertheless, the current study analyses the effect of website stimuli on three emotional responses: pleasure, arousal and dominance. ...
This study investigates the effect of website stimuli on positive attitude and intentions to visit and recommend, through three emotional responses (pleasure, arousal and dominance). The model was tested regarding three island-related websites. Findings show the role of emotions as mediators between website quality attitude and intentions. Arousal and dominance are revealed to be more important in the formation of a positive attitude than pleasure. Visual appeal and ease of use, followed by information, seem to be the most important components in forming a perception of the islands' website quality. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... However, previous researchers have been reluctant to investigate dominance and other emotional responses. This research tradition stems from Russell and Mehrabian (1976), who suggest that arousal and pleasure explain most of the variances, and thus dominance is a redundant variable (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982). Including emotional responses other than pleasure and arousal may contribute to extending our knowledge in retail studies. ...
The present study deals with the S-O-R framework. The past five decades of research
have successfully validated the S-O-R model in offline and online contexts. However,
there is still room for improvement. In particular, hedonic aspects have been proposed as
distinctive aspects to differentiate companies fromtheir competitors. Previous researchers
have (1) been somewhat reluctant to investigate dominance and other emotional
responses, and (2) produced mixed results regarding the impact of atmospherics and
emotional responses on behavior. Building on this tradition of research, this study
investigates the S-O-R model by incorporating delight as an additional emotional
response and tests the moderating effects of consumers’ involvement and shopping
environments (three-way interactional effects) in connection with the links among
atmospherics, emotions, and intentions. The current findings demonstrate that the model
fit better for low-involvement consumers than for high-involvement consumers. This was
true for both offline and online environments. The results show that layout and
information are two important factors in pleasing and arousing consumers, especially in
the case of low-involvement consumers, and that delight is determined by both arousal
and pleasure but is a determinant of both intention and word-of-mouth only for consumers
with low involvement, whether they are in offline or online environments. The theoretical
and practical implications are discussed in the conclusion.
... Çevre psikolojisi alanında çalıĢmalar yapan araĢtırmacılar, mekânsal estetiğin nesnel olarak ölçülebilir olduğunu ileri sürmekte (Nasar, 1998; Ataöv, 1998) ve bunun için çoğunlukla yüz yüze anket yöntemini kullanmaktadır. Bu çalıĢmalarda fiziksel çevreler, genellikle fotoğraflanarak (Russell ve Mehrabian, 1976; Nasar, 1983), nadiren ise modellenerek (Nasar, 1992a ) değerlendiriciye gösterilmiĢ ve kiĢilerin bu fotoğrafları (veya modelleri) algısal, biçimsel ve sembolik değiĢkenler açısından, anlamsal farklılaĢma ölçeğini kullanarak, değerlendirmeleri istenmiĢtir. Bu çalıĢmada da benzer bir yöntem uygulanmıĢtır. ...
Housing has a heterogeneous nature to supply the human needs of sheltering, security, comfort, so-cialization, self-expression and ‘aesthetics’. Be-cause of this heterogeneous nature, the housing issue has been investigated in an interdisciplinary area by researchers who are specialized in urban design, economics, planning, and real estate mar-kets. When dealing with economic value of houses, re-searchers have been aiming to identify the factors (such as physical characteristics related to neigh-borhood and house) that affect house prices via hedonic price method. When dealing with aesthetic value of houses, re-searchers have been aiming to understand how formal (complexity, coherence) and symbolic (naturalness, openness, safety, upkeep, nuisance) variables affect people’s conceptual values (pleasantness, arousal, excitement, relaxing. However the relation between environmental aes-thetics and housing prices has been neglected. This study aims to merge these two separate liter-atures and investigate the impact of environmental aesthetics on housing prices using the hedonic price metod. In Karsiyaka, Izmir, a survey was conducted with 18 randomly selected real estate agents. With this survey, data related to sale and rental prices and physical characteristics of 48 rented and 52 sold apartments’ were collected. Then using the photographs of the buildings and their vicinity, an environmental aesthetic survey was prepared. Some apartments were in the same building. Thus, instead of 100 buildings, 85 were photo-graphed. 101 high school students evaluated the aesthetic quality of each building via those photograph. The students were asked to evaluate the exterior quali-ty of the building itself (pleasant, arousal, excited, complexity, the exterior quality of the building vicinity (pleasant, arousal, excited, relaxing, com-plexity, coherence, naturalness, openness, safety, upkeep, and nuisance), desirability, estimated price (sale and rental) and familiarity with build-ing itself and its vicinity. It was impossible for a student to evaluate 85 buildings for a diversity of aesthetic measures; each student evaluated 17 buildings which were selected with stratified random sampling method. The buildings were shown to participants in dif-ferent orders to minimize the order effect. The data derived from real estate agents and stu-dents were combined and analyzed with hedonic price model. This model was applied separately for rented and sold houses with four different functions (linear, log-linear, linear-log, log-log) and the model that gives the highest R² value was selected as ‘general model’. Then the aesthetic variables were eliminated from this general mod-el to form the ‘restricted model’. When restrict-ed model and the general model were compared via F test, the results showed that aesthetic vari-ables were important in explaining the variation in house prices (both sold and rental) signifi-cantly. This study indicates that environmental aesthetics shouldn’t be ignored in research on house prices. The methodology used in this study might inspire future research to bring together the two separat-ed (but also related) literatures; environmental aesthetics and house prices. A useful extension of this study might extend the sample size; apply the methodology in different regions and to different groups of houses. Per-haps, the impact of aesthetic variables on house prices changes by culture and economic status of potential buyers. Future studies might also investigate whether the value of aesthetic variables are more pronounced for higher value houses than lower value houses. The results should interest researchers from vari-ous disciplines including economics, real estate, planning and urban design. Keywords: Environmental aesthetics, house pric-es, hedonic price method.
... Many researchers claim that to separate cognitive and affective reactions will not work. Russell, Ward and Pratt (1981) state that affective meaning must be included inassessments of the environment Likewise, Russell and Mehrabian (1976) found that pleasure interacts with arousal in the appraisal of scenes. S. Kaplan (1987) discusses the theories proposing cognitive dimensions of landscape preference, such as complexity, coherence and mystery, all of which involve inference. ...
... Nos referimos al modelo Estímulo-Organismo-Respuesta deMehrabian y Russell (1974, 1976, también denominado modelo MR, o modelo SOR por sus siglas en inglés, Stimulus-Organism-Response. ...
Nature-guided therapy is about using the restorative and recuperative powers of nature to achieve clinical goals of health and well-being. It is grounded in a multi-disciplinary approach that includes anthropology, traditional medicines, environmental psychology, social geography, sociology, ecopsychology and psychobiology. Based on the application of nature-guided therapy in a case of depression this article examines some of the research into nature’s healing powers and the development of various ecopsychology approaches. Nature-guided therapy interventions, such as the Sensual Awareness Inventory, sensate focusing, nature-based assignments and nature-guided experiential learnings are illustrated through the case example. The evolution of the human species has been one of adaptation to the natural ecology. Some researchers refer to this as a ‘biological fit’. Because of this ‘fit’, nature holds a multitude of resources that are readily available to rapidly and effectively alter a person’s emotional state and psychophysiological functioning. This article is designed to provide some of the background for this approach, some of the therapeutic interventions that might be used in nature-guided therapy, and a case illustration of its application.
The studies on gathering the visual data of large environments that are not likely to be perceived by the individual at once, attempted to define urban experience of the observer as the cumulative effect of sequential scenes. This effect which is called as “the total visual quality” of the city emerges as the sum of all instant image frames gathered along certain movement axes.
In this paper, we attempted to define how the urban scenes change in the serial vision along the coastal route in Trabzon, Turkey. In this context, all changing scenes were captured and then they were evaluated out of 30 qualities chosen from the literature review by an expert group. As a result, Trabzon city coastline was found to be represented by a series of qualities which also define the total visual quality are consisted of Closure-Enclosure, Continuity-Caligraphy-Juxtaposition, Orientation-Change of level (elevation), Dominance-Landmark-Names and Meanings, Mystery-Discovery, Undulation-Deflection-Fluctuation.
Key Words: Visual quality, serial vision, kinesthetic perception, urban views.
The study of aesthetic experience may be approached from a number of viewpoints. A work of art is composed of a myriad of elements, any one of which may be examined with respect to its impact on aesthetic preference. A painting may be analyzed in terms of color, form, or subject matter: a story or novel in terms of style, plot, theme, or point of view; a song in terms of melody, rhythm, or harmonal structure, and so forth. The multiplicity of elements in a work of art, as well as the diversity among different art forms, would seem to make it difficult to identify general principles underlying all aesthetic experience. Berlyne (1971, 1974), however, has constructed a general theory of psychological aesthetics which conceptualizes all aesthetic experience, whether in response to visual art, literature, or music, as a unitary phenomenon. This theory is based not on the kinds of elements in a work, but on the degree of interdependence among these elements.
This chapter explores the connection between well-being and nature. The opening section discusses the current 'mismatch' in the relationship of humans with their natural environment, which has some implications for physical and emotional well-being. The succeeding section discusses the psychoevolutionary perspective of our species' development and the evolving concepts of health and well-being in relation to ecology. A detailed discussion on the physical, psychological, social, and spiritual benefits of interaction with nature is conducted and parallels are drawn with the correlates of happiness. Extensive research from different fields and related case studies are provided to corroborate the author's assertions. Succeeding sections tackle the implications of the studies for therapy, planning, and for promoting a lifestyle of well-being. The remainder of the chapter explores the universality of man's love for or enjoyment of nature and the related study of human interaction with animals.
With the increasing pace of globalization, hospitality firms are serving more and more international customers from distinctively different cultural backgrounds. In order to enhance intercultural consumption experiences, some hospitality firms have implemented two types of communication accommodation strategies: (a) match the cultural background of the service provider and the customer and/or (b) use the customer's native language to facilitate communications. This study aims to examine how such intercultural communication accommodations influence customers' service encounter experiences. A 4 (communication accommodation: language congruence, ethnic congruence, language and ethnic congruence, and no accommodation). ×. 2 (focus of communication accommodation: intercultural vs. interpersonal) factorial between-subject experimental design was employed using videotaped hotel check-in scenarios as experimental stimuli. The findings suggest that consumers respond to communication accommodation strategies with increased felt pleasure, arousal, and dominance. Furthermore, accommodation strategies contributed to the perceived symbolic value of the service encounter, especially when employees expressed the intercultural focus of communication accommodation practices. The study results provide insights for hospitality practitioners in managing service encounters in today's highly global world.
The inconsistent results about the influence of perceived control on consumer behavior
raised questions regarding its conceptualization and the need to consider desire for control
when modeling its influence. This paper presents a review of past research on perceived
control and offers a propositional agenda for further research.
Using the pleasure, arousal, and dominance (PAD) model, this study seeks to extend existing knowledge about consumers' activities in online retail environments by focusing on the largely ignored role of perceived dominance. In online environments, perceived dominance might influence purchasing intentions both directly and indirectly through pleasure. Furthermore, consumers' perceptions of Web site atmospherics (informativeness, navigational cues, perceived organization, and entertainment) likely affect two dimensions of emotion (perceived dominance and arousal). This study also investigates the moderating effects of situational involvement on the relationships among the PAD dimensions for online consumers. The results affirm that perceived dominance has direct effects on purchasing intentions, as well as indirect impacts through pleasure. The impact of perceived dominance on pleasure also is moderated by situational involvement. Whereas high task-relevant cues exert significant effects on perceived dominance, low task-relevant cues influence arousal. Therefore, this research shows that perceived dominance relates to online customers' purchasing intentions, which represents an extension of existing knowledge about the PAD model applied online; it also provides notable managerial implications for e-marketers.
There is little doubt that in contemporary industrial societies housing is multifaceted in character. It is viewed as an investment, a commodity, an element of the federal tax system, a design problem, a building, a set of buildings, a community asset, and so on. However, all housing is ultimately viewed by someone as a place for home As a “place” for home, it represents the core of the physical portion of the social-physical environment that is home.
Subjects viewed sixty color slides of either (1) nature with water, (2) nature dominated by vegetation, or (3) urban environments without water or vegetation. The information rates of the three slide samples were equivalent. Measurements were taken of the effects of the slide presentations on alpha amplitude, heart rate, and emotional states. Results revealed several significant differences as a function of environment, which together indicate that the two categories of nature views had more positive influences on psychophysiological states than the urban scenes. Alpha was significantly higher during the vegetation as opposed to urban slides; similarly, alpha was higher on the average when subjects viewed water rather than urban content. There was also a consistent pattern for nature, especially water, to have more positive influences on emotional states. A salient finding was that water, and to a lesser extent vegetation views, held attention and interest more effectively than the urban scenes. Implications of the findings for theory development in environmental aesthetics are discussed.
It was hypothesized that approach toward an environment and the desire to affiliate there are influenced by the emotion-eliciting quality of that environment. In two studies, undergraduates (N = 200, 310) rated these two behaviors in response to settings shown via color photographic slides. As predicted, approach toward the setting was determined by (a) a main effect of its pleasantness, (b) an interaction effect such that approach varied directly with arousing quality of the setting in pleasant settings, but inversely with arousing quality in unpleasant settings (with a significant reversal, however, from moderate to high arousal in unpleasant settings), and (c) a weak inverted-U relationship with arousing quality in neutrally pleasant-unpleasant settings such that approach was greatest in moderately arousing settings.
The relationship between the feelings of pleasure and arousal elicited by an environment and ratings of source credibility and attitude change was explored in a three by two design. Three levels of pleasure and two levels of arousal were combined factorially. 7he results suggest that the emotion-eliciting qualities of the environment can be used to predict both source credibility and attitude change. The results are discussed in relation to other findings in attitude research.
The present paper contains reliability and validity data on a new measure of child stimulus screening. "Stimulus screening" characterizes the degree to which an individual automatically and selectively responds to stimulation. Nonscreeners who are less selective process more information and are thus generally more arousable than screeners. A 46-item verbal questionnaire measure of child stimulus screening which employs mother reports was developed over the course of three studies. The scale, which is balanced for response bias with 23 positively worded and 23 negatively worded items, has exhibited a Kuder-Richardson formula 20 reliability coefficient of .92. Child stimulus screening scores based on the questionnaire yielded a statistically significant correlation with mother stimulus screening scores and one approaching significance with father stimulus screening scores. A fourth validational study showed that children who screened less as compared with those who screened more were more aroused and that they demanded and received more attention and care from their mothers—a finding that was interpreted in the context of their greater emotional sensitivity.
Considers the role of non-verbal communication in consumers’ evaluation of service encounters. Non-verbal communication has been extensively studied in the psychology and psychotherapy disciplines and has been shown to have a central effect on participants’ perceptions of an event. As services are essentially interpersonal interactions it follows that non-verbal communication will play a major part in service evaluation. Uses an experimental methodology based on video scenarios to demonstrate the effect of this type of communication on consumers. The results indicate significant differences in respondents’ reactions to the scenario according to the non-verbal behaviour of the service provider.
This study explored and tested a geographically based method to help planners and designers identify in situ the landscape preferences of people who reside in urban settlements. The method is based on a structured oral interview and on procedures that require residents to map their recall of voluntary approach and avoidance behaviors, sense experiences and places related to the ‘sense of place’. In a case study of Ashland, WI, undertaken in 1977, residents' preferences were assessed and groundwork for incorporating them into local landscape planning, design and management was laid.
Preference, affiliation, and work, three intercorrelated aspects of approach-avoidance to everyday environments, were investigated using slide stimuli. The slides were selected from a sample of 360 portraying a variety of indoor and outdoor settings, each of which had been rated by groups of subjects on pleasantness-unpleasantness and arousing quality. The 72 slides used represented a 3 Pleasantness-Unpleasantness X 3 Arousing Quality X 8 Replications design. Written responses of subjects to the slides were obtained using standardized measures of approach-avoidance: desire to seek, stay in, and explore the setting (preference), desire to interact socially in the setting (affiliation), and desire to work in the setting (work). All three approach behaviors were monotonically increasing functions of setting pleasantness. Desire to work was inversely related to increases in arousing quality of settings. Arousing quality and pleasantness interacted to determine the dependent measures of preference and affiliation. Preference was an increasing function of arousing quality in pleasant situations, an inverted U-shaped function of arousing quality in neutrally pleasant situations, and a Ushaped function of arousing quality in unpleasant situations. Affiliation was affected primarily by arousing quality in unpleasant situations. Here, it was a U-shaped function of arousing quality—a relationship that was more pronounced for the more arousable (nonscreening) subjects. For the preference and work measures, screening and pleasantness also interacted, showing that variations in pleasantness-unpleasantness had a more pronounced effect on the approach behaviors of nonscreeners than of screeners.
An orthogonal set of 20 places (shown via color photographs) was scaled in 7 studies with 69 18–47 yr old undergraduates and 134 students at the University of British Columbia, representing the major scaling techniques. In this way, dimensions of environmental meaning valid across methods could be explored, and a quantitative assessment could be made of the relationships among diverse environmental attributes to test whether environmental meaning can be represented as a small set of orthogonal dimensions. All 7 scalings (e.g., multidimensional scaling of judged dissimilarities between all possible pairs of environments, and a verbal scale of the information rate of each environment), despite apparent differences in methodology and in the labels for dimensions, shared a large proportion of variance. All scalings, except information rate, predicted behavior ratings well, and the perceived similarity among places could be interpreted in terms of almost any of the perceptual, cognitive, affective, and behavioral ratings. Environmental meaning thus cannot appropriately be represented as a single small set of orthogonal dimensions. Instead, it should be viewed as involving numerous environmental attributes related to perceptual, cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to places. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments were conducted concerning the effect of attention to positive or negative images of the physical environment on altruistic behavior: I. Some subjects listed and described aspects of their residential environments that were particularly pleasant while others described particularly unpleasant aspects. II. Subjects were exposed to slides of either attractive or unattractive outdoor environments. III. Subjects viewed slides of either attractive or unattractive environments while adopting an attentional set that focused only on positive or negative aspects of the slides. After these manipulations, subjects in each experiment encountered an ostensibly unrelated confederate who sought their assistance as a favor. Experiment I subjects who had thought about pleasant environments spent significantly more time helping than those who thought about unpleasant enviornments. Experiment II subjects who saw slides of attractive environments offered significantly more aid for a longer time period than subjects who saw slides of unattractive environments. Experiment III subjects who focused on positive aspects of attractive enviornments gave more help than subjects who focused on negative aspects of attractive environments, though overall differences were not significant. Attentional set produced no differential helping effects in subjects who had viewed unattractive environments. In all three experiments mood or affect was discussed as mediating the impact of environments on behavior.
Intercorrelations among measures of various reactions to a large number of situations were factor analyzed and yielded five factors and corresponding measures. Three of the factors are positively intercorrelated and constitute various aspects of approach-avoidance to a situation: approach to the setting itself; approach to tasks in the setting, or desire to work; and approach to persons in the setting, or desire to affiliate. The positive correlation of a fourth, desire to drink alcohol factor with the approach factors suggests that, at least for our sample of average (nonalcoholic) subjects, drinking is more likely to occur in more preferred places. In the context of earlier findings on alcohol use, these results show the decision to drink and the specific choice of a place to drink to be similarly motivated: the consumption of moderate doses of alcohol yields a more preferred emotional state, as does the choice of a preferred setting in which to drink. Additional results relating to characteristic individual reactions showed that Stimulus Screening is useful for assessing differences in individual reactions to unpreferred situations (nonscreeners approach, work, and affiliate less than screeners in such settings). Further, a new questionnaire measure of Arousal Seeking Tendency reported in this study is useful for assessing differences in individual reactions to preferred situations (high-arousal seekers approach, work, and affiliate more than low-arousal seekers in preferred settings).
This study investigates the relationship between perceived (un)control and consumer attributions following a service encounter. In addition to looking at the effects of consumer attributions on postconsumption behavior, our study also explores the key antecedent of consumer causal inferences. Results obtained confirm that level of uncontrol is positively related to the triggering of attributions. Moreover, the reported cause of a positive or negative service encounter is also associated with level of uncontrol experienced by the consumer.
In a well known study Maslow and Mintz (1956) showed an effect of environmental context on photograph rating tasks. Two replications were undertaken following experimental evidence indicating that the result might not replicate. The experiments both showed a significant difference in photograph rating scores between the room conditions, in the opposite direction to that of the Maslow and Mintz result. Various mood scaling data were obtained and room affective scalings did account for significant levels of variance in predicting the photograph rating scores. The results indicate that the influence of room aesthetic as scaled on the photograph rating scores is dependent upon a room aesthetic expectation effect.
Previous research examining stereotype dilution had illustrated the importance of task instructions (Neuberg & Fiske, 1987), outcome dependence (Erber & Fiske, 1984; Neuberg & Fiske, 1987), and information about the target individual (Krueger & Rothbart, 1988; Macrae et al., 1992). This paper presents two studies investigating the stability of an occupational stereotype under different environmental conditions. Specifically it examines the maintenance and dilution of stereotypical judgements about licensees (pub managers) amongst undergraduate students. The results of the first study provide evidence for a context-free stereotype about public house licenses. However, results from the second study suggest that this stereotype is influenced by environmental conditions. That is, subjects do not simply continue to stereotype regardless of context, rather, under certain environmental conditions they individuate and reduce the impact of their stereotypical judgements. Implications for stereotype research and the role of environmental variables are made.
Restrained drinking, a style of drinking control that is characterized by a psychological conflict between impulses to drink and effortful resistance to these impulses, may be an early diagnostic clue that intervention efforts are needed to prevent the development or worsening of alcohol problems. This study examined an important aspect of the drinking behavior of individuals with a restrained drinking style — that is, the role of differential responsiveness to external beverage preference cues. Fifty-nine social drinkers, classified on the basis of a pretest as restrained or unrestrained drinkers, were given access to brands of beer that had been identified through pretesting as preferred and nonpreferred for that individual. In the guise of a tasterating task, the level of consumption of each beverage was unobtrusively measured. Restrained drinkers showed heightened differential responsiveness to the external beverage preference cues, drinking significantly more of their preferred beers and similar amounts of their nonpreferred beers compared with unrestrained drinkers. This pattern of heightened preferential drinking was also individually associated with three separate measures of drinking experience: present habitual drinking level, lifetime amount of alcohol consumption, and variety of beer-testing experiences. However, differences in drinking experience did not seem to be responsible for the obtained relationship between drinking restraint and heightened differential responsiveness. Prevention efforts with those social drinkers who may be at increased risk for alcohol problems should consider the important role of heightened responsiveness to situational factors such as the availability of a preferred alcoholic beverage as stimuli for increased levels of consumption.
It is often assumed that the emotion-altering effects of drugs are the major reasons for their use and, more specifically, that drugs are used to compensate for undesired emotional states produced by various events and environments. The present paper explicitly states one version of this point of view, based on a descriptive system for emotional states and hypotheses regarding preferred and unpreferred emotional states. The emotional impact of various stimulant and depressant drugs is reviewed and the emotional impact of various types of environments is described. Also, the emotional predispositions associated with personality (temperament) are noted. Finally, specific hypotheses are derived to show which drugs are most likely to be used in different, environmentally induced or temperament-associated, emotional states.
For most of human history, we have lived our daily lives in a close relationship with the land. Yet now, for the first time, more people are living in urban rather than rural areas, bringing about an estrangement. This book, by acclaimed author Jules Pretty, is fundamentally about our relationship with nature, animals and places. A series of interlinked essays leads readers on a voyage that weaves through the themes of connection and estrangement between humans and nature. The journey shows how our modern lifestyles and economies would need six or eight Earths if the entire world?s population adopted our profligate ways. Pretty shows that we are rendering our own world inhospitable and so risk losing what it means to be human: unless we make substantial changes, Gaia threatens to become Grendel. Ultimately, however, the book offers glimpses of an optimistic future for humanity, in the very face of climate change and pending global environmental catastrophe.
The present study explored effects of emotional states on alcohol use. The three orthogonal dimensions of pleasure-displeasure, level of arousal, and dominance-submissiveness, which are necessary and sufficient to describe and measure any emotional state, were used as independent factors. Reports of amounts of beer, liquor, and wine consumption were the dependent measures. Confirming earlier findings, wine consumption was not a consistent part of the over-all pattern of drinking habits; wine drinking seems to have a distinctive psychological function in contrast to beer and liquor consumption which historically have been a more stable part of alcohol use in the U.S. Almost identical complex patterns of findings were obtained for beer and liquor use. For pleasant emotional states, reported alcohol consumption was greater when subjects felt dominant and aroused (elated, excited) than when they felt dominant and unaroused (relaxed) or submissive and aroused (impressed). For unpleasant emotional states, alcoh...
Two hundred college student alcohol and marijuana users rated their desire to drink alcohol and desire to smoke marijuana in or after different settings shown via color photographic slides. Contrary to the compensation hypothesis (that these drugs are used to escape from unpleasant circumstances), desire for both alcohol and marijuana was greater both in and after more pleasant settings than unpleasant ones. These results were more consistent with an amplification hypothesis, that alcohol and marijuana intensify emotions already present.
Life changes were rated for their arousing quality and pleasantness-unpleasantness. Number of life changes and arousing quality of life changes correlated .92 and both were positively related to a composite measure of physical, psychosomatic, and psychological symptoms, incidence of accidents, and alcohol use. Nonscreeners, i.e., more arousable persons, experienced more illnesses, as did females who are generally more arousable than males. More dominant persons had more accidents. Tests of interactions among the independent variables yielded significant effects for the composite measure of illness and for accidents but not for alcohol use. The combination of nonscreening, i.e., arousable temperament, and arousing life changes was particularly detrimental to health. Also, a pleasant temperament helped alleviate the detrimental effect of unpleasant life changes on health. The hypothesized adverse effect of unpleasant and arousing life changes was obtained for the accident rates of nonscreeners but not of screeners. Thus, the interactive contribution of displeasure with high arousal was significant only when extremely high arousal resulted from the combination of arousing conditions and an arousable temperament. Finally, an interaction of stimulus screening × trait dominance showed dominant nonscreeners to be more accident prone than submissive nonscreeners.
Examined human interpersonal affective behavior during exposure to conditions of high population density and high temperature with 121 male and female undergraduates. Repression-Sensitization scale, Mood Adjective Check List, and Interpersonal Judgment Scale measures of liking or disliking another person were found to be more negative than during exposure to comfortable temperatures and low population density. Additional affective variables were also negatively influenced by temperature and density manipulations. Results parallel those in the animal literature reflecting deterioration of social relations under conditions of overcrowding and high temperature. Findings are discussed in the context of current population trends and other environmental conditions. (24 ref.)
264 adjectives selected in the author's previous research as spanning the domain of feelings were scaled by the individual differences multidimensional scaling method, using the similarities judgments of 762 college students from 4 universities. Ss were heterogeneous with respect to race, sex, and grade. Adjectives were scaled in partitions of 20 within 2 independent replications, permitting estimates of reliability. 3 dimensions were found and interpreted as pleasantness-unpleasantness, level of activation, and level of aggression. They accounted for 61, 21, and 18% of the total variance of the scale, respectively, with reliabilities of .91, .63, and .36. Moderately large individual differences in the perception of feelings were also found. Multivariate tests of the effects of race, sex, and grade on S weights reveals a significant effect for race. (35 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several topics in the area of varied experience and its consequence for the organism are covered in the book's 15 chapters. 3 chapters ("The Forms of Varied Experience," A Conceptual Framework," and "An Appraisal of the Proposed Conceptual Framework") are under the joint authorship of Fiske and Maddi. 2 chapters ("Effects of Monotonous and Restricted Stimulation" and "The Inherent Variability of Behavior") are by Fiske, and 2 are by Maddi ("Exploratory Behavior and Variation-Seeking in Man" and "Unexpectedness, Affective Tone, and Behavior"). The remaining chapters were contributed by 9 other authors: "Stimulation as a Requirement for Growth and Function in Behavioral Development" by Austin H. Riesen; "Early Environmental Stimulation" by William R. Thompson and Theodore Schaefer, Jr.; "Behavioral, Subjective, and Physiological Aspects of Drowsiness and Sleep" by Joe Kamiya; "An Analysis of Exploratory and Play Behavior in Animals" by W. I. Welker; "Alternation Behavior" by William N. Dember; "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence" by Robert W. White; "Complexity-Simplicity as a Personality Variable in Cognitive and Preferential Behavior" by James Bieri; and "Beauty: Pattern and Change" by John R. Platt. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the influence of ambient effective temperature on interpersonal attraction of 40 undergraduates using 2 levels of effective temperature combined factorially with 2 levels of attitude similarity. Attraction was found to be negatively related (p < .04) to effective temperature and positively related (p < .001) to attitude similarity. Also included as dependent variables were several measures of affective feelings which were found to be positively related to attraction responses but negatively influenced by effective temperature. In combination, 2 stimulus variables and 2 affective response variables were highly related (p < .001) to attraction responses. Results are discussed from the standpoint of an affective model of interpersonal evaluative behavior and with respect to the ubiquitous potential influence of effective temperature on affective behaviors. (19 ref.)
Exploration, manipulation, and curiosity are classified as attention. Experimental analysis of both temporal and spatial change in stimulation in arousing attention shows a common psychological basis, change or discrepancy, which can possibly be interpreted and measured in Coombsian terminology. On a molar level conditions are defined for the arousal and loss of attention. Fundamental to the molar analysis is " the ability of stimuli to increase the psychological complexity of the individual who perceives them." 20 references.
This experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that food, as an extraneous gratification accompanying exposure to a persuasive communication, will increase acceptance, even though the donor of the food is not the source of the communication and does not endorse it. 2 replicating experiments were carried out with 216 male college students. Both experiments used 3 groups of Ss, assigned on a random basis to the following conditions, which involved exposure to: (a) 4 persuasive communications while eating desirable food; (b) the same 4 communications with no food present; (c) no relevant communications (control condition). Both experiments provide confirmatory evidence, indicating that more opinion change tends to be elicited under conditions where the Ss are eating while reading the communications. The theoretical implications are discussed with respect to psychological processes involved in changing attitudes.
A series of figures differing in complexity were exposed to 44 nursing students. Ss were monitored for GSR and heart rate while they looked at each figure for as long as they wished. They then rated each figure on 20 semantic differential-type scales. The data were factor analyzed by the principal axis method, with communalities iterated by refactoring followed by varimax rotation. Four factors were extracted and the first three were identified as Osgood’s activity, evaluative, and potency factors. It was suggested that the activity factor relates to arousal-raising stimulus properties, while the evaluative factor relates to arousal-reducing or -restraining stimulus properties.
While activation has proved to be a very useful concept in understanding behavior, theoretical and practical problems concerning physiological measurement have reduced its utility. Controlled self-report is suggested as an alternative measurement form, and data from several studies are presented indicating the validity of the Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD-ACL), an objective self-report measure of transient levels of activation. Factor analytic studies yielded four AD-ACL factors representing different points on a hypothetical continuum. These factors correlated substantially with physiological variables and reflected significant activation changes as predicted from diurnal sleep-wakefulness variations and from an impending college examination. The relative merits of self-report and individual peripheral physiological measures in the assessment of activation are discussed.
It is held that many of the current problems in the field of motivation arise from the acceptance of a conceptual nervous system of an earlier day. To develop this thesis, the author examines the concept of motivation as it relates to the conceptual nervous systems of the period before 1930, of the period 10 years ago, and of today. It is shown that today's physiology provides common ground for communication among the differing conceptions of motivation. 51 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Written primarily for students and research workers in the area of the behavioral sciences, this book is meant to provide a text and comprehensive reference source on statistical principles underlying experimental design. Particular emphasis is given to those designs that are likely to prove useful in research in the behavioral sciences. The book primarily emphasizes the logical basis of principles underlying designs for experiments rather than mathematical derivations associated with relevant sampling distributions. The topics selected for inclusion are those covered in courses taught by the author during the past several years. Students in these courses have widely varying backgrounds in mathematics and come primarily from the fields of psychology, education, economics, sociology, and industrial engineering. It has been the intention of the author to keep the book at a readability level appropriate for students having a mathematical background equivalent to freshman college algebra. From experience with those sections of the book which have been used as text material in dittoed form, there is evidence to indicate that, in large measure, the desired readability level has been attained. Admittedly, however, there are some sections in the book where this readability goal has not been achieved. The first course in design, as taught by the author, has as a prerequisite a basic course in statistical inference. The contents of Chaps. 1 and 2 review the highlights of what is included in the prerequisite material. These chapters are not meant to provide the reader with a first exposure to these topics. They are intended to provide a review of terminology and notation for the concepts which are more fully developed in later chapters. By no means is all the material included in the book covered in a one semester course. In a course of this length, the author has included Chaps. 3, 4, parts of 5, 6, parts of 7, parts of 10, and parts of 11. Chapters 8 through 11 were written to be somewhat independent of each other. Hence one may read, with understanding, in these chapters without undue reference to material in the others. In general, the discussion of principles, interpretations of illustrative examples, and computational procedures are included in successive sections within the same chapter. However, to facilitate the use of the book as a reference source, this procedure is not followed in Chaps. 5 and 6. Basic principles associated with a large class of designs for factorial experiments are discussed in Chap. 5. Detailed illustrative examples of these designs are presented in Chap. 6. For teaching purposes, the author includes relevant material from Chap. 6 with the corresponding material in Chap. 5. Selected topics from Chaps. 7 through 11 have formed the basis for a second course in experimental design. Relatively complete tables for sampling distributions of statistics used in the analysis of experimental designs are included in the Appendix. Ample references to source materials having mathematical proofs for the principles stated in the text are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Identifies and measures relevant variables (e.g., color, heat, light, and sound) involved in environmental psychology and fits them into a systematic framework. It is proposed that environmental stimuli are linked to behavioral responses by the primary emotional responses of arousal, pleasure, and dominance. (31 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
AN ATTEMPT TO ARRIVE AT A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF REINFORCEMENT BY STUDYING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AROUSAL AND REINFORCEMENT. EFFECTS OF AROUSAL LEVEL AND THE INTERACTION OF AROUSAL LEVEL AND AROUSAL POTENTIAL ARE DISCUSSED USING FINDINGS FROM HUMAN AND ANIMAL, VERBAL LEARNING, AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES. PSYCHOPHYSICAL, ECOLOGICAL, AND COLLATIVE STIMULUS PROPERTIES ARE FOUND TO "AFFECT REWARD VALUE AND, MORE GENERALLY, REINFORCEMENT VALUE IN SIMILAR WAYS." AROUSAL REDUCTION IS REJECTED AS NECESSARY FOR PRODUCING REINFORCEMENT. (322 REF.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The topics that are to be treated in this book were unduly neglected by psychology for many years but are now beginning to come to the fore. My own researches into attention and exploratory behavior began in 1947, and at about the same time several other psychologists became independently impressed with the importance of these matters and started to study them experimentally. It is interesting that those were also the years when information theory was making its appearance and when the reticular formation of the brain stem was first attracting the notice of neurophysiologists. During the last ten years, the tempo of research into exploratory behavior and related phenomena has been steadily quickening. The book is prompted by the feeling that it is now time to pause and take stock: to review relevant data contributed by several different specialties, to consider what conclusions, whether firm or tentative, are justified at the present juncture, and to clarify what remains to be done. The primary aim of the book is, in fact, to raise problems. The book is intended as a contribution to behavior theory, i.e., to psychology conceived as a branch of science with the circumscribed objective of explaining and predicting behavior. But interest in attention and exploratory behavior and in other topics indissociably bound up with them, such as art, humor and thinking, has by no means been confined to professional psychologists. The book has two features that would have surprised me when I first set out to plan it. One is that it ends up sketching a highly modified form of drive-reduction theory. Drive-reduction theory has appeared more and more to be full of shortcomings, even for the phenomena that it was originally designed to handle. The second surprising feature is the prominence of neurophysiology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The literature on the relationship between alcohol and a drinker's emotions, personality, environmental conditions and behavior provides complementary sources of evidence, all suggesting that alcohol use is at least partially motivated by its emotion altering effects.
A theory of affiliation
- A Mehrabian
- S Ksionzky
Conditioning away social bias by the luncheon technique
- G H Razran
- GHS Razran
Operant studies of chronic alcoholism: Interaction of alcohol and alcoholics
- P E Nathan
- J S Brien
- L M Lowenstein
Nebraska symposium on motivation
- D E Berlyne
- DE Berlyne
Functions of varied experience
- D W- Fiske
- DW Fiske