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ICTintegrationsinTVET:Isitupto
expectations?
DATASET·NOVEMBER2014
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UniversitiTunHusseinOnnMalaysia
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MaizamAlias
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ICT integrations in TVET: Is it up to expectations?
Zurina Yasak1 and Maizam Alias2
1,2Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 zurina.yasak@gmail.com, 2 maizam@uthm.edu.my.
ABSTRACT
In today’s world where information and
communication technology is playing a major
role in people’s daily lives, how a student learns
is dependent on how the student reacts to the
sophisticated system offered by these
technologies. Thus, it is not surprising that
online learning is accepted as an important tool
in the general education sector. However its
adoption in Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET) is yet to reach the
equivalence of the general education sector.
With the availability of state of the art online
learning technology, there is greater opportunity
for acquiring the technology that can support
TVET practices. The aim of this paper is to
discuss the trend of ICT integration in teaching
and learning in TVET based on a systematic
review of ICT integration in post-secondary
TVET. The focus is mainly on the “what’ and
“how” aspects of ICT integration in TVET. The
literature reviewed indicates that while ICT
integration can be aimed at the learning goals in
the three domains, the affective, cognitive and
psychomotor domain; its effectiveness is more
noted where learning goals are of the cognitive
domains. More effective integration is also
indicated where the blended mode is adopted as
compared to the fully ICT mediated
mode. Lessons learnt in light of these findings
are discussed for future ICT integration in
TVET.
Keywords: ICT integration in TVET, online
learning, instructional design
1. INTRODUCTION
TVET has evolved from providing well-
trained basic operators to providing
professional knowledge workers as suggested
by [1]; “The primary goal of skills training is
to provide youth with practical techniques and
skills based on professional knowledge rather
than manufacture well-trained basic
operators” (p.47).With this aim in mind the
demarcation between education and training or
learning and training has become blurred as it
should be. Thus within a training program
there are now elements of learning and
education and future training programs must
integrate cognitive learning needs - that used to
be less emphasized - in addition to the much
emphasized psychomotor training needs.
However, demands for hands on skills training
is still a hallmark for TVET.
Reliance on instructors who have
occupational skills in addition to theoretical
professional knowledge is high in TVET
although less so in the general education
sector. Having good facilities, effective
administration and willing trainees by
themselves cannot achieve a good TVET
program without the skilled instructors to
deliver the training. Thus providing skilled
instructors becomes the overriding concern
where training program in TVET is concerned.
However, providing adequate number of
instructors who possess the appropriate
occupational skills and professional knowledge
for specific area of skills training is not easy as
most skilled professionals prefer to work in
industries rather than in the education sector.
Replacing skilled instructors is definitely not
an option but supporting instructors’ role with
technology could be a potential solution that
can to be looked into. With the availability of
advanced online learning technology, high
hopes are in place that some of the issues
related to lack of skilled instructors could now
be resolved.
Indeed, teaching and learning has been
identified as one of the twelve potential areas
for ICT applications in TVET [2] (pg. 14). The
paper has also recommended the specific
subject matter content where ICT support has
been adopted in general education and its
mode of implementation (full or blended).
However, the outcomes of the implementations
of ICT in teaching and learning practices in
TVET are yet to be fully explored.
Furthermore, ICT integration requires high
investment (installations, maintenance, and
technical support and teacher trainings in
specific pedagogy) [3]. Therefore, before we
can plan for an effective integration of ICT on
a large scale in TVET, we need to have a good
idea of how effective ICT integration in TVET
has been to date and what can be done to
improve the current situation.
ICT can be targeted for applications in at
least four areas where one of it is for classroom
utilization [4]. However, according to the [3],
there is not much empirical evidence on the
effectiveness of ICT for targeted learning
outcomes. In their 2013 report on the key
issues related to ICT in education, they report
that ICT is mostly used “…as tools for
presentation rather than the often cited
promotion of “21st century skills.” Thus, it is
of interest to actually see if the use of ICT in
TVET is any different since this report. The
relatively limited information on the current
use of ICTs in TVET is making this review
more relevant as even publications by
UNESCO are focusing on ICT applications in
general education rather than in TVET [5].
In the background note of the [4] one of the
key discussion topics is on ‘ICTs in the
classroom: how can ICTs be used to improve
learning outcomes?’ Under this topic several
pertinent questions were raised that continue to
be relevant till today. Based on their questions,
three questions were adapted and reproduced
here to guide this review:-
1. How do teachers incorporate ICTs in their
teaching? Specifically, what ICT
applications were used? Are they
specifically designed or readily available in
the market? How were the ICT applications
designed and were HCI and learning
theories taken into considerations in the
design of the ICT applications?
2. Does the use of ICTs help to improve the
quality of teaching and learning outcomes?
Specifically, what learning domains are
being improved (cognitive, affective or
psychomotor domain?) and what is less
improved?
3. What can be done to improve the
effectiveness of ICT integrations? (i.e. more
educational resources & content,
international input, more communications
between teachers and learners, empowering
learners & enabling independent study,
information sharing etc.)
2. SCOPE
For the purpose of this paper, the term ICT
refers to the technology that facilitate users in
accessing, gathering, manipulating and
presenting or communicating information
while online learning refers to learning
experience via networking technology. This
definition is in line with that of [6]. Based on
these definitions, ICT is mandatory for online
learning to be implemented but ICT integration
does not necessarily mean that online learning
is actually being implemented. As to the
definition of effectiveness, efforts on online
learning or ICT integration in teaching and
learning can be considered to be effective and
successful if online learning can be provided
without sacrificing students’ performance [7].
At the same time, it can be considered to be
cost-effective if students’ course outcomes
from the online mode (or ICT mediated mode)
are the same as the face-to-face mode [7]. For
this paper however, costs-effectiveness of the
ICT integrations in the reviewed studies was
not evaluated as many of these studies do not
actually report the cost effectiveness of the
ICT integrations and neither do they indicate
man hours or developmental and maintenance
cost of systems and application that can be
used as measures of cost-effectiveness.
3. METHODOLOGY
A systematic review was undertaken where
20 research publications assessing the
effectiveness of ICT applications in TVET
classrooms over the recent years from 2003 to
2014 were reviewed. This period is deemed
appropriate for the review purpose as
publications on e-learning in TVET has only
started to emerge in greater numbers from
around 2003 [2] (pg 112). The limited number
of publications being reviewed is due to the
selection criteria where only studies using the
experimental design method was included in
the review. Only publications reporting
experimental design study is taken into account
in accordance with the recommendations by
[2] that emphasizes the importance of using
experimentation and experience study in
assessing the true value (or effect) of learning
technologies (pg 124).
In this review, to answer the first research
question, how ICT were used were classified
into mode and learning target. For mode of
applications, it was divided into three namely,
a) fully mediated (as in distance learning), b)
blended (partially) c) supplementary. Mode is
of concern as a meta-analyses study by the US
Department of Education on ICT in education
indicate that mode of instruction does not seem
to matter so much [7] while intuition indicates
otherwise for TVET applications. At the same
time we were also interested in knowing the
type of applications that were being used,
(customized/ available in the market) and the
design foundations of these applications (do
they take into account human computer
interactions (HCI) and learning
theories/instructional sign theories?
For the target of learning, analysis results
was divided into three domains 1) knowledge
(cognitive), 2) attitude (affective) and 3) skills
(psychomotor) as defined by [8], [9] and [10].
Further sub-classifications were made of these
goals, i.e. supporting goals or main learning
goals. For example, an affective learning
outcome can play a supporting goal for a main
learning goal in a psychomotor or cognitive
domain or the affective outcome can be the
ultimate goal in itself. Similarly, for the mode
of ICT integration, further subdivisions were
made for greater understanding.
To answer the second research question, the
learning outcomes of the reported interventions
are identified and discussed. Lastly to answer
the third research question, suggestions on
improvements were made based on lessons
learnt from the success and failures.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Results of the analysis are presented
according to the sequence of the research
questions.
4.1. How do teachers incorporate ICTs in
their teaching and what kind of ICT
applications do they use?
The distribution of research that target
specific learning domains when ICT were
incorporated is shown in Figure 1. Details of
papers reviewed are shown in Table 1 (in
Appendix 1). All of the 20 research
publications reviewed were found to be
integrating ICT in the teaching and learning for
the cognitive learning goal where ICT
integration was aimed at improving subject
specific knowledge and understandings.
Typical examples are found in the following
publications [11]–[14].
Half of these studies were also focusing on
both the cognitive and psychomotor learning
goals i.e., skills specific in the discipline of
study [15]–[22]. Less than 50% of the research
reviewed (43% to be exact) was focusing on
both the cognitive and affective learning goals
such as those in the following publications
[14], [23]–[25]. The lower focus on the
affective learning goals is highly surprising as
improvement in affective attributes is one of
the strengths of ICT. Furthermore, studies
indicate that affects should always be
monitored hand in hand with cognitive or
psychomotor teaching and learning practices as
affects is highly effective in promoting and
sustaining learning efforts [26]. Lastly, only
24% of the studies reviewed were focusing on
all three domains using e-learning [1], [27]–
[30].
Figure 1 Distribution of studies according to
target learning outcomes (cognitive, affective
and psychomotor)
With regard to mode, 57% of the studies
reviewed indicate that teaching and learning
using ICT was in the fully mediated mode. In
these studies by [1], [11], [12], [15], [18], [20],
[21], [24], [28], [29], the aim was to test if full
ICT integration can improve concept learning.
In the rest of the studies, i.e., in [13], [14],
[16], [17], [19], [23], [25], [27], [29], the aim
was to gain benefits from ICT integration in
teaching and learning process through partial
integration of ICT. One of the papers reviewed
reported the use of ICT on special needs
learners. In this case ICT was utilized to
20
9
13
9
13
5
010 20 30
Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor
Cognitive + Affective
Cognitive +
Psychomotor
Cognitive + Affective
+ Psychomotor
Frequency
develop skills for overcoming learning
difficulties [27].
Where skills training was a primary goal of
ICT integration, the courses involved were
diverse such as computer aided drawing
(CAD) [1]; footwear design [19], web
development [17], networking [28], plumbing
[15], non-destructive testing [20], heat transfer
[18] which are all courses in engineering
program. There is also ICT integration for
skills development in sports science such as
the anterior/posterior stability course [21] and
motor skill assessment for physical education
and kinesiology teachers [22].
Regarding the type of applications, 5%
were readily available applications and 95%
were customized. Only [17] used WebCT (now
brought by Blackboard) as the delivery
platform. WebCT is one of the biggest
subscriptions of e-learning systems in campus
life. WebCT provide most all features required
in e-learning [31]. In spite of that, user may not
be able to put certain files which are not
supported by the system and to display their
material according to their needs because of
the inflexible system. For customized
applications, the instructional design theories
do not appear to be considered or simply not
being reported. In fact, only one study
mentions the theoretical underpinning of their
applications i.e., a study by [22] who states
that they use behavioral learning principles in
their computer based instruction module.
Out of 20 papers reviewed, only [12], [15],
[18] integrate e-learning with virtual
experience such as virtual laboratory while in
the other 14 studies (67 %), skills development
and performance were always practiced in a
face-to-face mode. Four papers reviewed
(14%) were adopting ICT integration without
e-learning due to infrastructure issues. The
summary of papers reviewed according to
mode and aim of study can be referred back to
Table 1 (Appendix 1).
Design wise, customized design seems to be
the norm but learning theories do not appear to
be routinely incorporated into the e-learning or
the ICT-based learning applications. Only [22]
study mention what learning theories had been
adopted into the design. Most of the papers
(95%) do not seem to be much concern about
learning theories in their design. These finding
is similar to [32] where they found only 16%
of the papers that they reviewed actually
mention about applying learning theories into
their ICT applications design. However, this
does not mean that educators in TVET have
ignored the role of learning theories in their
design. They may have used their “personal
learning theories” to develop their system or
applications which can be largely based on
their experience as learners or instructors.
4.2. Does the use of ICTs help to improve
the quality of teaching and learning
outcomes?
To answer the second research question on
effect on ICT integration on learning outcome,
the effect of the reported interventions will be
discussed. Discussion will be divided into
three types of decisions on the outcomes of
ICT integrations; superior and effective,
effective and poorly effective. Superior
effective is when, the outcomes for the ICT
group surpassed the comparison group that do
not used ICT; effective is when the ICT group
performs equally as the comparison group that
do not use ICT and poorly effective is when
the ICT group performs worse than the
comparison group that do not use ICT.
4.2.1. Superior effective outcome
Superior effective outcomes were found in
studies that focusing on the learning for the
cognitive and psychomotor domain. In one
study, [12] compare the spatial visualization
skills of first year engineering students who
learned with and without using handheld touch
screen devices. They found that students in the
group with the handheld devices show greater
improvement in average spatial visualization
score compared to students without devices. In
a previous study by [18], the lack of virtual
laboratory using handheld touch screen devices
that delays the video transfer data forces them
to abandon video element in their applications.
However, they still find superior outcome for
the ICT group.
For the learning of the psychomotor
domain, a study by [16] found that students
who undergo video-based instruction in block-
laying and concreting course have significantly
greater practical skill competence compared to
a non ICT group. Similarly, [28] also found
greater improvement in skill acquisition
towards computer networking courses after
ICT mediated training. [28] suggested that
collaboration between peers during the
learning session contribute to the significant
finding. Finding from [17] also support the
conclusion that ICT integration enhances
participant’s learning outcomes and
satisfaction in collaborative activities with
their instructor and peers.
ICT integrations have also found to be
useful in training trainers. [22] study show
successful outcome when pre-service teachers
in kinesiology performed better on assessing a
motor skill after using Motor Skill Assessment
Program (MSAP) training. MSAP training is a
version of computer-based instruction (CBI)
designed based on behavior learning theory
equip for adult learner.
4.2.2. Effective outcomes
Some studies fail to provide evidence for
superiority of online learning or ICT mediated
learning over traditional learning. For example,
in [1] the researchers found that there is no
significant difference between students who
learned architectural drawings and designs
using the traditional teaching method and
students using a multimedia courseware with
respect to professional cognition or skill
operation cognition. This indicates that the ICT
mediated learning is as effective in promoting
cognition development – if not better than the
traditional method - as suggested by [7]. Thus
either method can be used with success
depending on the situations. Interestingly, the
ICT group reported greater feeling of
satisfaction compared to the traditional group.
This indicates that while ICT mediated
learning may not be superior to traditional
learning for cognitive development, ICT
mediated learning is superior where learning of
the affective domain is concerned.
Improvement in affects can be a motivating
factor for self regulating and self directed
learning [1], [23]–[25], [27].
In another study by [11] on high school
TVE students, they found that ICT mediated
learning was equally effective as the traditional
method. They found that there was no
difference in students’ achievement in
knowledge on electronics (cognitive domain)
between students who learn using the
interactive educational training software and
students who underwent laboratory work and
lessons in the traditional way. This study
involved a Foundations of Information
Technology course for TVE high school
program. Again, this is an example of e-
learning for cognitive development rather than
on procedural skills or psychomotor skills
training that is often the trademark of TVET.
The outcome indicates that ICT mediated
learning is equally effective as traditional
method of learning for cognitive development
purposes but the study does not however
indicate that the ICT mediated mode is less or
more cost-effective.
Due to its superiority in meeting the
affective learning needs, ICT integration into
teaching and learning has been especially
indicated where special needs education is
concerned. In one study on TVET students
with special needs, the effect of an e-learning
environment that was specifically designed
(the SEVERI) to cater to students with a range
of physical, communicational, emotional and
cognitive disabilities, which cause learning
difficulties in reading, writing and perceiving
skills was evaluated [27]. To cater to the
students’ needs, the interfaces were designed
in larger fonts and clearer format. The findings
indicate that most students show higher
motivation, learning skills and achieve greater
performance in the specified assessment.
Additional benefits were obtained where
teachers’ work in planning and organizing
teaching and learning sessions became more
efficient. The finding indicates that the special
learners in TVET may benefit with the
integration of ICT into their learning.
4.2.3. Poorly effective outcomes
Although, previous studies indicate positive
learning outcomes when the aim of ICT
incorporation is to improve cognitive learning,
where skills development is the target, ICT
mediated/e-learning seems to be unhelpful
according to the studies reviewed. Among the
thirteen studies that attempt to improve skills
[1], [15]–[22], [27]–[30], only 31% of the
study actually shows superiority of ICT
mediated learning i.e., the study by [12], [16],
[17], [22].
In the other studies the mode was fully
mediated in some [11], [12], [15], [18], [20],
[21], [24] and blended in others [1], [13], [14],
[16], [17], [23], [25], [27]. Other than [12],
[16], [17], [22], ICT integration produce
poorer skills compared to traditional method of
learning. For example, in the study by [21],
ICT integration in the form of e-leaning (fully
mediated) seems to make learning worse rather
than better, a phenomenon that requires further
research to understand its root cause. [21]
attempted to teach the Lachman’s test as
anterior and posterior stability course in the
sport science program via the computer-based
interactive multimedia program. The finding
indicates that the computer group has
psychomotor skill that is significantly worse
than students who were taught via traditional
laboratory instruction. This study is an
example of skills training attempt via e-
learning. In another study by [23] on English
for specific purpose (ESP) in semi-conductor
technology course also show the same result.
Similar to the previous studies, [23] study
indicate that adult learner are more satisfied
with face-to-face instruction without
courseware even though in distance learning
mode.
Over all, the studies seem to indicate that
existing ICT mediated or e-learning initiatives
is not effective for developing occupational
hands-on skills but quite effective at
developing cognitive and meeting affective
learning needs. It also appears that blended
mode seems to be better at improving skills.
These factors are highly related to the design
aspect of the initiatives.
5. CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING
ICT MEDIATED-LEARNING IN TVET
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the review, design factors –
designing the appropriate learning
environments that meet the requirements of the
target users - have been identified as key
factors in promoting success of ICT integration
namely consideration of target group,
consideration of the learning domain and
tools/materials design. The following
suggestions that are classified into four
categories; target group, target learning
domain, mode of delivery and tool/material
design are presented to promote ICT
integrations at the classroom level so as to
encourage more knowledge sharing and
creations.
5.1. Deciding on the target group
Design of ICT should carefully consider the
target group in addition to the learning
objectives as introducing ICT into a classroom
need special planning to ensure its successful
implementation. Although, it seems so simple
to simply take an available application and
introduce it in the classroom, an inappropriate
application may fail for the wrong target
group. For example, most applications are in
English and thus a significant target group
could be is English language learner or English
speaking learners. A group that does not speak
English will not learn much from English
medium applications.
This review indicates that, many learners
groups may benefit such as those from the
medical, engineering, science and art
disciplines as the courses can be delivered
from distant or in house. Special learners also
seem to be a good target group for ICT
integrated learning. Advanced ICT
applications on the other hand can give benefit
to special learners either physically or
mentally. For example, voice recognition
applications are helpful to a visually impaired
learner while pastel color scan be used to
reduce eye strain, headaches due to heavy
reading. However, adult learners seem to favor
face to face learning more than ICT mediated
learning. Thus, choosing the target learner is
important in ensuring success of ICT mediated
learning. What target learners prefer counts not
what administrator or educators prefer.
5.2. Deciding on the target learning domain
Although benefit on cognitive development
or psychomotor development is not consistent
depending on mode, course, specific type of
ICT, group of learner and time spending, but
benefit on affective domain is always
consistent. Through all papers review show
consistency in satisfaction in learning [1],
[12]–[14], [23], [33], enjoyment in lab session
[14] and management in teaching and learning
become smoothly [24], [27], [34]. Thus, the
“feel good” factor can be further explored to
support learning of the other domains.
Compared to the psychomotor domain, ICT
integration seems to be more successful for the
cognitive. However, this finding could be
simply due to the quality of the technology
being used in these studies that limits the
capability of applications. More high-end
technology such as those used for pilot and
surgeon training may produce better outcomes
for psychomotor skills development.
Nonetheless in such cases, we have to really
consider the cost-effectiveness of the
integrations.
Overall, it can be said that ICT integrations
is highly supportive of the affective learning
needs which should be exploited further to
facilitate cognitive and psychomotor skills
development so that ICT integration can really
be beneficial for TVET.
5.3. Deciding on integration mode
ICT integration in teaching and learning
session, either blended or full mediation, is not
really critical as indicated by this review
although blended mode seems to dominate
many implementations. All modes, be it fully
blended, partially blended or supplementary
seems to have its benefits and weaknesses
depending on the combination of goals of
integration (knowledge or skills) and design of
implementations. This is supported by the
finding from the US Department of Education
on ICT indicate that blended or purely online
are not superior from one other [7]. What
seems to be important is that ICT is being used
effectively – meets the needs of learners and
objectives - in teaching and learning session
with synchronous and asynchronous activities
and participations from all sides, instructors
and students. Thus, rather than being overly
anxious to have a fully mediated mode or
blended mode, use the mode that is feasible,
encourage active participations of all concerns
and meet the learning needs of students.
5.4. Tool/Material design
Irrespective of the type of applications,
customized or market available; human-
computer interaction (HCI) considerations and
instructional design (ID) should guide the
design of the applications to get the desired
learning outcomes. HCI and ID knowledge
must be carefully incorporated in addition to
the knowledge gained form learning theories,
principles to achieve the overriding goals of
technology integrations in the classroom. Thus,
designing ICT applications and integrations is
dependent on innovativeness of TVET teachers
while innovativeness is closely related to ICT
competence and pedagogical competence [35].
Innovative teachers are commonly associated
with who has a desire to innovate in teaching
and learning session. Success of e-learning is
dependent on how user interacts with the
system. Interaction may increase with an
appropriate design of the system. Thus, e-
learning or ICT integration should embrace
information design, interaction design and
interface or presentation design [36].
6. CONCLUSION
This limited systematic review attempts to
seek better knowledge on the status of ICT
applications in the classroom in TVET. The
limited study indicates that ICT is indeed being
integrated in the TVET classrooms across
disciplines as well as for diverse learners.
Spectrum of applications include fully
mediated, partially mediated and
supplementary while the target learning
outcomes were mostly cognitive in nature with
very limited efforts at psychomotor skills
development. In most cases, affective learning
needs seems to be of concern to educators as
they should be. ICT integrations in general has
been shown to be relatively more effective for
promoting learning of the cognitive domain
and meeting the affective learning needs of
learners but less so for promoting psychomotor
skills development. Customized and market
available applications seem to be equally
favored by implementers. Highly obvious
though, most applications do not seem to have
clear instructional design principles
influencing their designs. Thus in general, we
have high expectations that are yet to be
realized. Future concerns on ICT integration
efforts should focus more on selecting the
appropriate multimedia framework, guiding
learning theories and instructional design, ICT
tools for teaching and learning in TVET to
ensure effective integration of ICT becomes a
reality.
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APPENDIX 1
Table 1 Summary of papers according to mode and aim of study
Research
Mode
Aim of ICT integration
How the ICT integrate?
Blended
Fully
mediated
Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor
ICT
integration
without e-
learning
e-
learning
e-learning
with
virtual
experience
[1]
/
/
/
/
/
[27]
/
/
/
/
/
[28]
/
/
/
/
/
[29]
/
/
/
/
/
[30]
/
/
/
/
/
[23]
/
/
/
/
[24]
/
/
/
/
[25]
/
/
/
/
[14]
/
/
/
/
[15]
/
/
/
/
[21]
/
/
/
/
[20]
/
/
/
/
[16]
/
/
/
/
[18]
/
/
/
/
[19]
/
/
/
/
[17]
/
/
/
/
[22]
/
/
/
/
[11]
/
/
/
[12]
/
/
/
[13]
/
/
/
