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Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature

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Poor sanitation is a major problem for health and water resources in many developing countries. Inexpensive but also attractive toilets could be a way to fight these problems. However, radical new ideas are needed to identify innovative solutions. Such novel ideas might be found by using systematic design methods that search nature for animals and plants that solve similar problems. The paper describes how four conceptual sanitation solutions for dry toilets solving problems with smell, cleaning and flies can be made in collaboration between a design engineer and a biologist using biomimetic design methods. The solutions have the potential to offer significant improvements compared to conventional non-water-based sanitation.
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Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
1
Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature
Torben Lenau
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark,
Building 426B, DK2800 Lyngby, Denmark,
Phone: +45 4525 4811
lenau@dtu.dk
www.polynet.dk/lenau
Thomas Hesselberg
Department of Zoology, University of Oxford,
Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom
thomas.hesselberg@zoo.ox.ac.uk
Abstract:
Poor sanitation is a major problem for health and water resources in many developing
countries. Inexpensive but also attractive toilets could be a way to fight these problems.
However radical new ideas are needed to identify innovative solutions. Such novel ideas
might be found by using systematic design methods that search nature for animals and
plants that solve similar problems. The paper describes how 4 conceptual sanitation
solutions for dry toilets solving problems with smell, cleaning and flies can be made in
collaboration between a design engineer and a biologist using biomimetic design
methods. The solutions have the potential to offer significant improvements compared
to conventional non-water based sanitation.
Keywords:
Biomimetic design, dry toilets, cleaning, flies, smell
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
2
Introduction
The motivation for focussing the present study on sanitation is the fact that it is a global
challenge with huge potential to improve life for many people. It is furthermore a
commercial market area that is still very open in many parts of the world making
radically new solutions more realistic. Sanitation is a major global problem since about
2.5 billion people lack improved sanitation and do not have access to toilets (WHO
2014). Diseases related to bad water, sanitation and hygiene habits cause the death of
about 2.4 million people every year (Prüss-Üstün et al 2008). The solution is better
sanitation that can be achieved using either water based or dry toilets, which are both
safer solutions than traditional open pit holes, defecation in waterways or in the open.
Water based toilets are used in most of the rich countries but suffer from three
problems: Water is a scarce resource in many areas, large investments in sewers are
required and wastewater is often not treated properly. Dry toilets are attractive
alternatives from both an economic and hygienic point of view. They require only a
minimum of infrastructure and waste materials can be kept separated when handled
right. This makes waste treatment much more straightforward. A basic understanding of
the sanitation area was achieved through a literature survey (Winblad et al. 2004; Kar et
al. 2008; Tilley et al. 2008) and contact to key players within the sanitation area. The
volume of urine and faeces that need to be transported to a disposal site are manageable
compared to other transport tasks like garbage and daily goods. The average yearly
faeces and urine production rates per person found in the literature are approximately 47
kg for faeces and 440 kg for urine (Almeida et al. 1999; Del Porto and Steinfeld 2000;
Zavala and Funamizu 2006). However, a number of basic problems are not solved
properly for dry toilets including smell, cleaning and flies. Therefore they are often
regarded as less attractive compared to the water based alternatives, especially for the
large groups of people in developing countries that gradually become wealthier.
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
3
Methods
Ideas to new innovative solutions can potentially be found using biomimetic design
where inspiration is found in nature. The basic approach used here followed the iterative
procedure described by Lenau et al. (2010). Three specific dry toilet problems were
generalised and keywords formulated to allow a search for analogies within the
biological domain as shown in table 1.
In order to focus the search, the keywords were first used to browse general biology
books and making observations in zoological and botanical gardens. This was followed
by searches in the online literature databases Asknature.org, ISI Web of Science and
Google Scholar and in cited literature within identified articles. Search terms covered
the keywords, relevant synonyms and antonyms.
Each of the found biological phenomena were analysed and the functionality of the
basic biological mechanisms were described and generalised as technical principles.
These principles were used to generate design ideas and develop conceptual product
solutions.
Results
Results include identification of relevant biological analogical phenomena and the
conceptual design of bio-inspired solutions.
Biological analogies
A large number of biological analogies (phenomena) were identified as shown in table 1
and 21 of the search results were considered relevant.
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
4
The smell problem
One of the main challenges for a wider embracement of dry toilets is the strong odour
emanating from faeces and urine. The smell is caused by the interaction and relative
intensities of a wide range of volatile compounds, arising from the breakdown of
organic matter by primarily aerobic bacteria (Sweeten 1986). One way of handling the
smell is the terra preta principle, which works by maintaining an anaerobic environment
by mixing the faeces with charcoal and adding lacto bacteria in an airtight container.
The terra preta method was developed following a recent re-discovery of the practices
of ancient South American civilisations (Factura et al. 2010). Another possible way to
reduce smell is the feacal sac principle: Bird nestlings make small parcels by wrapping
portions of the faeces in a biologically degradable membrane that can be flown away in
order to increase nest sanitation and reduce predation (Weatherhead 1984; Guigueno
and Sealy 2012).
The cleaning problem
Another problem with dry toilets is how to keep them clean without rinsing them with
large volumes of water. This might be solved using the animal eyeball cleaning
principle using an intermediate removable substance (the tear film) that adheres to dirt
particles (Walls 1942; Braun and Fitt 2003; Jones et al. 2008).
The fly problem
Flies are attracted to both food and faeces and can, in addition to being a general
nuisance, constitute a serious health risk by transmitting diseases. The pitcher plant
attracts flies using volatile substances, including 2-phenylethanol (Chapman et al. 1998;
Di Giusto et al. 2010) and prevents them escaping ones trapped using a special slippery
surface (Gaume et al. 2004). Platelet shaped wax crystals form a sponge-like layer with
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
5
a pore size of about 1.5 µm, which generate a mechanical stable surface with a
roughness that is too high for the hairy pads found on insect feet to adhere to, while
simultaneously being too low for the insect claws to work efficiently on as shown in
figure 1 (Scholz et al. 2010).
Bioinspired solutions
The technical principles are used as input to the creative part of the design process. We
propose conceptual solutions for 4 principles.
Avoiding smell using the Terra Preta principle
An anaerobic environment is expected to be maintained if an airtight container is used
as shown in figure 2a. This only requires an airtight lid that closes the entrance to the
toilet container when it is not used. In use the lid needs to be opened, but this will only
be for a short period of time. Charcoal, stone dust and lacto bacteria could be stored in
separate containers behind the toilet similar to the water tank in conventional toilets.
The right doses of these materials could then be added into the toilet when ‘flushing’
after using the toilet.
Reducing smell and cleaning problems using the nestling fecal sac principle
Similar to the way nestlings encapsulate their droppings in thin dry membranes a toilet
solution might use a biodegradable plastic bag that covers the toilet bowl and is closed
and sealed after use. It might be possible to automate the process by using a mechanism
driven by the opening and closing of the lid (figure 2b). When the lid is opened a new
bag could be spanned over the toilet bowl and when the lid is closed the bag could be
sealed and removed into a collection chamber. Slightly modified conventional garbage
bags with build in closing wires could be used.
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
6
Toilet cleaning using the eyeball cleaning principle.
A solution based on the blinking eyeball cleaning principle could use an intermediate
substance to collect the excrements. Two sliding cover plates could form the barrier
between the bowl and the collection chamber. To avoid that the cover plates gets dirty
and to collect liquid substances it is proposed to cover them with a thin layer of gravel.
Gravel and excrements will slide into the collection chamber when the cover plates are
opened. After closing the cover plates a mechanism could spread new gravel onto the
cover plates similar to the eyelid blinking. The potential solution is illustrated in figure
2c.
Avoiding flies using the pitcher plant principle
A trap using the pitcher plant principle could lure the flies into a chamber from where
they cannot escape and will eventually drown. This solution could be placed as an
external object attached to the wall or hanging from the ceiling. The trap could be made
as a vertical cylinder that is closed at both ends and provided with holes at the top just
big enough to allow the entrance of flies as shown in figure 2d. The inside of the
cylinder could be covered with a micro-structured surface that hinders the flies to attach
to it. The bottom part of the cylinder could be detachable to allow it to be filled with a
liquid with a smell that attracts the flies while being acceptable to humans.
Discussion
A relevant question is if the extra work in applying a formalised design method is worth
the effort. Design researchers normally justify such work by looking at the results and
assessing if they are better than reference solutions (Shah et al 2003). The new solutions
should be more innovative and useful to the users.
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
7
The novelty aspect of the terra preta solution is the chemical reaction used within the
toilet to reduce smell and decompose the waste products, i.e. a decentralised waste
treatment that eliminates the need for costly infrastructure. The novelty aspect of the
nestling solution and the blinking eyelid solution is the reduced need for cleaning
caused by the use of membranes and gravel. The advantage compared to a water based
toilet is the avoidance of flush water and sewer infrastructure. However, the
disadvantage is that the nestling solution requires plastic bags and the blinking eyelid
solution needs gravel or sand. The novelty aspects of the pitcher plant fly trap are the
slippery surface and the closed container. One potential advantage compared to ordinary
flypaper is the closed container that hides the dead flies and functions as a multiuse
product that can be emptied and used many times.
All potential solutions represent improvements regarding both novelty and usefulness.
The work suggests and illustrates how biomimetic design work can be done with
success and presents suggestions for how to overcome a number of difficulties in the
design work of new sanitation solutions. A procedural model for biomimetic search and
design has been demonstrated by applying it to suggest solutions to some of the basic
problems with dry toilets. Thinking in terms of biological analogies produced a large
number of relevant ideas.
Conclusion
The sanitation problems in developing countries has been addressed and is proposed
solved using dry toilets where urine and faeces are handled separately. However, such
separation toilets are potentially less attractive due to poor handling of a number of
problems. We examine three of those problems: smell, cleaning, and contamination
from flies by using a biomimetic design approach. A large number of analogical
solution principles were identified by searching in nature. Conceptual designs were
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
8
made using four of the principles thus proposing possible solutions. The solutions are
feasible and would most likely not have been arrived at if biological inspiration and
biomimetic design procedures had not been employed during the design process.
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Christina Okai Mejborn for valuable discussions and experiences
from carrying out a workshop on new toilet solutions. Tomas Benzon made the
illustration for which we are very grateful. TH would like to thank Wolfson College for
providing travel funds.
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Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
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Table 1. Search criteria and selected results
1. Problems
specific
2. Challenges
generalized
3. Keywords
() marks the number
of hits in
Asknature.org as of
14/11/2014
4. Phenomena (selected)
Normal case = Asknature
Italics = biologist input, brainstorm and
literature
Bold= selected
Smell
- Remove smell
- Hide smell
- Contain/camouflage smell
- Reverse: enhance smell
Smell (22), Odor (51)
Odor eliminator (51)
Remove smell (58)
Hide (34),
camouflage (44) or
Enhance (80) smell
Milkweed protect against predators using
chemicals
Many animals include pheromones in faeces to
signal reproductive status.
Smell in faeces comes from bacteria so use of
antibacterial substances?
Terra preta
Cats burying their faeces
Leaf cutter ants water management
Dessert insects water extraction
Removal of faeces from bird nestlings
Hygiene,
Toilet cleaning
- Cleaning surroundings
- Cleaning oneself
- Avoid getting dirty
Clean (29)
Cleaning (46)
Washing (5)
Self-cleaning (28)
Avoid dirt (97)
Soil does not adhere to earthworms
Gnawers keep soil out of mouth
Lotus flower, Cicada wings
Eye lid in horses wipes the eye.
Gecko eye cleaning
Lotus effect/insect wings. How do dung beetles
and maggots stay clean?
Contamination
from flies
- Keep flies away
- Contamination from direct
contact
- Reverse: pollination
- Reverse: attract flies
- Catch / kill flies
Repel flies (53)
Contamination (16)
Infection (34)
Attract flies (64)
Fly predation (75)
Natural fly control
(419)
Flies find food using their olfactory system
Blowfly feet taste food
Giraffe has repelling skin secretions
Catnip repels insects
Smell attracts flies
Herbs in starling nests keep fleas away
Flies are prey for lizards, spiders etc..
Picher plant
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
12
Figure 1. Left: The eyelid cleaning mechanism. Right: Non-adhesive behavior of the
inside plant surface to insect feet (based on Scholz et al., 2010).
Lenau, T. & Hesselberg, T. (2015) Dry sanitation concepts with inspiration from nature, Journal of
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, vol.5 is.2, p.330-335, doi: 10.2166/washdev.2015.178
13
Figure 2. Sketches of conceptual solutions for dry toilets: a) The terra preta toilet, b)
The bird nestling toilet, c) The eyeball cleaning toilet, d) The pitcher plant fly trap.
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We reviewed information on nest sanitation (nest cleaning) by passerine birds because the act of cleaning nests is thought to be associated with egg rejection by hosts of brood parasites, and yet there has been no synthesis of the literature on nest sanitation. In the first part of the review, we summarized information on nest sanitation. We found that birds remove a variety of objects from nests such as egg shells, fecal sacs, pieces of vegetation, invertebrate parasites, dead chicks, uneaten food, and occasionally unhatched eggs. Fecal sac removal, the most commonly considered type of nest sanitation behavior, is not divided equally between the sexes across species; females remove more fecal sacs than males. In addition, larger species tend to carry fecal sacs farther than smaller species. In the second part of the review, we discuss the importance of nest sanitation in the evolution of egg rejection behavior of brood parasite hosts. Recent studies involving the experimental addition of non-egg-shaped objects to nests or to the vicinity of nests suggest that nest sanitation plays a role in host rejection of avian brood parasitism. Most objects added to nests prior to hatching (usually hard) and after hatching (usually soft) were rejected. In a logistic regression model, shape and size were the significant factors in eliciting rejection for all hosts that received experimental non-egg objects added to their nests prior to hatching. Nest sanitation may be an exaptation for antiparasite defences and thus plays an important role in the host-parasite arms race.
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Swine production facilities and other types of concentrated animal feeding operations produce odor that may be comprised of up to 75 compounds that are intermediate and final products of biodegradation. Although concentrations of these compounds at downwind locations are low, some may exceed olfactory threshold values and create nuisance conditions. There is near-universal acceptance of the use of trained human panelists for sensory measurement of odor. However, instruments and techniques for odor measurement vary. Current odor measurement technology applicable to swine facilities includes equipment and procedures for determining a) concentrations of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, or volatile organic acids, b) dilutions-to-threshold with a dynamic forced-choice olfactometer, or a scentometer, and c) the concentration of butanol vapor in air that matches the intensity of the ambient air with a butanol olfactometer. Several states and municipalities have property-line odor standards based on these and other measurement methods. Odor control methods for swine facilities include a) manure treatment - areation, anaerobic digestion of biochemical treatment, b) capture and treatment of odorous gases using covered storage pits or lagoons, soil incorporation, soil absorption beds or filter fields, or packed beds, and c) odor dispersion through proper site selection that takes advantage of adequate separation distance, wind direction frequency and atmospheric stability data and topography.
Article
Fecal sac removal by Tachycineta bicolor was monitored for 10 'land' nest boxes (>100 m from water) and 13 'water' nest boxes (adjacent to or over water). The mean distance from the nest at which 'land' birds dropped fecal sacs was more than double that for 'water' birds. Departure directions for birds carrying fecal sacs were more variable than for birds not carrying fecal sacs although, contrary to prediction, 'land' birds were not more variable than 'water' birds. Combining data on the removal rate and weight of fecal sacs over the nestling period produced the estimate that for each nestling, parents removed 70 g of feces in 168 trips. Where predation pressure requires more time and energy to be spent in disposing fecal sacs, clutch size should be smaller. -Author
Article
The Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation by Kamal Kar with Robert Chambers contains comprehensive information on CLTS, its pre-triggering, triggering and post-triggering stages, as well as examples and case studies from around the world. This Tips for trainers extract reproduces the chapter on triggering communities. The extract describes a selection of CLTS triggering tools, which some of the authors in this special issue have also referred to in their articles.
Article
This treatise on comparative ophthalmology is written both for the layman and the specialist. Part 1 outlines the essentials of the vertebrate (human) eye, the histology and physiology of the vertebrate retina, and discusses scotopic and photopic vision. To this is added an account of the embryological and evolutionary genesis of the eye. Part 2 discusses the following topics: adaptations to arhythmic activity as seen in photomechanical retinal changes and in pupil mobility; adaptations to diurnal activity; adaptations to nocturnal activity; adaptations to space and motion; adaptations to media and substrates including aquatic and aerial vision; and adaptations to photic quality including color vision in animals, dermal color-changes, and coloration of the eye. Part 3 traces the history of the eye from the lowest to the highest living vertebrates. There is a 24-page bibliography and an index and glossary. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
1. Nepenthes rafflesiana is a carnivorous vine from Borneo characterized by an ontogenetic pitcher dimorphism with aerial (upper) and ground (lower) pitchers of different morphologies. Previous studies have shown that fragrant upper pitchers of climbing parts of the plant are more effective in trapping flying insects than non‐fragrant lower pitchers, which are essentially restricted to an ant diet. We tested the hypotheses that odours are effective cues for prey attraction in this carnivorous plant and that upper pitchers biochemically mimic flowers in their olfactory cues. 2. The visitor diversity and the scent composition of each pitcher type were determined for different sites and periods during field studies in Borneo. Olfactometer bioassays were conducted using fruit flies and ants as models for flying flower‐visitors and non‐flying visitors, respectively. 3. Fifty‐four volatile compounds were identified and the analysis of their relative quantities in the blends showed significant differences between pitcher types. The blends of lower pitchers contained some aliphatics and terpenoids but were poor in benzenoids. Upper pitchers differed from lower ones in that they attracted a greater quantity and diversity of insects, including a guild of flower‐visitors absent from the visitor spectrum of lower pitchers. Upper pitchers also emitted a greater quantity of odours and a larger spectrum of volatiles, including some terpenoids and benzenoids that often characterize the sweet scents classically found in flower blends. Choice bioassays showed that, in absence of any visual cue, the scents of the nectariferous pitcher rim (peristome) were particularly attractive to ants and flies, and those of upper pitchers were more attractive to flies than those of lower pitchers. 4. Synthesis . This study demonstrates the use of scent by Nepenthes carnivorous plants to mediate prey attraction. The climbing part of the plant produces pitcher‐modified leaves that mimic flower olfactory cues and suggest an evolutionary convergent strategy with that of generalist pollination systems.
Article
Field trials investigating the effect of food baits on catches of Musca domestica at toxic targets impregnated with the female sex pheromone, (Z)-9-tricosene, were conducted in a caged-layer deep-pit poultry unit in southern England. Targets treated with an Alfacron-sugar mixture and baited with 2.5g of 40% (Z)-9-tricosene beads caught significantly greater numbers of both male and female M.domestica than control targets. Egg and milk-baited targets were less attractive than controls, while brewers yeast slightly increased the numbers of M.domestica attracted. However, the inclusion of brewers yeast in (Z)-9-tricosene-impregnated targets produced a significant reduction in the number of male M.domestica attracted. Increased female attraction was elicited by baiting the targets with 2-phenylethanol, at the quantities of 1mg and 10mg. However, 2-phenylethanol had no effect on female attraction when presented in conjunction with (Z)-9-tricosene. The implications of these results in relation to the control of M.domestica populations in poultry units are discussed.