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ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the relationship between cultural intelligence and job performance, and
the mediating role of cross-cultural adjustment in that relationship. Based on sample of 332
expatriates working in Malaysia, cultural intelligence predicts job performance, and both the
interaction and work adjustment mediates the relationship. The findings of this study contributes
to the body of knowledge in the cross-cultural management field as well as practical implication
to expatriating firms especially in the area of selection and training of international candidates.
Keywords: Cultural Intelligence, Cross-Cultural Adjustment, Job Performance
1. INTRODUCTION
Globalization and liberalization of trade and services in many part of the world has created an
opportunity for multinational corporations (MNCs) to operate in diverse geographical
environments (Maertz, Hassan & Magnusson, 2009). This effort requires presence of globally
competent workforce, and with it, the intensive use of expatriates (Froese & Peltokorpi, 2011).
Expatriates identified as sojourner who leaves his or her country, under assignment, for business
purpose, with the intent of eventual return (Aycan & Kanungo, 1997). Many MNCs
acknowledged that the effectiveness of expatriates on international assignments is an important
source of competitive advantage for them (Zhang & Dodgson, 2007). Some of the advantages
that companies can gain from sending their employees abroad are establishing new international
markets, spreading and sustaining corporate culture, facilitating organizational coordination
and control, and transferring of technology, knowledge and skills (Huang, Chi & Lawler, 2005;
Shay & Tracey, 2009).
International Journal of Business and Society, Vol. 13 No. 1, 2012, 19 - 32
CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPATRIATE
PERFORMANCE IN GLOBAL ASSIGNMENT: THE
MEDIATING ROLE OF ADJUSTMENT
Subramaniam Sri Ramalu♣
Universiti Utara Malaysia
Raduan Che Rose
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Jegak Uli
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Naresh Kumar
Universiti Putra Malaysia
♣Corresponding author: Subramaniam Sri Ramalu, School of Business Management, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia,
06010 UUM Sintok Kedah, Malaysia, Tel: +6049283634, Email: subra@uum.edu.my
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Research on determining factors of expatriate effectiveness recently found that cultural
intelligence (CQ) is a vital intercultural competency contributing to expatriate success on the
international assignments (Ang et al., 2007). The concept of CQ represents an individual’s
capability for successful adaptation to new and unfamiliar cultural settings and ability to
function easily and effectively in situations characterized by cultural diversity (Earley & Ang,
2003; Ang et al., 2007). It involves openness to experience and a capability to deal effectively
with culturally diverse situations (Ang, Van Dyne & Koh, 2006). Cultural intelligence is a
theoretical extension of existing facet models anchored on the theory of multiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1993). Cultural intelligence, however, is distinct from other forms of non-academic
intelligence, including social intelligence and emotional intelligence, in that CQ requires the
ability to switch from one national cultural environment to another (Earley & Ang, 2003;
Brislin, Worthley, & MacNab, 2006; Thomas, 2006). There is evidence that CQ is a vital
intercultural competency that can predict attitudes and behaviors of individuals working on
international assignments (Alon & Higgins, 2005).
Cultural intelligence is a multidimensional construct consist of meta-cognitive, cognitive,
motivational, and behavioral component (Earley & Ang, 2003). First of these, the meta-
cognitive CQ defined as one’s knowledge or control over cognitions that leads to deep
information processing relating to culture (Ang, Van Dyne, Koh, & Ng, 2004). It consists of
the cognitive strategies that used to acquire and generate coping strategies (Ng & Earley, 2006).
Ang et al. (2004) further stated that meta-cognitive CQ is the individuals’ cultural conscious
and awareness, and is thus manifest in the ability to question cultural assumptions. Relevant
capabilities include planning, monitoring, and revising mental models of cultural norms for
countries or groups of people (Ang et al., 2007).
The cognitive cultural intelligence reflects knowledge of the norms, practices and conventions
in different cultures gained from both the experience and formal education, those universal as
well as culture-specific (Ang et al., 2004; Ang et al., 2007). This includes knowledge of the
economic, legal, and social systems of different cultures and subcultures (Triandis, 1994) and
knowledge of basic frameworks of cultural values. Those with high cognitive CQ understand
similarities and differences across cultures (Brislin et al., 2006).
Motivational cultural intelligence goes beyond recognizing cultural differences, and deals with
the motivation behind cognitive processes and cognitive knowledge; it reflects the interest in
engaging others and the desire to adapt to the other cultures (Ang et al., 2007). This facet of
CQ includes three primary motivators: enhancement (wanting to feel good about oneself),
growth (wanting to challenge and improve oneself), and continuality (the desire for continuity
and predictability in ones’ life) (Earley, Ang, & Tan, 2006). According to Earley and Ang (2003)
and Ng and Earley (2006), this component directs and motivates one’s adaptation to a new
cultural settings. Kanfer and Heggestad (1997, p. 30 cited in Ang et al., 2007, p. 338) argued
that such motivational capacities ‘provide agentic control of affect, cognition, and behavior
that facilitate goal accomplishment’.
Lastly, the behavioral aspect involves the capability to engage in adaptive behaviors in
accordance with cognition and motivation based on cultural values of specific settings. This
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includes having a wide and flexible repertoire of behaviors. According to Earley and Ang
(2003), those with high behavioral CQ capable at exhibit situational appropriate behaviors
based on their broad range of verbal and nonverbal capabilities, such as displaying culturally
appropriate words, tone, gestures, and facial expressions.
In the past, cultural intelligence has been associated with cultural judgment and decision-
making (e.g., Ang et al., 2007; Ang et al., 2004), cultural adaptation (e.g., Ward, Fischer, Lam,
& Hall, 2008; Ang et al., 2007; Ang et al., 2004), cross-cultural adjustment (e.g., Lee & Sukoco,
2007; Templer, Tay, & Chandrasekar, 2006) and task performance (e.g., Ang et al., 2004; Ang
et al., 2007).
This paper is concerned with how cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment (CCA)
affects the job performance of expatriates assigned to Malaysia. Job performance studied as a
main dependent variable since meeting job performance is the ultimate goal of MNCs in
sending their employees on the international assignments, hence achieving organizational goal
(Caligiuri, 1997). As of to date, only two studies have been conducted on the relationship
between CQ and job performance (e.g., Ang et al., 2004; Ang et al., 2007). However, in view
of the inconclusive evidence based on these two studies, it is still uncertain whether CQ is the
determinant of job performance. Moreover, in exception to Tahir and Ismail (2007), no study
conducted in Malaysia. We believe that expatriate population in Malaysia is worth investigating,
particularly because the country has become one of the preferred FDI destinations in the South
East Asia region. Malaysia has to date attracted more than 5,000 foreign companies from more
than 40 countries to establish their operations in the country (Malaysian Industrial Development
Authority, 2009). This indicates that that the country will have to face a continuous increase in
numbers of expatriates admitted in various sectors of employment. It reported that there were
35,583 approved expatriate postings in Malaysia in year 2007 (Immigration Department of
Malaysia, 2008). Hence, we investigate how CCA and CQ related to the job performance of
expatriates assigned to Malaysia. Specifically, the purposes of this study are to ascertain the
nature of the relationships between CQ and job performance, and to examine the mediating
effects of CCA in the relationships.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Cultural Intelligence and Job Performance
Few major studies that have dealt with the relationship between cultural intelligence and job
performance are those of Lee and Sukoco (2010), Che Rose, Sri Ramalu, Uli and Kumar (2010),
Ang et al. (2007) and Ang et al. (2004). In all these studies it was found that there is a significant
positive relationship between CQ and job performance, implying that greater the level of CQ,
greater the level of job performance. Meeting the role expectations is an important element in
the assessment of individual job performance (Katz & Kahn, 1978). In the international
assignments, individuals often receive poor job performance evaluation from their superiors
when they have a different cultural background, do not understand cultural differences in role
expectations and do not conform to role expectations (Stone-Romero, Stone & Salas, 2003).
Subramaniam Sri Ramalu, Raduan Che Rose, Jegak Uli and Naresh Kumar 21
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This phenomenon is more obvious among individuals who came from cultures vastly different
from the host country. Since expectations for performing role prescribed behaviours often differ
across cultures, cultural intelligence will facilitate individuals to perform in their job because
of its more context- or situation-specific nature characterized by cultural diversity. Our
contention is in line with Barrick and Mount’s (1991) finding in domestic research that
extraversion personality is more reliable in predicting performance specifically in sales contexts
that require interaction with others. Individuals high on CQ have the capabilities to gather and
manipulate information, draw inferences and enact on cognitive, emotive or behavioural actions
in response to cultural cues of the host country (Earley & Ang, 2003). Relevant intercultural
competencies such as ability to elaborate cultural schemes (cognitive CQ), question cultural
assumptions (meta-cognitive CQ), focus attention and direct energy toward learning about and
functioning in multicultural situations (motivational CQ) and display a flexible range of verbal
and non-behaviours (behavioural CQ) are all expected to reduce the misunderstandings in role
expectations and eventually enhance the job performance. In order to establish the mediating
role of CCA on the relationship between CQ and job performance, we have decided to test the
presumed relationship as follows:
H1: Cultural intelligence related to job performance.
2.2. Cross-Cultural Adjustment as Mediator of the Relationship between Cultural
Intelligence and Job Performance
We hypothesize that cross-cultural adjustment mediates the effects of cultural intelligence on
job performance. Cross-cultural adjustment conceptualized as the degree of psychological
comfort an expatriate has with the various aspects of a host culture (Black & Stephens, 1989;
Gregersen & Black, 1990). Three specific areas of CCA distinguished in the literature (Black
& Stephens, 1989): Adjustment to (1) general environment (degree of comfort with general
living conditions, such as climate, health care facilities, and food); (2) interaction with
host country nationals; and (3) work (performance standards, job, and supervisory
responsibilities).
Cross-cultural adjustment suggested as a key determinant of expatriate success in their
international assignments. Past research indicated that CCA is a temporal and primary outcome
in an expatriate’s assignment that would influence the development of secondary or more distal
expatriate adjustment (Templer et al., 2006). Among the spillover effects of CCA are strain
(e.g., Hechanova, Beehr & Christiansen, 2003), job satisfaction (e.g., Takeuchi, Yun, & Tesluk,
2002), organizational commitment (e.g., Naumann, 1993; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998), job
performance (e.g., Shay & Baack, 2006; Kim & Slocum, 2008), and premature return from
assignment (e.g., Black & Stephens, 1989; Hechanova et al., 2003).
Albeit limited, the available research has indicated a relationship between cultural intelligence
and cross-cultural adjustment (e.g., Ang et al., 2004; Templer et al., 2006; Ang et al., 2007;
Lee & Sukoco, 2007; Ward, Fischer, Lam & Hall, 2008; Sri Ramalu, Che Rose, Kumar & Uli,
2010). In general, these results showed that CQ is positively related to CCA implying that the
greater the CQ level, greater the CCA level. According to Church (1982), cross-culturally
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adjusted expatriates”... represent a more integrative approach to a new culture, (they) are open
to the host culture, but integrate new behavior, norms and roles into the foundation provided
by (their) home cultures” (p. 542). Since CQ is a person’s capability to adapt effectively to
new cultural contexts (Earley & Ang, 2003), individuals high in CQ is expected to adjust better
in new cultural environment in their international assignment. Additionally, based on stress
management theories of psychological stress perspective, since intercultural interactions
involves a series of stress-provoking life changes that draw on adjustive resources and require
coping responses; CCA, therefore, is conceptualized by successfully coping with change. Based
on Ang et al.’s (2007) analysis, certain CQ facets such as motivational and behavioral CQ
expected to negate psychological stress, thus leads to higher level of CCA.
The relationship between cross-cultural adjustment and job performance has been studied by
many researchers in the past (e.g., Parker & McEvoy, 1993; Caligiuri, 1997; Kraimer, Wayne
& Jaworski, 2001; Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer & Luk, 2005; Shay & Baack, 2006;
Kim & Slocum, 2008; Lee & Sukoco, 2010). The results of the studies reveals that CCA is
positively related to job performance implying that the greater the CCA level, greater the job
performance level. According to stress literature (Cohen, 1988), inability to cope with the stress
associated with adjusting to an overseas assignment may result in personal and professional
withdrawal behaviors (e.g., depression, absence) and that these behaviors may inhibit job
performance. This is because stress experienced due to inability to adjust to new cultural
environment will create cognitive fatigue and rob the energy and effort required for successful
implementation of work, hence job performance is affected (Kraimer et al., 2001).
The function of a mediator variable is to explain the relationship between a predictor and a
criterion; mediators should explain why such an effect might occur (Baron & Kenny, 1986).
In this paper, we hypothesize that CCA function as mediator in the relationship between CQ
and job performance. Past research has indicated that there are significant relationships between
CCA and both CQ and job performance. Given the pattern of relationships, we strongly believe
that the relationship of CQ to job performance mediated by CCA. Previous research has
suggested that CCA might mediate the relationship between various individual differences and
diverse expatriate assignment effectiveness (Kim, Kirkman, & Chen, 2006; Kraimer et al.,
2001; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Indeed, few researchers have provided the evidence for
the mediating role of CCA on the relationship between individual differences and job
performance of expatriates (Shaffer, Harrison, Gregersen, Black, & Ferzandi, 2006; Kim &
Slocum, 2008; Wang & Takeuchi, 2007). Despite this development, the evidence on the
mediating role of CCA on the relationship between CQ and job performance has been absent
in the literature, hence gap of the study. Viewing from the work-role transition hypothesis
(Nicholson, 1984), individual with a higher level of CQ expected to perform in their job through
a successful work transition to new international assignments because they are more capable
of adapting effectively to a new cultural context. Drawing from above argument, we
hypothesize that:
H2: Cross-cultural adjustment mediates the relationship between cultural intelligence and job
performance.
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Sample
The participants in the study were expatriates currently working and residing in Malaysia. A
total of 500 mail and 500 online questionnaires were distributed. Of these, 339 questionnaires
replied. The initial response rate was 34%, which is consistent with other typical response rates
(20-30%) in most expatriate studies (e.g., Harrison & Shaffer, 2005). Out of 339, 7 were
unusable responses, resulting in final sample of 332, representing a 33% return rate. The sample
included 252 (75.9%) men and 80 (24.1%) women. Participants age included 122 (36.7%)
between 42-52 and 103 (31.0%) between 31-41 years old. Participants marital status included
251 (75.6%) married and 54 (16.3%) unmarried. In terms of prior overseas experience, 251
(75.6) has previous international experience and 81 (24.4%) has no experience. Participants
job status included 169 (50.9%) in managerial position and 163 (49.1%) in non-managerial
position. Participants education status included 119 (35.8%) with degree and 85 (25.6%) with
masters degree. Distribution of sample by industry sector included 112 (33.7%) working in
service sector, 109 (32.8%) in other sector and 84 (25.3%) in manufacturing. Participants length
of stay in Malaysia ranged from 2 to 24 years (M=4.80, SD=3.40). Tenure with present
organization ranged from 2 to 25 years (M=7.25, SD=4.45). The participants are come from
various countries with majority 51 (15.4%) are from India, 39 (11.7%) from UK, 32 (9.6%)
from Australia, and 200 (63.3%) from some other 42 countries.
3.2. Instrumentation
Four background variables (gender, prior overseas experience, length of stay in Malaysia and
language proficiency) identified as correlates of expatriate attitudes and behaviors controlled
for in this study (Hechanova et al., 2003; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998; Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun &
Lepak, 2005). This is to avoid our findings from be spuriously attributed to various background
characteristics.
The predictor variable, cultural intelligence measured with the 20-item, self-reported Four
Factor Model of Cultural Intelligence Scale developed and validated by Ang et al. (2007). The
scale includes four items for meta-cognitive CQ, six for cognitive CQ, five for motivational
CQ, and five for behavioral CQ. Sample items include “I am conscious of the cultural
knowledge I apply to cross cultural interaction” for meta-cognitive CQ; “I know the legal and
economic systems of other cultures” for cognitive CQ; “I enjoy interacting with people from
different cultures” for motivational CQ; and “I change my verbal behavior when a cross-cultural
interactions requires it” for behavioral CQ. Respondents were asked to use a seven-point Likert-
type scale range from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7) to indicate the extent to which
each item describes their capabilities. Cronbach’s alphas for meta-cognitive, cognitive,
motivational, and behavioral CQ were 0.76, 0.76, 0.79, and 0.77 respectively (Ward et al.,
2008).
Seventeen items measured the dependent variable, job performance. Of these, five items were
adapted from work of Black and Porter (1991) and twelve items from work of Caligiuri (1997).
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The scale includes five items for task performance, five for contextual performance, and seven
for assignment-specific performance. Sample item include “your effectiveness at completing
tasks on time” for task performance; “your effectiveness at foster organizational commitment
among host country nationals” for contextual performance; and “your effectiveness at
transferring information across strategic units” for assignment-specific performance.
Respondents were asked to rate their perceived ability in each of the job performance items in
comparison to their peers in similar positions on seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(much worse than most) to 7 (much better than most) for each items. Cronbach’s alpha for task,
contextual and assignment-specific performance was 0.86, 0.63, and 0.67 respectively
(Caligiuri, 1997; Shay & Baack, 2006).
The mediator, cross-cultural adjustment measured with 14-item, self-reported Expatriate
Adjustment Scale adopted from Black and Stephens (1989). Seven items assessed general
adjustment (e.g. housing, food, and shopping); four items assessed interactions adjustment (e.g.
socializing with people from the host culture); and three items assessed work adjustment (e.g.
job responsibilities and performance standards/expectations). Respondents asked to use a seven-
point Likert-type scale to indicate the extent to which each item indicates their adjustment to
various living and working conditions in the new environment abroad. Response choice
alternatives ranged from 1 (very unadjusted) to 7 (completely adjusted). Cronbach’s alphas for
general adjustment, interactions adjustment, and work adjustment were 0.91, 0.82, and 0.86
respectively (Black & Stephens, 1989).
3.3. Data Analyses
After standardizing all of the control variables, hierarchical multiple regression analyses
conducted to test the hypotheses. Support for the mediation hypothesis required the following
condition: the independent variable must significantly impacts the mediating variable in the
first step; the independent variable must significantly impacts the dependent variable in the
second step; and in the third step, the mediating variable must significantly impacts the
dependent variable. Additionally, in the third step the impact of independent variable on the
dependent must either become insignificant (total mediation) or become significant but the
effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable would be reduced in size (partial
mediation) (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Thus, H2 supported by an initially significant CQ effect
on job performance that became non-significant when CCA entered the equation in third step.
The Sobel (1982) z test conducted to test whether the mediator carries the influence of the
independent variable to dependent variable.
4. RESULTS
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations among the study
variables. Support for H1 required a significant relationship between CQ and job performance.
This hypothesis was accepted, as the results indicated that CQ was positively related to job
performance before and after control (r= 0.27, p< 0.01 and β= 0.29, p< 0.01).
Subramaniam Sri Ramalu, Raduan Che Rose, Jegak Uli and Naresh Kumar 25
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H2 predicted that cross-cultural adjustment would mediate the relationship between cultural
intelligence and job performance. Three equations estimated for each dimensions of CCA
(general, interaction, and work adjustment). The estimators of the parameters involving mediator
variable of general adjustment derived from equation 1A, 1B, and 1C. Meanwhile equation 2A,
2B, and 2C estimated for analysis involving interaction adjustment as the mediating variable.
Finally, equation 3A, 3B, and 3C involves work adjustment as the mediator variable.
Consistent with Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedure for testing mediating effect, interaction
adjustment (β=0.16, p<0.05) and work adjustment (β=0.26, p<0.01) are significantly related
to job performance in step three (see Table 2). The predictor variable (CQ) in step three is
significant and the beta value has reduced in size when the mediating variables (interaction
and work adjustment) entered in the equation (see model 2c and 3c). This indicates that both
the interaction and work adjustment partially mediates the relationship between CQ and job
performance. The Sobel (1982) z test (not shown) conducted to test whether the mediator
(interaction and work adjustment) carries the influence of the CQ to job performance shows
the results are all significant, p < 0.05. Hence, it is fair to conclude that H2 partially supported.
Cultural Intelligence and Expatriate Performance in Global Assignment: The Mediating Role of Adjustment
26
Table 1: Descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients and correlations (N=332)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
SD
Gender 0.76 0.43 -
Experience 0.76 0.43 0.12* -
Length 4.80 3.40 0.03 -0.03 -
Language 3.57 0.70 -0.16** 0.21** 0.16** -
CQ 5.54 0.51 -0.10 0.08 0.16** 0.32** (0.89)
GA 5.71 0.70 -0.05 0.02 0.21** 0.31** 0.45** (0.83)
IA 5.66 0.76 0.00 -0.03 0.28** 0.32** 0.55** 0.55** (0.86)
WA 5.98 0.80 0.15** 0.08 0.16** 0.06 0.23** 0.24* 0.29** (0.90)
Performance 5.58 0.56 0.19** 0.01 0.14* 0.04 0.27** 0.10 0.28** 0.34** (0.911)
Notes: Coefficient alphas are presented along the diagonal *p < .05 **p <.01
CQ=cultural intelligence; GA=general adjustment; IA=interaction adjustment; WA=work adjustment
Variable Mean
9
8
Table 2: Results of mediated regression analyses for cultural intelligence on job performance (N=332)
JP
(3C)
JP
(2C)
JP
(1C)
JP
(1B, 2B & 3B)
WA
(3A)
IA
(2A)
GA
(1A)
Controls 4
Gender 0.02 0.09 0.16** 0.21*** 0.21*** 0.20*** 0.17***
Experience -0.04 -0.11* 0.05 -0.03 -0.03 -0.01 -0.04
Length 0.12* 0.17** 0.12* 0.09 0.10 0.06 0.06
Language 0.19*** 0.18*** -0.01 -0.03 -0.02 -0.06 -0.02
Predictor
CQ 0.37*** 0.49*** 0.23*** 0.29*** 0.31*** 0.21** 0.23***
Mediator
GA -0.04
IA 0.16*
WA 0.26***
∆R20.12*** 0.21*** 0.07*** 0.00 0.02 0.06***
R20.25*** 0.38*** 0.13*** 0.13*** 0.14*** 0.19***
F21.652 39.512 9.615 8.088 9.120 12.457
Independent variables
Notes: *p < .05; **p < .01; CQ=cultural intelligence; GA=general adjustment; IA=interaction adjustment; WA=work
adjustment; JP=job performance
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5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The purpose of this paper is to enhance our knowledge of the individual determinants of job
performance for expatriates assigned to Malaysia. We examine how CQ influences job
performance both directly and indirectly. In this study, both the interaction and work adjustment
found to partially mediates the relationship between CQ and job performance. This means the
variance in job performance attributable to CQ is partly a direct effect, and partly an indirect
effect mediated through interaction and work adjustment. Therefore, in this study it can be
concluded that in addition to the direct effect, CQ (independent variable) predicts CCA
(mediator variable), and CCA in turn predicts job performance (dependent variable) among
expatriates in Malaysia. The results of this study appears to be in line with stress theories
(Cohen, 1988) contention that individual differences (e.g., knowledge, skill, ability, personality)
helps to negate psychological stress experienced in the new cultural environment. The ability
to cope with stress associated with uncertainty and ambiguity in new cultural environment will
result in better CCA. The spillover effects suggest that this successful transition to new cultural
environment helps individuals to perform in their job as more energy and focus given in
accomplishing the task. Hence, the fit achieved between individual differences and CCA is
necessary in order for the expatriates to perform in their job. The results of the study are
generally congruent with the findings of studies examining the mediating effect of CCA in the
western context although does not involve individual difference of CQ (Shaffer et al., 2006;
Wang & Takeuchi, 2007; Kim & Slocum, 2008).
Given these results, there are few implications for organizations and individuals considering
international assignments. The interrelationships among CQ, CCA and job performance suggest
that both the CQ and CCA are important in enhancing job performance. Those with high CQ
tended to adjust better to new cultural environment and more likely to perform in their job.
Expatriating firms can consider the use of selection methods that include testing for CQ.
Organizations may also benefit in providing adequate training to enhance CQ in the preparation
of potential candidates for international assignments. Organizational developmental programs
such as mentoring or coaching from both the home and host country supervisors and peers may
help expatriates adapt and perform better in different cultural environment. Role play for
instance has been suggested as one of training approach to enhance one’s CQ level (Earley &
Peterson, 2004). The evidence found on the mediating role of CCA on the relationship between
CQ and job performance suggests that organizations need to take necessary action to improve
the CCA so that a higher level of job performance achieved. Organizational social support (e.g.,
host country manager support) and logistical help (e.g., housing, schooling and spousal
employment) will help expatriates to overcome the stress and uncertainty experienced during
their CCA process to a new cultural environment (Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999; Bhaskar-
Shrinivas et al., 2005). The implication of the findings of the study is not only extended to
organizations, but also to expatriate employees. The findings of this study may offer
expatriates an opportunity to prepare and to compensate for personal deficiency in the CQ
before departing from home country and while on an international assignment. Better
understanding of perceived job fit before taking up an international assignment can help
employees to avoid the emotional, psychological and career-oriented repercussions of failure
while on an international assignment.
Subramaniam Sri Ramalu, Raduan Che Rose, Jegak Uli and Naresh Kumar 27
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This study has certain limitations that provide venues for future research. First, job performance
is not the only criterion for expatriate effectiveness. Other criterion such as job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and turnover intention should be included in the future study.
Second, we acknowledge that some concerns might exist in that self-reported measures (i.e.,
CQ, CCA, job performance) have social desirability and common method bias problem.
Therefore, future research should include assessment from multiple sources including peers,
subordinates, and superiors. Third, a cross-sectional study design restricts the ability to prove
a cause-effect relationship. Future research should considering longitudinal study since CQ is
a dynamic competency that is malleable capability and therefore their affects on CCA and job
performance may varies over time. A longitudinal study would provide better knowledge on
these changes that took place over the time. Finally, since this study assesses expatriates
perceived ability in CQ and various effectiveness criterions, conducting a qualitative study
using interview or observation may provide broader understanding of how CQ affects these
outcomes.
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