Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History
... Esta misma idea la recogió Stephen Jay Gould ya en sus primeros ensayos. De forma magistral, Gould (1977Gould ( , 1980Gould ( , 1983 mostró que la evolución por selección natural no conduce a la perfección, y explicó por qué que no deberíamos buscar evidencias de que la evolución es un hecho en la supuesta perfección de las adaptaciones. En efecto, la perfección podría ser la consecuencia tanto de un creador divino como de un proceso "ciego" (sensu Dawkins, 1986) de selección natural. ...
... De este modo, aunque es un "dedo" claramente imperfecto (de hecho, no es un verdadero dedo), el pulgar del panda le permite agarrar y manipular los tallos de bambú con notable destreza. Así pues, siguiendo a Gould (1983), podemos desvelar la historia del pasado, que incluye la evidencia del origen, gracias a las imperfecciones de los seres vivos, que son la marca de la evolución. ...
[González Oreja JA. 2022. Homo imperfectus. Elementos, 125: 49-55.] La idea de que los seres vivos están perfectamente adaptados a su medio ambiente nos resulta fascinante. Sin embargo, los seres vivos no están perfectamente adaptados; ni necesitan estarlo. Después de todo, ¿qué implicaría que un ser vivo se comportase como si fuera una máquina perfectamente adaptada a su medio ambiente? Afirmar alegremente que los seres vivos están perfectamente adaptados a su medio ambiente es utilizar un lenguaje vacío de contenido. En el siglo xix, la aparente perfección de los diseños de los seres vivos había sido utilizada por la teología natural para inferir la existencia de un creador divino, omnipotente y generalmente benevolente. No mucho después, Charles Darwin –sin negar la excelencia del diseño– propuso por primera vez una explicación muy diferente: la selección natural... Nos guste o no, nuestra especie es igualmente imperfecta. En Human errors, Nathan Lents (2018) nos muestra un amplio panorama de nuestros muchos defectos, que nos alejan definitivamente de la condición perfecta que muchos de nosotros querríamos tener. En seis
capítulos, más un epílogo, hace un repaso por los múltiples errores que hacen de nosotros una especie imperfecta, plagada de disposiciones extrañas, diseños ineficientes y defectos manifiestos.
En este artículo presto atención a (1) algunos de nuestros errores de construcción; (2) nuestra dieta imperfecta y algunas de las consecuencias que nos acarrea, y (3) el cáncer, el "error perfecto".
... Por conta desses fatores, seria natural que a Evolução fosse um conceito central em qualquer currículo de ciências (Hokayem & Boujaoude 2008). Entretanto, a Evolução tem um histórico de ser negligenciada ou mal representada em livros didáticos e na mídia em geral (Skoog 1979;Gould 1983a). Além disso, o tema raramente é apresentado ao público como o conceito central da Biologia (Jeffery & Roach 1994;Skoog & Bilica 2002). ...
... Este último ponto está relacionado em grande parte ao fato de a Evolução, em geral, ser apresentada como "Teoria da Evolução" e o termo "teoria", na linguagem popular, estar longe de sua definição científica. Assim, o público (e os alunos) recebe a ideia de que a Evolução é "só uma teoria", como se fosse um palpite ao invés de um corpo conceitual bem estabelecido e confirmado por inúmeras linhas de evidência (Gould 1983a;Bloom 1989;Smith 2010a;Allmon 2011). Um dos modos de se corrigir isso, obviamente, é através de uma melhor educação científica. ...
A Teoria da Evolução é um dos conceitos científicos mais importantes, possuindo caráter central na Biologia como teoria unificadora. Entretanto, verifica-se que, de modo geral, o tema tem sido negligenciado ou mal apresentado ao público, sendo que atualmente grande parte da população, em todos os níveis de formação, não compreende ou mesmo não acredita na Evolução. Este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar livros didáticos aprovados pelo Programa Nacional do Livro Didático (PNLD) e utilizados no Ensino Fundamental II, visando identificar erros conceituais, questões de linguagem, a presença do " Lamarckismo " e do Criacionismo, que possam se constituir em obstáculos no ensino da Evolução. Os autores reconheceram diversos problemas nos livros didáticos capazes de gerar confusão conceitual em estudantes; dentre estes, o mais problemático é não tratar a Evolução como tema central da Biologia. Ainda assim, verifica-se que é possível expor o tema de forma coerente, sem necessariamente recorrer a simplificações que gerem erros conceituais.
The Theory of Evolution is not only the unifying force in Biology, but also one of the most important scientific concepts ever developed. However, the topic has always been neglected or misrepresented, resulting in a population that do not understand (or outright do not believe in) Evolution. The present work consists in a content analysis of Evolution in Brazilian Middle School textbooks. Its aims included the search for obstacles to the understanding of Evolution, such as: conceptual errors, language problems, “Lamarckism” and Creationism. We conclude that many of these obstacles are indeed present in textbooks, hampering the students’ grasp on Evolution; among these, the gravest is not representing Evolution as Biology’s central theory. Nevertheless, we also observed that it is indeed possible to develop the theme in a coherent manner, without recourse to over-simplifications (“dumbing down”) which may result in conceptual mistakes.
... While they all have black and white stripes, one of them, the mountain zebra, is closer to a horse than to its other two erstwhile relations; it is more precisely a striped horse rather than a zebra. 8 Prior to the discovery of the gene, the living world was classified according to the phenotype -what things look like, their common characteristics. According to the genotype, however, it is the underlying genetic structure that determines membership of a reproductive group. ...
The term 'identity' has come to be associated with our membership of various groups based upon gender, sexuality, race, religion, culture and class. A psychological perspective moves beyond identity politics and emphasises both group and the individual. The selves we become are based upon who we internalise through identification. An aspect of this is our ancestral history. The author uses a personal story to illustrate the dynamic interrelationship between our group and personal identities. Our identities can be a badge of honour or a burden. How we are treated according to the labels applied to us shapes the sense we have of ourselves. Psychological work aims to help a person distinguish between who they truly are and what was forced upon them in the course of their lives. This requires a dual focus on the group legacies we carry and the individual as the unit for understanding identity.
... In any case, bursting diversity is nature watchword; it should never be submerged by care less abstraction" [6]. Our aim is not to reconcile such vi sions or to take the side of one or the other, but to focus on the almost complete absence of dialogue between life scientists and number scientists caused by an ob jective gap between the two cultures. ...
The article takes as a starting point the observation of a deep and long-standing gap between the views of biologists/physicians and that of physicists/data scientists when dealing with life sciences. This gap has been exacerbated by the advent of large-scale -omics technologies. Here, we focus on the impact of this gap in the field of precision medicine that impedes dialogue between omics data analysts and precision medicine physicians. To try to overcome this cultural divide, here we suggest a new possibility through the use of network science as a shared language composed of a vocabulary of words that have different meanings in each discipline but refer to the same biological entity. By doing so, one can move from biological concepts to network patterns and algorithms and backwards, thus generating a dialogue between "life scientists" and "number scientists". The article presents several simple network concepts with a straightforward biological interpretation as a starting point for such interdisciplinary dialogue.
... Even so, it is necessary to admit the preponderance of solid evidence supporting the idea of AGW. Gould (1983) writes that evolution could be regarded as a fact because the evidence in its favor is so massive that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent. The same may be thought of AGW. ...
Critical thinking involves the ability to properly assess statements and actions, and it also requires a permanent disposition to appropriately use cognitive skills in the evaluation of any claim. In the present paper, we discuss the characteristics of an ideal critical thinker, and apply them to a contemporary problem, namely anthropogenic global warming (AGW, a hypothesis that accounts for the increase of the average temperature of Earth as a consequence of human activities), in order to discuss what an ideal critical thinker is expected to conclude about the occurrence of this phenomenon. We assume that an ideal critical thinker is able to find out where the most reliable information regarding a certain issue is, is competent to reasonably evaluate it, and has an inclination to calibrate her beliefs according to the results of the inquiry. We thus conclude that an ideal critical thinker is expected to accept the current scientific consensus that AGW is occurring, albeit considering this issue, as well as virtually any other idea, open to revision. The fact that in many occasions people are selective in using critical thinking skills, such as when they reject the massive evidence of AGW, should be a cause of concern for educators, who should motivate their students to think critically about any problem and question they encounter; this, in turn, could help the students to develop a better understanding of the world, take more reasonable courses of action, and be protected against misinformation.
... The formation of an independent ossification centre can also explain how some members of Pennaraptora reversed to developing an independent adult prefrontal, and also the possible re-appearance of an independent postorbital in Bohaiornithidae: as long as a separate ossification centre is formed, reversal to an independent bone remains conceivable. The persistence of ancestor-like patterning in embryonic development has been argued to allow for morphological innovation, as exemplified by experimental atavisms 57 . The evolution of the avian skull shows how persistence of ancient embryonic modules also allows for deconstruction and reassembly of composite structures, with the potential of becoming new adaptations. ...
Radical transformation of the skull characterizes bird evolution. An increase in the relative size of the brain and eyes was presumably related to the loss of two bones surrounding the eye, the prefrontal and postorbital. We report that ossification centres of the prefrontal and postorbital are still formed in bird embryos, which then fuse seamlessly to the developing nasal and frontal bones, respectively, becoming undetectable in the adult. The presence of a dinosaur-like ossification pattern in bird embryos is more than a trace of their evolutionary past: we show how persistent modularity of ossification centres has allowed for evolutionary re-organization of skull architecture in evolution. Our findings also demonstrate that enigmatic mesodermal cells forming the posterior region of the avian frontal correspond to the ossification centre of the postorbital, not the parietal, and link its failure to develop into an adult bone to its incorporation into the expanded braincase of birds.
... We wish to restrict the term adaptation only to those structures that evolved for their current utility; those useful structures that arose for other reasons, or for no conventional reasons at all, and were then fortuitously available for other changes, we call exaptations. Gould & Vrba (1982), qtd. in Lass (1990: 80) Adaptation is the result of the selection of new variants that have come into existence by copying-errors. Thus, in Ritt's example, variants in the meme pool that made the hostindividuals pronounce eME have in prominent position a bit longer were selected and these ones slowly ousted their competitors. ...
... We do not reproduce this list of 170 claims here because of space constraints. 5. Gould (1994) and Padgett and McLean (2006) refer to this kind of innovation as "refunctionality." 6. ...
Social movement researchers argue that tactical innovation occurs as a response to changes external to movements, such as police repression and shifts in political authority, or is due to internal movement processes, such as the characteristics of movement organizations and actors. In this study, we locate the roots of tactical innovation in the multiplicity of movement claims articulated at protest events. With data on more than 23,000 protest events that took place in the United States between 1960 and 1995, we develop novel measures of two forms of tactical innovation and the relationships between protest event claims. Our results show that multi-issue protest events are more likely to use novel recombinations of tactics, and protest events with more peripheral movement claims tend to introduce new protest tactics. Our approach brings together work on social movement dynamics, innovation, and field theoretic approaches to theorize about the relationship between the tools and content of activism.
... But setting aside that question, and the problem of matter itself, what hope is there for understanding language acquisition and language use? 18.2.31 In 1972, Chomsky wrote: It seems to me that the most hopeful approach today is to describe the phenomena of language and of mental activity as accurately as possible, to try to develop an abstract theoretical 3The reference here is to the thinking most closely associated with evolutionist, Stephen Jay Gould (1977aGould ( , 1977bGould ( , 1983. It is the notion that evolution does not only advance in tiny Dar,winian steps. ...
This treatise establishes connections between the modern streams of pragmatic outlooks, joining ideas from Chomsky in linguistics as applied in the work of Stephen D. Krashen to second language acquisition and by Frank Smith to reading, writing, and what he called "the literacy club". A lesser objective is to connect the foregoing to Piagetian psychology mainly as a backdrop against which to see more clearly the distinctive character of Chomskyan theory. The choice of authors to examine was motivated by the intention to outline the rational pragmatism, along the lines of Peirce and Einstein, that is presented here along with some of its practical implications.
... On this see alsoMill (1874) 1969and Gould 1994 ...
This paper examines the problem of evil in nature, that is, the issue of the disvalue present in nature, and the question of whether or not it prevails over happiness. The paper claims that disvalue actually outweighs happiness in nature. This is an unavoidable consequence of the existence of an evolutionary process in a context where resources are scarce. Because of this, suffering and early death are the norm in nature. The number of individuals who come into existence just to die in pain shortly after, vastly outweighs the number of those who survive. The paper also claims that the idea that the interests of nonhuman animals need not be considered in the same way as those of humans is speciesist and unacceptable, and that animals not only have an interest in not suffering, but also in not dying. In light of this, the paper concludes that the good things present in nature are vastly outweighed by the huge amount of disvalue that exists there, and that we should try to reduce such disvalue.
... ." (2), we take the possibility of eukaryocentrism seriously. Despite the efforts of Gould (9,28) and others, biologists may still be unconsciously predisposed to a sort of biological progressivism. We may see eukaryotes as possessing, to a greater degree than prokaryotes, "advanced" traits that we value-in particular, structural complexity and diversityand then frame how we think about such very difficult-todefine traits from a eukaryotic perspective. ...
Eukaryogenesis is widely viewed as an improbable evolutionary transition uniquely affecting the evolution of life on this planet. However, scientific and popular rhetoric extolling this event as a singularity lacks rigorous evidential and statistical support. Here, we question several of the usual claims about the specialness of eukaryogenesis, focusing on both eukaryogenesis as a process and its outcome, the eukaryotic cell. We argue in favor of four ideas. First, the criteria by which we judge eukaryogenesis to have required a genuinely unlikely series of events 2 billion years in the making are being eroded by discoveries that fill in the gaps of the prokaryote:eukaryote "discontinuity." Second, eukaryogenesis confronts evolutionary theory in ways not different from other evolutionary transitions in individuality; parallel systems can be found at several hierarchical levels. Third, identifying which of several complex cellular features confer on eukaryotes a putative richer evolutionary potential remains an area of speculation: various keys to success have been proposed and rejected over the five-decade history of research in this area. Fourth, and perhaps most importantly, it is difficult and may be impossible to eliminate eukaryocentric bias from the measures by which eukaryotes as a whole are judged to have achieved greater success than prokaryotes as a whole. Overall, we question whether premises of existing theories about the uniqueness of eukaryogenesis and the greater evolutionary potential of eukaryotes have been objectively formulated and whether, despite widespread acceptance that eukaryogenesis was "special," any such notion has more than rhetorical value.
... Evolution is a key concept and established fact within the biological sciences, accounting for a diverse body of empirical evidence including observed transformations within living species, similarity of structures in living and fossil species, or transitional structures observed in fossils (Gould, 1983). As Gould observes, " [E]volutionists have been clear about this distinction between fact and theory from the very beginning, if only because we have always acknowledged how far we are from completely understanding the mechanisms (theory) by which evolution (fact) occurred" (p. ...
The article discusses acceptance of evolution and its relevance for measuring scientific literacy. The author analyzes the National Science Foundation knowledge quiz in relation to theoretical, methodological, and moral arguments, proposing a distinction between quiet and animated scientific constructs. When a public learns of evolution as an animated construct, its acceptance is a poor indicator in a reflective model of scientific literacy. Acceptance of evolution may constitute a valuable indicator in reflective models of science knowledge for publics that engage with it disinterestedly, as well as in formative models of scientifically shaped worldviews, and it may also be studied in itself.
... The scientific status the evolutionary conception to explain life was questioned by the well known scientific philosopher, late Karl Popper on the grounds of his refutability principle [Popper63,Gould81]. Refutability is the most accepted criterion to justify the scientific status of theories and for the demarcation of the scientific theories from the pseudo scientific theories or meta physical theories. ...
Acknowledgments It was a long and memorable,journey with deep lessons to learn in the course of this work. I would like to express my gratitude, and thanks to Dr. Martin Henz for his patience to read my,drafts and listen to me,for long hours and all the support he extended on administrative matters as my supervisor. Working in a research area such as Artificial Life has indeed been a mental voyage into a deeply mysterious phenomenon of life with sometimes disturbing philosophical realizations regarding our own existence and meaning. I can hardly forget intellectually delighting talks with Daniel H¨ogberg and the help, which he extended to me time to time. Indeed some of the clarifications on the philosophical insights came to me only during my open discussions with him. Discussion with J. Vedvyas and Bee Peng on their honor’s year projects under Dr. Martin were so important to learn the field in a comprehensive manner and I do feel fortunate to get chance to work with them. For the proof reading of my drafts every now and then, I could have found none better than Hanna Kurniawati as well as Hugh Anderson. Lastly but not least my deepest gratitude goes for all the moral support and emotional comfort given by my fiancee Anjeline Daniel, who even though being so far o never let me feel tired while working on the thesis. i Contents
... The lack of scientific literacy within the general public is exacerbated by the rapid increase in the amount and complexity of scientific information and the failure of the U.S. educational system to effectively link learning goals and assessment tools (Webb, 1997). As a result, few understand the meaning of a scientific theory, even fewer understand the theory of evolution (Gould, 1981); and most people misunderstand, and misuse the term, "theory". ...
There is a controversy raging in the United States between proponents of the theory of evolution and advocates of special creation/intelligent design (ID). Evolution is the unifying theory of the life sciences and evidence supporting evolution comes from repeatable experimentation and observation. ID is a type of special creation, which is based on the Biblical creation account. Evolution and special creation are complex, formal, abstract concepts soundly understood by few. The current evolution-ID controversy stems, in part, from a lack of scientific literacy among citizens. Scientific literacy requires content knowledge and an understanding of the processes by which content is discovered. Teaching the controversy in the science classroom is inappropriate because there is no scientific support for ID. The differences between evolution and intelligent design should not preclude dialogue between supporters of each.
RNA transcripts are potential therapeutic targets, yet bacterial transcripts have uncharacterized biodiversity. We developed an algorithm for transcript prediction called tp.py using it to predict transcripts (mRNA and other RNAs) in Escherichia coli K12 and E2348/69 strains (Bacteria:gamma-Proteobacteria), Listeria monocytogenes strains Scott A and RO15 (Bacteria:Firmicute), Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains SG17M and NN2 strains (Bacteria:gamma-Proteobacteria), and Haloferax volcanii (Archaea:Halobacteria). From >5 million E. coli K12 and >3 million E. coli E2348/69 newly generated Oxford Nanopore Technologies direct RNA sequencing reads, 2,487 K12 mRNAs and 1,844 E2348/69 mRNAs were predicted, with the K12 mRNAs containing more than half of the predicted E. coli K12 proteins. While the number of predicted transcripts varied by strain based on the amount of sequence data used, across all strains examined, the predicted average size of the mRNAs was 1.6–1.7 kbp, while the median size of the 5′- and 3′-untranslated regions (UTRs) were 30–90 bp. Given the lack of bacterial and archaeal transcript annotation, most predictions were of novel transcripts, but we also predicted many previously characterized mRNAs and ncRNAs, including post-transcriptionally generated transcripts and small RNAs associated with pathogenesis in the E. coli E2348/69 LEE pathogenicity islands. We predicted small transcripts in the 100–200 bp range as well as >10 kbp transcripts for all strains, with the longest transcript for two of the seven strains being the nuo operon transcript, and for another two strains it was a phage/prophage transcript. This quick, easy, and reproducible method will facilitate the presentation of transcripts, and UTR predictions alongside coding sequences and protein predictions in bacterial genome annotation as important resources for the research community.
IMPORTANCE
Our understanding of bacterial and archaeal genes and genomes is largely focused on proteins since there have only been limited efforts to describe bacterial/archaeal RNA diversity. This contrasts with studies on the human genome, where transcripts were sequenced prior to the release of the human genome over two decades ago. We developed software for the quick, easy, and reproducible prediction of bacterial and archaeal transcripts from Oxford Nanopore Technologies direct RNA sequencing data. These predictions are urgently needed for more accurate studies examining bacterial/archaeal gene regulation, including regulation of virulence factors, and for the development of novel RNA-based therapeutics and diagnostics to combat bacterial pathogens, like those with extreme antimicrobial resistance.
Animals, like humans, suffer and die from natural causes. This is particularly true of animals living in the wild, given their high exposure to, and low capacity to cope with, harmful natural processes. Most wild animals likely have short lives, full of suffering, usually ending in terrible deaths. This book argues that on the assumption that we have reasons to assist others in need, we should intervene in nature to prevent or reduce the harms wild animals suffer, provided that it is feasible and that the expected result is positive overall. It is of the utmost importance that academics from different disciplines as well as animal advocates begin to confront this issue. The more people are concerned with wild animal suffering, the more probable it is that safe and effective solutions to the plight of wild animals will be implemented in the future.
When Trofim D. Lysenko took control of biology in the Soviet Union, The New York Times explained it would be “just as if we had to accept Republican or Democratic dictation in scientific reasoning, depending upon which of the two major parties happens to be in power” (New York Times 1948: E6). It was 1948 -- the year of the Berlin Airlift, communist coup in Czechoslovakia, founding of Israel and launch of the Marshall Plan; the start of the Cold War. At a session of the Lenin AllUnion Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Moscow Lysenko declared genetics was a fascist science practiced by worshippers of Wall Street. The “gene theory” had provided the rationale for racism, colonization and the exploitation of the working class. With the words--“The Central Committee of the Party has examined my report and approved it”-- Lysenko launched a purge of genetics that would be termed
Evolutionary theory did not stop evolving with the “Modern Synthesis.” Discussions within Biology—the evolving extended synthesis—concerning both alternatives to a gene-centric view of evolutionary entities and organismic agency’s role in evolutionary processes are reviewed because they are pertinent to a fuller understanding of the nature of cultural evolution and its dynamics.
The origin and prevalence of transposable elements (TEs) may best be understood as resulting from “selfish” evolutionary processes at the within-genome level, with relevant populations being all members of the same TE family or all potentially mobile DNAs in a species. But the maintenance of families of TEs as evolutionary drivers, if taken as a consequence of selection, might be better understood as a consequence of selection at the level of species or higher, with the relevant populations being species or ecosystems varying in their possession of TEs. In 2015, Brunet and Doolittle (Genome Biol Evol 7: 2445–2457) made the case for legitimizing (though not proving) claims for an evolutionary role for TEs by recasting such claims as being about species selection. Here I further develop this “how possibly” argument. I note that with a forgivingly broad construal of evolution by natural selection (ENS) we might come to appreciate many aspects of Life on earth as its products, and TEs as—possibly—contributors to the success of Life by selection at several levels of a biological hierarchy. Thinking broadly makes this proposition a testable (albeit extraordinarily difficult-to-test) Darwinian one.
One of the views on religious science is to application the distinction between context of discovery and context of justification in this problem. Context of discovery is process which through the researcher arrives at the theory and context of justification is an attempt to justify that theory. The distinction was proposed by a solution to the use of theoretical background in scientific processes. Under the influence of the philosopher’s opinions in adherents of the distinction in the philosophy of science. The distinction was taken also in the methodology of religious studies. Based on the twofold demarcation the interposition of the religious elements canceled in context of justification and the religiousness of science is related to the context of discovery. This theory on one hand is useful in that it defends the certainty of science but the other hand that not playing non-epistemic elements in context of justification, has problems. There are three major criticisms on this view: 1. Critique of the existence of the distinction in science, especially religious studies 2. Association context of discovery and justification in the current production of religion science 3. Interposition of the non-epistemic elements in context of discovery/justification of religious science and not merely context of justification. The purpose of this study is explanation and evaluation the strengths powerful and weaknesses of application the distinction in religion science.
This book introduces methods of geoscientific data acquisition using MATLAB in combination with inexpensive data acquisition hardware such as sensors in smartphones, sensors that come with the LEGO MINDSTORMS set, webcams with stereo microphones, and affordable spectral and thermal cameras. The text includes 35 exercises in data acquisition, such as using a smartphone to acquire stereo images of rock specimens from which to calculate point clouds, using visible and near-infrared spectral cameras to classify the minerals in rocks, using thermal cameras to differentiate between different types of surface such as between soil and vegetation, localizing a sound source using travel time differences between pairs of microphones to localize a sound source, quantifying the total harmonic distortion and signal-to-noise ratio of acoustic and elastic signals, acquiring and streaming meteorological data using application programming interfaces, wireless networks, and internet of things platforms, determining the spatial resolution of ultrasonic and optical sensors, and detecting magnetic anomalies using a smartphone magnetometer mounted on a LEGO MINDSTORMS scanner.
Yönetimin geçmişi insanlık tarihinin başlangıcına kadar uzanır. Evrenin nasıl ve hangi şartlarda oluştuğu, insanı nasıl etkilediği, insanın ortaya çıkışı ile ilgili koşulların açıklanması önemlidir. Bu kronolojik çalışmada varoluştaki algı ve değişim, evrenin oluşumu, insanlık tarihinin başlangıcına kadar uzanan kökler ve yönetsel düşüncenin oluşumuna yer verilmiştir. İnsanlığın köklerinin ve yönetimin köklerinin gelecekteki evrime ışık tutması beklenmektedir. Nereden gelindiğinin bilinmesi, algı ve değişimin yönetimi nasıl etkilediğini ortaya çıkaracaktır. Böylece daha iyi ve çoğulcu bir yönetim anlayışının gelişmesi mümkün olabilir. Günümüzde şirketlerin, kurumların ve sosyal ilişkilerin daha iyi yönetilmesine, geçmişteki yanlışların düzeltilmesini ve tekrarlanmamasını sağlayacak örgütlenmelere ve stratejilere duyulan ihtiyaç oldukça yüksek düzeydedir. Yönetimin köklerinin kronolojik bir yaklaşımla ele alındığı çalışmada dünyada yaşanan kaos ortamında etkili olabilecek bir yönetim anlayışının ip uçlarına yönelik değerlendirmeler yer almıştır. Kronolojik açıklamalarda insanlık tarihindeki yönetim yapılanmaları ve varoluştaki algının nasıl değiştiği yer almıştır. Yeryüzündeki yaşamın ilk aşamasında anne ve çocuklardan oluşan aile yapısında baba yoktur ve kadın eril cins olmaksızın kendi kendine üreyen bir yaşamın tek temsilcisidir. Doğal seçilim ve evrimleşmenin şekillendirdiği ilk insan topluluklarında, varoluş algısının doğallığını yansıtan kadın egemenliğindeki yönetim yapıları mevcuttur. Sabanın icat edilmesi, toplumsal mülkiyetten bireysel mülkiyete geçiş, yazılı tarih, devlet ve din ile yönetim yapıları yapay bir yolla değişime uğratılmıştır. Bu değişim, kadınları toplumdan dışlayan erkek egemenliğindeki patriyarkal yönetim örgütlenmelerini ortaya çıkartmıştır. Günümüzde erkek egemenliğinin ideolojik, toplumsal ve politik gücü temelden sarsılmaya başlamıştır. Bu çalışma ile sosyal yaşam ve doğadaki biyolojik yaşam arasındaki ilişkinin ortaya çıkarılması, daha iyi bir sosyal yaşam organizasyonu ve yönetimine yönelik önerilerde bulunulması amaçlanmıştır. Kadınların doğal yaratıcı, yönlendiren ve yöneten gücünün öne çıktığı bir yönetim değişimi, tüm eşitsizliklerden arınan bir toplum, örgütlenme ve daha mutlu bir gelecek umudu vermektedir.
When Europeans first encountered zebras in South Africa, they variously referred to them as horses, asses, or mules. This type of classification continued into the nineteenth century when mountain zebras were sometimes described as “asinine” and plains zebras as “equine.” Quaggas, a subspecies of the plains zebra with reduced striping and brown coloration that were occasionally used as draft animals, were considered by some observers to be the most equine zebras. This perception seems to have influenced the image of quaggas and led some artists to incorrectly portray them with horse-like tails that they did not possess. This article examines the designations “equine” and “asinine” as applied to plains zebras (including quaggas) and mountain zebras, and connects these terms to their representation by various artists.
This volume contains an introduction and eight papers presented at an international symposium ‘Let's Talk about Trees’, which was organised by Ritsuko Kikusawa and hosted by the National Museum of Ethnology of Osaka, Japan, in February 2013. The stated purpose of the meeting was to evaluate the pros and cons of the classic tree model of historical linguistics in describing the order of splits within a language family. Because the problem of modelling relationships of descent is common to other disciplines, contributors were invited from a range of academic disciplines, including not only linguistics, but also what is described on page one as ‘cladistics’, ‘biology’ and ‘genetics’, although cladistics is clearly a part of biological taxonomy, and not an independent discipline.
We argue that a number of biology (and evolution) textbooks face a crippling dilemma. On the one hand, significant difficulties arise if textbooks include theological claims in their case for evolution. (Such claims include, for example, 'God would never design a suboptimal panda's thumb, but an imperfect structure is just what we'd expect on natural selection.') On the other hand, significant difficulties arise if textbooks exclude theological claims in their case for evolution. So, whether textbooks include or exclude theological claims, they face debilitating problems. We attempt to establish this thesis by examining 32 biology (and evolution) textbooks, including the Big 12 -- that is, the top four in each of the key undergraduate categories (biology majors, non-majors, and evolution courses). In Section 2 of our article, we analyze three specific types of theology these texts use to justify evolutionary theory. We argue that all face significant objections. In Section 3, we step back from concrete cases and, instead, explore broader problems created by having theology in general in biology textbooks. We argue that the presence of theology -- of whatever kind -- comes at a significant cost, one that some textbook authors are likely unwilling to pay. In Section 4, we consider the alternative: Why not simply get rid of theology? Why not just ignore it? In reply, we marshal a range of arguments why avoiding God-talk raises troubles of its own. Finally, in Section 5, we bring together the collective arguments in Sections 2-4 to argue that biology textbooks face an intractable dilemma. We underscore this difficulty by examining a common approach that some textbooks use to solve this predicament. We argue that this approach turns out to be incoherent and self-serving. The poor performance of textbooks on this point highlights just how deep the difficulty is. In the end, the overall dilemma remains: God-talk or no God-talk?
Natural history museums have evolved over the past 500 years to become vanguards of science literacy and thus institutions of democracy. Curiosity about nature and distant cultures has proven to be a powerful lure, and museums have progressively improved public engagement through increasingly immersive exhibits, participation in field expeditions, and research using museum holdings, all facilitated by new technology. Natural history museums have dispersed across the globe and demonstrated that public fascination with ancient life, vanished environments, exotic animals in remote habitats, cultural diversity, and our place in the cosmos is universal. This volume samples the story of museum development and illustrates that the historical successes of natural history museums have positioned them to be preeminent facilitators of science literacy well into the future.
In his chapter, Oscar Horta outlines that according to a widespread view, nonhuman animals live happy lives in the wild. The truth, he points out however, differs significantly from this. Population dynamics and other findings in biology show that most animals live extremely short and hard lives, and never survive to maturity. Evidence suggests that their lives typically contain more suffering than positive wellbeing. If we reject a speciesist viewpoint, Horta argues, this gives us strong reasons to try to help nonhuman animals in need of aid in nature, even if that conflicts with anthropocentric or environmentalist aims. There are examples of this currently taking place, and further research may significantly increase our capacity to act. To achieve this we need to challenge the view that animals in the wild do not need to be aided.
Consider the interpretation of the sentences in (1)-(3) below. ( 1 ) (a) John sneezed. (b) John played on the beach. (2 ) (a) John sneezed freguently. (b) John often played on the beach. (3 ) (a) John sneezed for two hours/years. (b) John played on the beach for two hours / years.
Of two contending models for eukaryotic evolution the “archezoan“ has an amitochondriate eukaryote take up an endosymbiont, while “symbiogenesis“ states that an Archaeon became a eukaryote as the result of this uptake. If so, organelle formation resulting from new engulfments is simplified by the primordial symbiogenesis, and less informative regarding the bacterium‐to‐mitochondrion conversion. Gradualist archezoan visions still permeate evolutionary thinking, but are much less likely than symbiogenesis. Genuine amitochondriate eukaryotes have never been found and rapid, explosive adaptive periods characteristic of symbiogenetic models explain this. Mitochondrial proteomes, encoded by genes of “eukaryotic origin“ not easily linked to host or endosymbiont, can be understood in light of rapid adjustments to new evolutionary pressures. Symbiogenesis allows “expensive” eukaryotic inventions via efficient ATP generation by nascent mitochondria. However, efficient ATP production equals enhanced toxic internal ROS formation . The synergistic combination of these two driving forces gave rise to the rapid evolution of eukaryotes.
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Wild animals are vastly more numerous than animals on factory farms, in laboratories, or kept as pets. Most of these animals endure intense suffering during their lives, such as from disease, hunger, cold, injury, and chronic fear of predators. Many wild animals give birth to tens or hundreds of offspring at a time, most of which die young, often in painful ways. This suggests that suffering plausibly dominates happiness in nature. Humans are not helpless to reduce wild-animal suffering. Indeed, humans already influence ecosystems in substantial ways, so the question is often not whether to intervene but how to intervene. Because ecology is so complex, we should study carefully how to reduce wild-animal suffering, giving due consideration to unintended long-run consequences. We should also promote concern for wild animals and challenge environmentalist assumptions among activists, academics, and other sympathetic groups. Finally, we should ensure that our descendants think twice before spreading ecosystems to areas where they do not yet exist.
In this review, we discuss the way that insights from evolutionary theory and systems biology shed light on form and function in mammalian reproductive systems. In the first part of the review, we contrast the rapid evolution seen in some reproductive genes with the generally conservative nature of development. We discuss directional selection and coevolution as potential drivers of rapid evolution in sperm and egg proteins. Such rapid change is very different from the highly conservative nature of later embryo development. However, it is not unique, as some regions of the sex chromosomes also show elevated rates of evolutionary change. To explain these contradictory trends, we argue that it is not reproductive functions per se that induce rapid evolution. Rather, it is the fact that biotic interactions, such as speciation events and sexual conflict, have no evolutionary endpoint and hence can drive continuous evolutionary changes. Returning to the question of sex chromosome evolution, we discuss the way that recent advances in evolutionary genomics and systems biology and, in particular, the development of a theory of gene balance provide a better understanding of the evolutionary patterns seen on these chromosomes. We end the review with a discussion of a surprising and incompletely understood phenomenon observed in early embryos: namely the Warburg effect, whereby glucose is fermented to lactate and alanine rather than respired to carbon dioxide. We argue that evolutionary insights, from both yeasts and tumor cells, help to explain the Warburg effect, and that new metabolic modeling approaches are useful in assessing the potential sources of the effect.
The present paper was initially stimulated by attendance at a lecture in Montreal in March 1985 by a young English geologist, Peter G. Williamson, on the results of his researches on Pleistocene shells at a site in Kenya, east of Lake Turkana (formerly Lake Rudolf). Dr. Williamson, who currently holds an appointment at the Agassiz Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, is a keen exponent of the theory of ’punctuated equilibrium’ in evolutionary biology. In his Montreal lecture, he claimed that his observations in Kenya provided compelling empirical evidence that shell forms could remain largely unchanged for very considerable periods, but could also change rapidly on occasions in a series of ’punctuations’.
'Doubting Darwin' seeks to map and analyse the views of leading evolution sceptics in theUnited Kingdom. It is part of the Theos 'Rescuing Darwin' project which aims to demonstrate, on the bicentenary of his birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of 'On the Origin of Species', that Darwin’s theory of evolution does not necessitate atheism, and adherence to orthodox Christianity does not require the rejection of evolution.
Vestigial features of humans and other organisms are well known and have long been used as key evidence for evolution. Such features include not only anatomical structures but also physiological processes, biochemical reactions, and even behaviors. In addition to remnants of evolutionary change, traces of developmental change likewise exist, and it is important to distinguish embryonic remains from true evolutionary vestiges because people confuse evolutionary and developmental changes. To avoid confusion, the term vestige should be reserved for true evolutionary holdovers. This paper presents examples of developmental remnants, which often involve circulatory and reproductive alterations, and discusses numerous other retained or reappearing historical holdovers in ways that reveal the unfolding dynamic interaction between genotype and phenotype. These holdovers are useful in differentiating and relating concepts of phylogeny and ontogeny as well as revealing benefits of historical reasoning in understanding patterns and processes of organismal change.
Kierkegaard rejects the modern concept of objective knowledge and focuses instead on subjectivity, defined as 'inwardness' and 'passion' in detennining what niight be called 'relevant' or 'existential' truth. Truth should thus be understood as an objective uncertainty appropriated passionately by the inward reflective experience of love and faith of the self. Such 'Kierkegaardian 'primacy of epistemology implies that one must first discover the truth about morality and life, in order to try to live out that truth. The proud pursuit of objectivity without a recognition of human limitations, and the dbnension of subjectivity in the process, has proved to be a dead end that emits the stench of manipulation, loss of hun1an dignity, and finally nihilism. Understanding the limits of reason will help us avoid the pitfall of 'scientism ' .
Introducción Un aspecto crucial del pensamiento del naturalista británico James Hutton fue su capacidad de combinar conocimientos de diferentes parcelas de la cultura y de la ciencia en una fórmula integradora y original. Paradójicamente, hay pocos estudios destinados a exa-minar los nexos entre las teorías explicativas sobre la naturaleza y su filosofía. La presente recopilación bibliográfica pretende llamar la atención sobre este vacío y la necesidad de nuevos estudios. Hasta 1900, se realizaron cerca de 50 trabajos para divulgar, examinar, reflejar o refu-tar las explicaciones científicas de Hutton. Sobre todo, sus ideas sobre el origen de ciertos tipos de rocas (como el granito) y la historia de la Tierra merecieron especial atención de los contemporáneos y de dos generaciones de naturalistas en el siglo XIX. Ese valor no dismi-nuyó en el siglo XX, con más de 300 entradas abordando diferentes aspectos históricos y filosóficos de la vida y obra de James Hutton. Un análisis de los poco más de una docena de títulos publicados por el propio Hutton sugiere una obra integrada. Hay ideas e imágenes persistentes que muestran ciertos marcos de su pensamiento. Al abordar temas tan diversos como el calor, las revoluciones de la his-toria de la Tierra, la religión y la moral, se revelan antiguas tradiciones filosóficas hasta auto-res modernos y contemporáneos. En sus fórmulas se encuentran huellas de explicaciones estoicas, humenianas y lockeanas, combinadas con procedimientos taxonómicos y químicos.
There have been repeated calls for a Darwinian approach to hydrologic
science or for a synthesis of Darwinian and Newtonian approaches, to
deepen understanding the hydrologic system in the larger landscape
context, and so develop a better basis for predictions now and in an
uncertain future. But what exactly makes a Darwinian approach to
hydrology "Darwinian"? While there have now been a number of discussions
of Darwinian approaches, many referencing Harte (2002), the term is
potentially a source of confusion while its connections to Darwin remain
allusive rather than explicit. Here we discuss the methods
that Charles Darwin pioneered to understand a variety of complex systems
in terms of their historical processes of change. We suggest that the
Darwinian approach to hydrology follows his lead by focusing attention
on the patterns of variation in populations, seeking hypotheses that
explain these patterns in terms of the mechanisms and conditions that
determine their historical development, using deduction and modeling to
derive consequent hypotheses that follow from a proposed explanation,
and critically testing these hypotheses against new observations. It is
not sufficient to catalogue the patterns or predict them statistically.
Nor is it sufficient for the explanations to amount to a "just-so" story
not subject to critical analysis. Darwin's theories linked present-day
variation to mechanisms that operated over history, and could be
independently test and falsified by comparing new observations to the
predictions of corollary hypotheses they generated. With a
Darwinian framework in mind it is easy to see that a great deal of
hydrologic research has already been done that contributes to a
Darwinian hydrology - whether deliberately or not. The various heuristic
methods that Darwin used to develop explanatory theories - extrapolating
mechanisms, space for time substitution, and looking for signatures of
history - have direct application in hydrologic science. Some are
already in use, while others are not and could be used to develop new
insights. Darwin sought explanatory theories that
intelligibly connected disparate facts, that were testable and
falsifiable, and that had fertile implications for further research.
While a synthesis of the Darwinian and Newtonian approaches remains a
goal, the Darwinian approach to hydrologic science has significant value
of its own The Darwinian hydrology that has been conducted already has
not been coordinated or linked into a general body of theory and
knowledge, but the time is ccoming when this will be possible.
Since Darwin On the Origin of Species over 150 years ago, evolution via natural selection has gained essentially unilateral support among scientists, with 97% of scientists agree that life evolved over time, while a mere 12% to 29% of the general public accepts evolution via natural selection. About three-quarters of the public support teaching creationism in public school science classes--a violation of the First Amendment--and a recent survey shows that just 28% of high school biology teachers advocating for evolution in their classroom, as per the national guidelines.
The present study aims to investigate and clarify certain relationships that lead people to accept or reject evolution, to support the teaching of creationism in science class, and relevant moderators. Part one of the present study aims to clarify the relationship between knowledge of evolution and acceptance of evolution, findings about which have been mixed in previous research. Religiosity as a predictor of acceptance of evolution will be included for replication of previous research. Part two of the present study will examine how acceptance of evolution plays into support for teaching evolution or creationism, and will also examine two potential moderators of this relationship. First, one's confidence in their beliefs about the history of life, and second, one's tolerance for scientific ideas with which they disagree, are expected to moderate their support for teaching evolution or creationism. Part three of the present study aims to examine the effect of arguing in favor of teaching evolution, as per the national guidelines, on people's support for teaching evolution.
This essay extends John Kingdon's work on predecision policy processes in US domestic policy to the foreign policy domain. While Kingdon's insights have significantly improved our understanding of predecision processes, further development is necessary for extension across both domestic and foreign policy domains. Kingdon's incremental evolutionary metaphor for alternative specification has to be revamped to include both gradualist and nonincremental policy types. Scholars must also make more explicit, elaborate, and thorough use of Cohen, March and Olsen's ‘garbage can’ model of decision making. To these ends, we offer a typology of policy alternatives that incorporates alternative metaphors premised on recent developments in evolutionary theory. The essay concludes by suggesting a research agenda amenable to pursuit in both national and cross-national contexts.
This essay takes up a number of the themes highlighted in the paper “Psychology as History, and the Biological Renaissance” (Butler, 1998), and also specifically addresses elements of the three commentaries invited in response to that paper which appear in the current issue of Australian Psychologist (Davidson, 1998; Reser, 1998; Stankov, 1998). Although aspects of these commentaries are challenged, each is seen as making a contribution to debate on issues of race and social justice in contemporary Australia and, more generally, on the wider implications of historicist-contextualist analysis of psychological inquiry. The paper concludes with a discussion of the emergence of constructive or revisionary postmodernism, a perspective which appears to offer the possibility of an overdue “transformation” of psychological practice.
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