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Pre-flight safety briefings, mood and information retention
Abstract
Mood is a moderating factor that is known to affect performance. For airlines, the delivery of the pre-flight safety briefing prior to a commercial flight is not only an opportunity to inform passengers about the safety features on-board the aircraft they are flying, but an opportunity to positively influence their mood, and hence performance in the unlikely event of an emergency. The present research examined whether indeed the pre-flight safety briefing could be used to positively impact passengers' mood. In addition, the present research examined whether the recall of key safety messages contained within the pre-flight safety briefing was influenced by the style of briefing. Eighty-two participants were recruited for the research and divided into three groups; each group exposed to a different pre-flight cabin safety briefing video (standard, humorous, movie theme). Mood was measured prior and post safety briefing. The results revealed that pre-flight safety briefing videos can be used to manipulate passengers' mood. Safety briefings that are humorous or use movie themes to model their briefing were found to positively affect mood. However, there was a trade-off between entertainment and education, the greater the entertainment value, the poorer the retention of key safety messages. The results of the research are discussed from both an applied and theoretical perspective.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and The Ergonomics Society. All rights reserved.
... (New York Magazine, 2019); (ALNNEWS, 2017); The other is due to the research showing that if the passengers get to engage more in the safety videos, they will better remember the safety instructions. (Tehrani & Molesworth, 2015) The studies and research on aviation videos so far were done under the concern -of whether the in-flight briefings were too entertaining. The videos that went through the transition were full of interesting elements that caught the viewer's eye which may distract them from remembering all the important information that needs to be delivered. ...
... Specifically, Molesworth has brought multiple results on this idea, exploring the relationship between entertainment factors and mood and retention, with some valuable statements, for example, entertainment positively affects mood but negatively on retention. (Molesworth, 2014;Molesworth et al., 2019;Tehrani & Molesworth, 2015) However, in terms of measuring the experience and its effect of watching in-flight safety videos, there are some limitations to these studies -that only the smallest element of video, humor, was used to examine the effect of entertainment, which excludes other possible features that might also cause the entertaining mood. In the media communication department, a long discussion on the cause of entertainment in broadcasts has been discussed, and certainly, there is more than humor to the reason why the viewer feels entertained when watching a media. ...
... Armstrong and Chung (2000) have also shown that retrieval cues such as location where information was learnt can facilitate in recall. In the present study, the research was conducted in a classroom which is consistent with other research in this area (Tehrani and Molesworth, 2015). What remains unknown, however is whether recall performance would be the same if the research was to be conducted in a simulator or aircraft; hence, another area for future research. ...
... For the aviation regulatory authorities, these results combined with a growing body of literature in this area (e.g., Molesworth and Burgess, 2013;Molesworth, 2014;Molesworth et al., 2016;Tehrani and Molesworth, 2015;Seneviratne and Molesworth, 2015) indicates more needs to be done to enhance passenger safety. While the regulators stipulate the topics/areas in which airlines need to brief their passengers prior to every commercial flight (FAA, 2014; Civil Aviation Safety Authority, 2009), which has remained largely unchanged since its introduction, they remain silent on the best method to ensure the content of the briefing remains memorably and importantly, applied in the event of an emergency. ...
Distractors have been shown to adversely impact individuals' ability to acquire target information. However, not all distractors are the same. Distractors that compete/interfere for the same cognitive resources as the target, are thought to be more detrimental to performance than those that do not compete for the same resources. The aim of the present research was to examine the effect of distractors on individuals' memory, namely recall of key safety messages presented in an airline's pre-flight safety briefing. In a laboratory experiment in which one-hundred and twenty-four participants watched one of four different videos, two of which were paired with a distractor task (grammatical reason and computation task), we identified the adverse effect of the distractor task on recall performance. Minor differences were noted between the two distractor task groups. These results suggest the effect of a distractor on performance may be explained, in general by the additional cognitive load imposed, as opposed to the more specific competition for the same cognitive resources. From an applied perspective, these results highlight the importance of limiting distractors when important information to be remembered is communicated.
... However, improvement in communicating safety information may not necessarily be conducive to improved retention of information. Tehrani and Molesworth (2015) studied the effects of mood as a moderating factor in terms of information retention of safety briefings. The intention of the study was to determine whether or not a preflight safety briefing had a positive impact on passenger mood, which was measured before and after the safety briefing. ...
... Thus, one explanation could be that these participants did not connect with humor; thus, the humor may have missed this target audience. Tehrani and Molesworth (2015) found that using a humor safety briefing video did not improve passenger attention, and humor may lower retention of safety information. Therefore, it is possible that the participants in Study 1 who watched the humorous video in the classroom did not pay attention to the flight demonstration video because they were not interested in the humorous video. ...
The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of the type of safety
demonstration on a passenger’s perception and attention. Furthermore, the study
examined if there are gender differences based on participant gender. The design
utilizes a two-study approach. Study 1 used Florida Tech College of Aeronautics
students. For Study 1, the design for Florida Tech Aeronautics students was a
mixed design using one within subjects variable and one between subjects variable.
This study was a nonrandomized, posttest-only design. Experimental conditions
were counterbalanced.
The ANOVA analysis of Study 1 demonstrated that there was no significant
interaction between gender and type of video on perception and attention. Besides,
the outcome of this study demonstrated that there was not a significant difference in
the flight demonstration video on passengers’ perception and attention. The result
of this study indicated that there was not a statistically significant difference in
perception and attention between genders. The ANOVA analysis for Study 2
showed that there was not a significant interaction between gender and type of
video on perception and attention. However, the data of this study showed that
iv
there was a significant difference in the flight demonstration video on
passengers’ perceptions and attention. Nevertheless, the ANOVA for Study 2
showed that there was no significant difference in perception and attention between
genders.
... According to ICAO, 'safety' is a state in which the level of risk that can cause personal injury or property loss is maintained below an acceptable level through risk management As the emphasis on the in-flight safety information was increasing, many research on its effects have been performed, and most of them focused on the effects on the cognition of in-flight safety information such as emotional responses to in-flight safety information image and perception of safety information education [14,19,20]. Similar to this, there have been researches on the effects of in-flight safety information contents on the behavioral intention, so the analysis on responses to the characteristics of in-flight safety information could attract more special attention. ...
This research aims to explore the effects that In-flight Safety Information Characteristics of airlines have on attitude, customer satisfaction, customer trust, and safety behavioral intentions. A total of 477 passengers with air travel experience were surveyed and responses were analyzed using a structural equation model. Among four in-flight safety information characteristics, reliability, informative, utility turned out to have positive effects on attitude, interactivity are not significant antecedents of attitude. In turn, Attitude had a positive effect on customer satisfaction, customer trust, and safety behavioral intentions. It is believed that this research can serve as a starting point for future studies on the diverse servicescapes of airport facilities. It is believed that this research can serve as an important basic data and strategy for securing passenger safety and efficient measures for airlines’ in-flight safety information operation.
... Previous research has shown comprehension levels of briefing cards are below both the International Organization for Standardization and American National Standards Institute criteria (Corbett & McLean, 2007;Corbett & McLean, 2008;Weed et al., 2013). Prior studies have also shown that safety briefing videos yielded low information retention (Seneviratne & Molesworth, 2015;Tehrani & Molesworth, 2015). ...
... The preflight safety briefing is not only an opportunity to educate passengers about the safety features of the aircraft in which they are flying, it is also an opportunity to positively affect individuals' mood (Tehrani & Molesworth, 2015). Mood is a long-lasting affective state (Russell, 2003), and sustained emotion has been linked to performance (Albarracin & Hart, 2011;Boldizsár, Soós, Whyte, & Hamar, 2016;Forgas, 1991;Pfaff, 2012). ...
Objective: The aim of this research was to examine how mode of delivery affects recall of key information presented in the preflight safety briefing as well as mood.
Background: Preflight safety briefings are required prior to every commercial flight. To meet this requirement, airlines often use prerecorded briefings, in the form of audio or video, which can sometimes be supplemented with a live demonstration.
Method: One hundred and sixty-two participants were randomly divided into 5 groups—control (no briefing), audio only, audio plus live demonstration, video only, and video plus live demonstration—and exposed to a prerecorded safety briefing. Recall performance in terms of key safety messages was analyzed postbriefing, as well as changes in mood from pre- to postbriefing.
Results: Recall of certain key safety information is related to both cabin crew members and the medium in which the safety material is delivered. Native English speakers also recalled more information than their non-native counterparts. Participants' mood was adversely affected in the video condition.
Conclusion: These results highlight the limitations associated with the way many airlines presently deliver their preflight safety briefing.
... Briefings of operators can support high levels of MA as well as peer checking (PC). Briefings are good to get everyone back on the same page, and to promote and ensure the coordinated effort in accomplishing the goal of safe operations of the NPP [19]. During the PC, two people self-check in parallel and agree on the correct action to be carried out on the appropriate component. ...
Control rooms in nuclear power plants are complex, collaborative working environments rife with potential for human error. As control rooms evolve from analog to digital interfaces, crew communication strategies must change as well. With the increase in automation and the use of digital HMIs, operators no longer rely on large annunciator panels, but have instead moved to personal sitting workstations. The technology shift causes operators to focus only on their screens, reducing interaction between crewmembers. Therefore, the collaboration and coordination of task demands requires greater attention to communication, vigilance and mutual awareness, or collective knowledge of the situation. This paper will investigate, through literature review and expert interviews the impact of the technology shift and identify significant and critical improvements that can be implemented in the main control rooms to increase safety and reliability.
Humor and fear appeals are widely employed in traditional communication for educational purposes, but their exploitation in animated pedagogical agents has been scarcely explored. We studied the use of humor and fear appeals by a three-dimensional animated pedagogical agent that taught the same procedural knowledge in four conditions: i) humor appeal, ii) fear appeal, iii) humor and fear appeal together, or iv) no emotion appeals. The agent delivered and illustrated the knowledge in an application for aviation safety education. The results of our study show that using the educational application had overall positive learning effects, regardless of the appeals used by the agent. Resort to humor and fear appeals by the agent affected instead participants? mood, liking of the application, and perception of the agent. The paper includes a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of using humor and fear appeals in animated pedagogical agents.
The effect of mood on performance in everyday situations is widely studied and the results commonly reveal a mood-congruence relationship. However, little is known about the effect of mood on performance in nonnormal situations such as those experienced during an unscheduled event. This study investigated whether induced mood (positive or negative) influenced performance during an unscheduled aircraft evacuation. Forty-five participants (15 female), with an average age of 21.90 (SD = 3.96) years, were randomly exposed to either positive or negative mood facilitation. Following this, all participants watched the same preflight safety video, and then had to conduct an unscheduled evacuation following a simulated water ditching. Participants exposed to a positive mood manipulator were found to commit fewer errors during the evacuation exercise and completed the evacuation in less than half of the time taken by participants who were exposed to a negative mood manipulator. In safety-critical environments such as aviation, these results highlight the advantages of creating an atmosphere or environment that induces positive moods.
Motivational and cognitive mediators of the reduced processing of persuasive messages shown by recipients in a positive mood were tested. Ss in positive or neutral moods read strong or weak counterattitudinal advocacies for either a limited time or for as long as they wanted. Under limited exposure conditions, neutral mood Ss showed attitude change indicative of systematic processing, whereas positive mood Ss showed no differentiation of strong and weak versions of the message. When message exposure was unlimited, positive mood Ss viewed the message longer than did neutral mood Ss and systematically processed it rather than relying on persuasion heuristics. These findings replicated with 2 manipulations of mood and 2 different attitude issues. We interpret the results as providing evidence that reduced cognitive capacity to process the message contributes to the decrements shown by positive mood Ss.
One strength of educational games stems from their potential to increase students’ motivation and engagement during educational tasks. However, game features may also detract from principle learning goals and interfere with students’ ability to master the target material. To assess the potential impact of game-based learning environments, in this study we examined motivation and learning for 84 high-school students across eight 1-hr sessions comparing 2 versions of a reading strategy tutoring system, an intelligent tutoring system (iSTART) and its game-based version (iSTART–ME). The results demonstrate equivalent target task performance (i.e., learning) across environments at pretest, posttest, and retention, but significantly higher levels of enjoyment and motivation for the game-based system. Analyses of performance across sessions reveal an initial decrease in performance followed by improvement within the game-based training condition. These results suggest possible constraints and benefits of game-based training, including time-scale effects. The findings from this study offer a potential explanation for some of the mixed findings within the literature and support the integration of game-based features within intelligent tutoring environments that require long-term interactions for students to develop skill mastery. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Many commercial aircraft passengers do not appear to attend to the safety information presentation given prior to takeoff. This presentation, in the form of the oral briefing given by the flight attendant and the safety information cards, supplies information the passenger may need to increase the probability of safely surviving an aircraft emergency. A questionnaire was administered to 255 respondents who had flown at least twice in the previous two years. A number of factors associated with the way the information is presented, the apparent response of other passengers to the presentation, perceived accident probability, relative adequacy of the oral briefing, and situational and demographic variables are related to whether the passenger reports attending or not attending to the safety presentation.
Affective influences abound in groups. In this article we propose an organizing model for understanding these affective influences and their effects on group life. We begin with individual-level affective characteristics that members bring to their groups: moods, emotions, sentiments, and emotional intelligence. These affective characteristics then combine to form a group's affective composition. We discuss explicit and implicit processes through which this affective combination occurs by examining the research on emotional contagion, entrainment, modeling, and the manipulation of affect. We also explore how elements of the affective context, such as organizationwide emotion norms and the group's particular emotional history, may serve to constrain or amplify group members' emotions. The outcome, group emotion, results from the combination of the group's affective composition and the affective context in which the group is behaving. Last, we focus on the important interaction between nonaffective factors and affective factors in group life and suggest a possible agenda for future research.
In this study, the impact of indoor color use, gender and age on mood and cognitive performance was examined. It was hypothesized that indoor color for decoration in stores is an effective source that may convey emotional meanings differentiated by gender, age, or both. In order to study this, a two-stage work was carried out in a café/restaurant, in which interior yellow walls were changed to violet. In both stages, furniture and decorations remained the same. Each appearance (yellow and violet) was tested by using visual attributes through the use of bipolar scales. Results from approximately 250 participants for each stage showed that violet interiors were more positively perceived when compared to yellow. Compared to females, male users evaluated the space more positively. In addition, young customers had a more positive tendency than older customers towards the perception of atmospheric attributes, including color of store interiors.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate relationships between mood, performance goals, and examination performance. We tested the notion that feelings of depressed mood are central to the overall mood response and influence the functional impact of anger and tension on performance (see Lane & Terry, 2000). Fifty undergraduate students completed a measure of anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension and vigour approximately 10 min before a practical physiology examination. Participants also indicated the grade set as a goal for the examination, and rated their confidence to achieve this goal. Depressed mood data were analysed by dichotomising scores into depressed mood group (n = 23) or no-depressive symptoms group (n = 27). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was adopted to explore the association between mood and performance and whether any differences exist between the depression and no-depression groups. Results indicated that only the anger-performance relationship differed between the depression and no-depression groups, whereby anger was associated with improved performance in the no-depression group. MANOVA results indicated that depressed mood was associated with a negative mood profile and low goal-confidence scores. Future research should investigate relationships between mood states using an ideographic design and explore links between variations in mood with more stable psychological factors such as emotional intelligence.
Although organisations often implement team-based structures to improve performance, such restructuring does not automatically ameliorate poor performance. The study in this article explores the relationship between team members' negative mood and team processes (social cohesion, workload sharing, team conflict) to determine if negative mood has a detrimental effect on team performance via team processes. Two hundred and forty one participants completed surveys and were involved in an independently rated performance task that was completed over eight weeks. Negative mood was found to influence team processes and as a consequence, team performance. The results, however, were not uniformly negative. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. Yes Yes
This study demonstrates the facilitating effect of positive mood on brand attitudes for readers of print advertising and explores contingencies and cognitive processes underlying that effect. Mood appears to affect the amount of total cognitive elaboration, bias the evaluation of argument quality, and peripherally affect brand attitudes. An experiment using print ads reveals that positive moods create less elaboration, which results in more heuristic processing and reduces the extent to which message evaluation--itself favorably influenced by positive moods--mediates brand attitudes. The effect is greater when the reader has a low need for cognition and when the ad contains weak message arguments. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.
Although organisations often implement team-based structures to improve performance, such restructuring does not automatically ameliorate poor performance. The study in this article explores the relationship between team members' negative mood and team processes (social cohesion, workload sharing, team conflict) to determine if negative mood has a detrimental effect on team performance via team processes. Two hundred and forty one participants completed surveys and were involved in an independently rated performance task that was completed over eight weeks. Negative mood was found to influence team processes and as a consequence, team performance. The results, however, were not uniformly negative. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
Passengers’ attention to the pre-flight safety briefing video prior to commercial flights has been described as poor, at best. This has resulted in some airlines employing creative marketing techniques such as using humour or celebrities to improve passenger’ attention to the material. The effectiveness of such techniques remains unknown and therefore was the main aim of the present research. 45 participants were randomly divided into three groups (standard safety video, humorous safety video, and celebrity safety video), and each group were asked to watch a series of videos with the target pre-flight safety briefing video embedded at the end of the video sequence. Eye gaze as well as key safety messages recalled were analysed and compared between groups. The results revealed that the humorous pre-flight safety briefing video to be the most effective in maintaining participants’ attention as well as recall of key safety messages. Alarmingly, recall of key safety messages between the three videos averaged fifty per cent, suggesting that the airlines and aviation authorities need to rethink the way they convey safety critical information to passengers.
The aim of this study was to test 3 different pre-flight safety videos (no humor, with humor, and use of a celebrity) in terms of their memorability for the key safety messages. A secondary aim was to test changes in participants’ mood as a result of being exposed to different safety videos. Sixty-one participants completed the study and were tested at 2 different intervals for recall of key safety messages (postvideo exposure and 2-hr follow-up), and at 3 different intervals for their mood (pre-exposure to video, postvideo, and 2-hr follow-up). The use of a celebrity or humor in the pre-flight safety video proved effective in terms of memory for key safety messages, and the video containing humor was the only video to positively influence individuals’ mood.
This paper makes a beginning in the comparison of real ads on source credibility in the context of the marketing of “fitness” related goods and services. While the results establish the greater credibility of celebrity endorsed ads vis à vis non-celebrity endorsed ads in the context of the test product, the authors nevertheless empirically substantiate that certain ad characteristics may have potential for use as screening items to aid in effecting choice between a celebrity and a non-celebrity endorser in other product/service contexts. Additional exploratory analyses and results are reported.
A new theoretical framework for work on anxiety and memory is proposed. Anxious subjects engage in task-irrelevant processing which preempts processing resources and some of the available capacity of working memory. They typically attempt to compensate for the adverse effects of this task-irrelevent processing on task performance by increased effort. It follows from these theoretical assumptions that anxiety will have differential effects on performance efficiency (i.e., the quality of performance) and on processing effectiveness (i.e., performance efficiency/effort). Anxiety will always reduce processing effectiveness, but will not impair performance efficiency if there is sufficient effort expenditure. Consequently, reliance on measures of performance efficiency will often obscure the detrimental effects of anxiety on processing effectiveness.
The airline industry relies on the implementation of Safety Management System (SMS) to integrate safety policies and augment safety performance at both organizational and individual levels. Although there are various degrees of SMS implementation in practice, a comprehensive scale measuring the essential dimensions of SMS is still lacking. This paper thus aims to develop an SMS measurement scale from the perspective of aviation experts and airline managers to evaluate the performance of company's safety management system, by adopting Schwab's (1980) three-stage scale development procedure. The results reveal a five-factor structure consisting of 23 items. The five factors include documentation and commands, safety promotion and training, executive management commitment, emergency preparedness and response plan and safety management policy. The implications of this SMS evaluation scale for practitioners and future research are discussed.
This study examined the effects of performing scrollable music selection tasks using a portable music player (iPod Touch™) on simulated driving performance and task-sharing strategies, as evidenced through eye glance behaviour and secondary task performance. A total of 37 drivers (18-48 yrs) completed the PC-based MUARC Driver Distraction Test (DDT) while performing music selection tasks on an iPod Touch. Drivers' eye glance behaviour was examined using faceLAB eye tracking equipment. Results revealed that performing music search tasks while driving increased the amount of time that drivers spent with their eyes off the roadway and decreased their ability to maintain a constant lane position and time headway from a lead vehicle. There was also evidence, however, that drivers attempted to regulate their behaviour when distracted by decreasing their speed and taking a large number of short glances towards the device. Overall, results suggest that performing music search tasks while driving is problematic and steps to prohibit this activity should be taken.
Considerable research evidence has indicated that humour has a positive impact on attention but no consensus is reached with regard to the persuasive effect of humour in advertising. Two hundred and fifty-four university students were recruited to watch five television commercials and respond to a structured questionnaire in this study. Results show that humour secures attention getting while disrupts message processing. Humour enhances message persuasiveness when the moderating variable need for cognition (NFC) is controlled. Participants with low NFC are easier to be persuaded by humorous commercials than participants with high NFC do. It is also found that repeated exposure to the same humorous commercial does not harm its persuasive effect. Male audiences regard humorous commercials as more persuasive while female audiences are the opposite. The study provides guidelines for advertisers/advertising practitioners who would like to employ humour in their communication at the same time it draws ethical concerns towards the increased application of entertainment-coated persuasion.
Two studies are reported that assessed the impact of positive moods on students' feelings of self-efficacy and math performance. In the first study, 32 black and Hispanic girls and boys in the third to fifth grades, who had been identified by teachers as at risk for school failure, and a control sample of normally achieving classmates served as subjects. In the second study, 15 males and 3 females in junior high and high school attending a private school for students with learning disabilities served as subjects. In both studies, students were randomly assigned to a positive-mood induction condition or a no-treatment control condition. Following this, they completed a measure of self-efficacy for math and were then given 5 minutes to do 50 math problems. In both studies, analyses of covariance using standardized math scores as the adjustor variable found that children in the positive-mood condition completed significantly more problems accurately than children in the no-treatment control condition. In addition, in the junior high and high school sample, students in the positive-mood induction condition expressed greater self-efficacy for math than students in the control condition. The results of these two studies raise many questions about the role of affect, positive and negative, in the learning and performance of students with learning disabilities that researchers and teachers might explore.
In phase 1 of the study subjects high and low in trait anxiety were exposed to a novel mood manipulation technique. This involved the presentation of either pleasant or unpleasant newspaper photographs. Subjects exposed to the positive and negative manipulations reported corresponding state anxiety decreases and increases respectively. In phase 2, subjects were required to recall specific personal memories to anxiety-related and happiness-related cue words. It was found that the high trait anxiety group were faster in response to anxiety-related as compared with happiness-related cue words. Retrieval latencies were not affected by type of cue word for the low trait group. Further analyses showed that the two groups differed in terms of their retrieval latencies rather than their retrieval strategies. Multiple regression analyses revealed that, whereas state anxiety is related to an enhanced retrieval of memories to anxiety-related cue words, depression is associated with a slowing of responses to happiness-related cue words. The content specificity hypothesis is offered as an explanation for this pattern of results.
Motivational and cognitive mediators of the reduced processing of persuasive messages shown by recipients in a positive mood were tested. Ss in positive or neutral moods read strong or weak counterattitudinal advocadies for either a limited time or for as long as they wanted. Under limited exposure conditions, neutral mood Ss showed attitude change indicative of systemic processing, whereas positive mood Ss showed no differentiation of strong and weak versions of the message. When message exposure was unlimited, positive mood Ss viewed the message longer than did neutral mood Ss and systematically processed it rather than relying on persuasion heuristics. These findings replicated with 2 manipulations of mood and 2 different attitude issues. We interpret the results as providing evidence that reduced cognitive capacity to process the message contributes to the decrements shown by positive mood Ss.
The feasibility of using a shorter version of the Profile of Mood States is examined. Eighty-three cancer patients were administered the Profile of Mood States. The scales' internal consistency (coefficient alpha) and the items' face validity were used as criteria for eliminating items. The number of items was reduced from 65 to 37 and the correlation coefficients between the short and original scales were all above .95, indicating the suitability of the short version for estimating the original mood scale scores in this population.
At the heart of emotion, mood, and any other emotionally charged event are states experienced as simply feeling good or bad, energized or enervated. These states--called core affect--influence reflexes, perception, cognition, and behavior and are influenced by many causes internal and external, but people have no direct access to these causal connections. Core affect can therefore be experienced as free-floating (mood) or can be attributed to some cause (and thereby begin an emotional episode). These basic processes spawn a broad framework that includes perception of the core-affect-altering properties of stimuli, motives, empathy, emotional meta-experience, and affect versus emotion regulation; it accounts for prototypical emotional episodes, such as fear and anger, as core affect attributed to something plus various nonemotional processes.
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