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Dogs and cats are the animals that owners most frequently seek assistance for potential poisonings, and these species are frequently involved with toxicoses due to ingestion of poisonous food. Feeding human foodstuff to pets may prove itself dangerous for their health, similarly to what is observed in Allium species toxicosis. Allium species toxicosis is reported worldwide in several animal species, and the toxic principles present in them causes the transformation of hemoglobin into methemoglobin, consequently resulting in hemolytic anemia with Heinz body formation. The aim of this review is to analyze the clinicopathologic aspects and therapeutic approach of this serious toxicosis of dogs and cats in order to give knowledge to veterinarians about Allium species toxicosis, and subsequently allow them to correctly diagnose this disease when facing it; and to educate pet owners to not feed their animals with Allium-containg food in order to better control this particular life-threatening toxicosis.
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Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats
Salgado BS (1), Monteiro LN (2), Rocha NS (1, 2)
(1) Department of Pathology, Botucatu Medical School, São Paulo State University (UNESP – Univ Estadual Paulista),
Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil; (2) Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Veterinary Pathology Service, School of
Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, São Paulo State University (UNESP – Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu, São
Paulo State, Brazil.
Abstract: Dogs and cats are the animals that owners most frequently seek assistance for potential
poisonings, and these species are frequently involved with toxicoses due to ingestion of poisonous food.
Feeding human foodstu to pets may prove itself dangerous for their health, similarly to what is observed
in Allium species toxicosis. Allium species toxicosis is reported worldwide in several animal species, and
the toxic principles present in them causes the transformation of hemoglobin into methemoglobin,
consequently resulting in hemolytic anemia with Heinz body formation. The aim of this review is to analyze
the clinicopathologic aspects and therapeutic approach of this serious toxicosis of dogs and cats in order to
give knowledge to veterinarians about Allium species toxicosis, and subsequently allow them to correctly
diagnose this disease when facing it; and to educate pet owners to not feed their animals with Allium-
containg food in order to better control this particular life-threatening toxicosis.
Key words: Allium spp., poisonous plants, hemolytic anemia, Heinz bodies.
Review A Rticle
The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases
ISSN 1678-9199 | 2011 | volume 17 | issue 1 | pages 4-11
INTRODUCTION
e genus Allium includes onion, garlic, leek,
chives, shallots, and scallions, and was previously
classied in the family Alliaceae (1). However, in
the new classication of Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group, Alliaceae is now the subfamily Allioideae
of the family Amaryllidaceae (2). Some botanical
authorities have also previously included it in the
lily family (Lilliaceae) (3, 4).
e Allium genus comprises biannual bulbous
plants that grow in the north hemisphere except
for a few species found in South America and
Tropical Africa (5) (Table 1). ese plants form
solitary or clustered bulbs and are strongly
aromatic, with a characteristic odor when
crushed. is distinctive aroma is thought to be
related to allicin and other oil-soluble sulfur-
containing organic compounds that allow us to
dierentiate them from other morphologically
similar poisonous plants (6, 7).
Wild and domestic Allium species have been
used as ingredients in many dishes and with
ethnomedical purposes for many years. is
plant is rich in two chemical groups that are
thought to provide benets to human health:
avonoids and alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides.
Apart from its culinary uses (fresh, cooked or
dehydrated), medicinal properties have been
attributed it since ancient times, prompting in
recent years an accurate chemical analysis of its
most characteristic active components (7-10).
Compounds from onions have a range of health
benets such as anticarcinogenic, antiplatelet,
antithrombotic, antiasthmatic, antidiabetic,
brinolytic and hypocholesterolemic properties,
and other various biological actions including
antibiotic eects (11-13).
Salgado BS, et al. Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats
J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis | 2011 | volume 17 | issue 1 5
All Allium species and their derivatives can
be toxic to dogs and cats (14-20). However,
relatively few Allium species are of important
toxicological interest. Domestic species that
are more commonly involved in poisoning are
onion (Allium cepa) (Figure 1), garlic (Allium
sativum) (Figure 2), leek (Allium porum) (Figure
3), and chives (Allium schoenoprasum) (Figure
4). Onions contain toxic components that may
damage red blood cells and provoke hemolytic
anemia accompanied by the formation of Heinz
bodies in erythrocytes of animals such as cattle,
water bualoes, sheep, horses, dogs, and cats
(14-29).
Plant poisoning is not a usual disease in
dogs and cats, since plants are not a common
compound of their diet. However, they oen
cause acute life-threatening conditions and
represent an imminent cause of death in those
animals. Accordingly, the present review aim to
discuss aspects related to one particular plant
poisoning: Allium species toxicosis.
Since those plants are culturally present in the
Brazilian gastronomy and can be easily accessible
to pets, consequently leading to the development
of important clinical problems, essential features
of Allium species toxicosis are discussed herein in
order to sensitize veterinarians to the possibility
of facing similar cases and to prepare them for
readily diagnose and treat aected animals.
Table 1. Subdivision, horticultural names, and origin of important cultivated Allium species
Species Subdivision Horticultural name Origin
Allium cepa
cepa Bulb onion
Asia
ascalonium Shallot
aggregatum Potato onion
proliferum Tree onion
Allium sativum Garlic Asia
Allium ampeloprasum porrum Leek Eurasia and
Africa
aegyptiacum Kurrat
Allium schoenoprasum Chives Europe
Allium chinense Rakkyo Asia
Allium stulosum Japanese bunching (Welsh
onion) Asia
Allium tuberosum Chinese chives Asia
Figure 1. Bulb onion (Allium cepa). Figure 2. Garlic (Allium sativum).
Salgado BS, et al. Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats
J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis | 2011 | volume 17 | issue 1 6
TOXICITY
Allium species contain various
organosulfoxides, particularly alk(en)yl cysteine
sulfoxides, some of which are responsible for
their characteristic odor (7, 9). Plant trauma (e.g.
chewing or cutting) converts the organosulfoxides
to a complex mixture of sulfur-containing
organic compounds that are responsible for the
avor and eects of these plants on animals (30).
Many Allium organosulfur compounds appear to
be readily absorbed through the gastrointestinal
tract and are metabolized to highly reactive
oxidants (6).
Di-propyl-disulde (H7C3S2C3H7) and allyl
propylisulde (H5C3S2C3H7) have been implicated
in onion-induced hemolytic anemia (30-34).
However, recently, more active oxidizing sulfur-
containing compounds have been discovered
and proposed as causative agents, either in onion
or garlic poisoning episodes (20, 35). Sodium
n-propylthiosulfate, isolated from boiled onions,
was proven to cause an increase of Heinz body
formation in erythrocytes and subsequent
hemolytic anemia in dogs (36).
Garlic, on the other hand, is considered to be
less toxic and safe for dogs than onion when used
in moderation (37).
ACTION MECHANISM
e primary toxicological mechanism of
Allium-derived organosulfur compounds is
oxidative hemolysis, which occurs when the
concentration of oxidants in the erythrocyte
exceeds the capacity of the antioxidant metabolic
pathways. Catalase antioxidant activity in dog
erythrocytes is low, and normal hemoglobin in
cats is about two to three times more susceptible
to oxidative damage than the hemoglobin in
other species (38, 39).
N-propyl disulfide and sodium
n-propylthiosulfate are very poisonous
organosulfur compounds present in onions.
e former may cause a marked decrease in the
activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G6PD), whereas the latter can increase the
methemoglobin concentration and Heinz body
count in erythrocytes, and reduce glutathione
concentration in the erythrocyte (30, 40, 41).
In erythrocytes, G6PD oxidizes glutathione to
a reduced form through the pentose phosphate
pathway (39, 42, 43). When the activity of G6PD
is decreased, the content of glutathione also
drops, leading to increased levels of hydrogen
peroxide. It is known that lipid peroxidation can
be determined by malondialdehyde formation
(44). Consequently, hydrogen peroxide and
malondialdehyde oxidize the sulydryl groups
of hemoglobin, resulting in the denaturation of
hemoglobin (30).
Additionally, oxidation of the exposed β-93
cysteine residues present in hemoglobin results in
sulemoglobin formation (45). Sulemoglobin
and denatured hemoglobin are less soluble than
normal hemoglobin, so they precipitate, aggregate,
and bind to the cell membrane and form Heinz
bodies. Other types of oxidation of hemoglobin
globin chains result in membrane cross-linking
reactions and eccentrocyte formation (46). e
formation of Heinz bodies and eccentrocytes
increases erythrocyte fragility and extravascular
hemolysis, since erythrocytes that contain
Heinz bodies are removed from the circulation
by the reticuloendothelial system, thus causing
Figure 3. Leek (Allium porrum).
Figure 4. Chives (Allium schoenoprasum).
Salgado BS, et al. Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats
J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis | 2011 | volume 17 | issue 1 7
anemia. Damaged erythrocytes are removed
from circulation, causing hemoglobinemia and
hemoglobinuria (6, 47).
Direct oxidative damage to the erythrocyte
cell membrane and its sodium-potassium pump
or the oxidative production of hemin also
contribute to cell lysis. Oxidation of the heme ion
and associated methemoglobinemia result in a
le shi of the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation
curve, decreased blood oxygen transportation
capacity, and, ultimately, impaired delivery of
oxygen to tissues (48, 49).
us, the result of the oxidative hemolytic
process induced by Allium consumption is the
onset of anemia, methemoglobinemia, and
impaired oxygen transportation. Although
marked Heinz body formation may be present
within a day aer onions are ingested, the anemic
nadir typically develops several days later (49).
Allicin and ajoene, pharmacologically
active agents in garlic, are potent cardiac and
smooth muscle relaxants, vasodilators, and
hypotensive agents (50-52). Also, ajoene and
other organosulfur compounds derived from
onions are potent antithrombotic agents (53).
us, hypotensive and antithrombotic properties
can exacerbate the physiologic eects of anemia
and impaired oxygen transportation. Garlic
preparations that have not been aged cause direct
damage to the gastric and ileal mucosa, resulting
in pain and diarrhea (54).
EXPOSURE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY
Allium toxicosis commonly occurs aer
ingestion. In addition to consuming fresh plant
material, juice, fresh and dietary supplements,
powdered cooking preparations, dehydrated
material, or food preparations derived from or
containing Allium species can be potentially toxic
to dogs and cats (37, 49). is type of toxicosis
is typically caused by consumption of a single
large quantity of plant material or repeated small
amounts. Dogs and cats are highly susceptible to
onion toxicosis, consumption of as little as 5 g/kg
of onions for cats or 15 to 30 g/kg for dogs resulted
in clinically important hematologic changes.
Onion toxicosis is consistently noted in animals
that ingest more than 0.5% of their body weight
in onions at one time (49). A relatively high dose
(600-800 g) in one meal or spread apart over a
few days can damage red blood cells and cause
hemolytic anemia accompanied by the formation
of Heinz bodies in erythrocytes (37).
Dogs with hereditary high erythrocyte reduced
glutathione and circulating potassium level are
more susceptible to the hematologic eects of
onions (36, 55). is trait is relatively common in
Japanese breeds, such as Akita inu and Shiba inu.
Other inborn errors in metabolism or nutritional
deciencies that result in decreased erythrocyte
antioxidant defenses, such as glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase deciency or zinc deciency,
could increase an animal’s susceptibility to Allium
toxicosis (56).
e oral administration of 500 mmol
per kilogram of body weight of sodium
n-propylthiosulfate to dogs results in hemolytic
anemia associated with increased Heinz body
formation in erythrocytes, which is more
severe in dogs with the hereditary condition,
which, in turns, results in erythrocytes with
high concentrations of reduced glutathione and
potassium than in normal dogs. In aected dogs
there is a ten-fold increase in the concentration
of oxidized glutathione in their erythrocytes 12
hours aer the administration of the compound,
whereas in normal dogs there is almost no
change (36).
Humans are the most resistant species studied.
On the other hand, there is some concern about
the susceptibility of certain ethnic groups that
have a genetic deciency of glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase. Although dogs appear to be one
of the most susceptible species, there are a few
reports in the literature concerning accidental
canine poisoning associated with onion ingestion.
Cats are more susceptible than dogs. Since
baby food is oen oered to sick animals that are
not eating (to stimulate their appetite), there is
some concern that the onion powder would cause
a Heinz body anemia in these cats (57). Several
baby food manufacturers add onions or onion
powder to increase palatability.
It is generally accepted that sheep, goats, rats
and mice are more resistant to onion toxicosis
than other domestic animals (27, 48). e safety of
feeding onions to livestock depends upon animal
susceptibility and the toxic potential of the plant
species. Sheep can be maintained on diets of up
to 50% onions with no clinical abnormalities or
detrimental eects on growth. Even when onions
are fed free choice, sheep have only transient
hemoglobinuria and anemia, with few deaths
Salgado BS, et al. Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats
J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis | 2011 | volume 17 | issue 1 8
reported. In contrast, cattle should be fed onions
with caution, due to the relative susceptibility
of their erythrocytes to oxidative damage. Daily
feeding of onions could have a cumulative eect
due to ongoing formation of Heinz bodies versus
a single exposure with awide gap until the next
exposure, allowing the bone marrow to regenerate
the prematurely destroyed red cells (37).
Concurrent treatment with xenobiotics,
drugs, or dietary factors that induce erythrocyte
oxidative injury (e.g. propofol, propylene glycol,
dl-methionine, sulfonamides, sulfapyridine,
large doses of vitamin K3, benzocaine) or
diminish erythrocyte oxidative defenses (e.g.
acetaminophen) is likely to increase an animal’s
susceptibility to Allium species toxicosis (49).
CLINICAL SIGNS
In dogs and cats, clinical signs of Allium
species toxicosis may appear within one day of
consumption if large amounts of material have
been ingested. However, it is more common
the development of clinical signs aer a lag of
several days (49). e rst signs are usually of
gastroenteritis: vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal
pain, loss of appetite, depression and dehydration.
It will take a few days for the dog to display the
signs associated with the loss of red blood cells:
pale mucous membranes, rapid respiratory rate,
diculty to breathe, lethargy, dark colored urine
(reddish or brown), jaundice, weakness, and rapid
heart rate (37). Depression, hemosiderin in urine,
exercise intolerance and cold sensitivity may also
be observed (49). In cases of recent ingestion, the
breath of the aected dog or cat may smell like
onions or garlic (16).
CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
Clinical pathology ndings are consistent
with intravascular and extravascular hemolysis,
anemia, hemoglobinemia, hemoglobinuria
associated with hemoglobin casts in urine
and hemosiderin, hyperbilirubinemia,
methemoglobinemia, and, if the animal survives
long enough, an accompanying regenerative
response (49). Hematologic tests may reveal
neutrophilia, lymphopenia, Heinz-body anemia
and methemoglobinamia (37).
Heinz body formation, eccentrocytosis, and
a decrease in erythrocyte glutathione levels can
also be detected. Additionally, eccentrocytosis
appear to be one of the major diagnostic features
of garlic-induced hemolysis in dogs (20, 46).
ANATOMIC PATHOLOGY
Necropsy and histological ndings typically
indicate hemolytic anemia. Because of the
lag of several days between ingestion and the
development of clinical signs, gastrointestinal
erosion or Allium in the gut content may not be
seen (49). Necropsy ndings basically consists
of splenomegaly due to hemosiderosis and
increased hemocatheresis, and jaundice due
to the hemolytic anemia provoked, in turn, by
extravascular hemolysis (19, 58, 59).
Histopathologic ndings, although consistent
with hemolytic anemia, are not specic for
Allium toxicosis and may include deposition of
hemosiderin in the phagocytic cells of the liver,
spleen, and renal tubular epithelium; renal tubular
pigment necrosis; and nephrotubular casts and
hemoglobin casts in the renal tubules (58, 59).
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES
Heinz bodies comprise an uncommon
nding in dogs that can only be induced by a
few other toxicoses, such as methilen blue,
acetaminophen, benzocaine, vitamin K3, zinc
and phenylhidrazine (32, 60, 61). In such cases,
Allium toxicosis should always be included in
the dierential diagnosis (34).
Common feline disorders associated with
Heinz body formation include diabetes mellitus,
particularly if ketoacidosis is present; hepatic
lipidosis, hyperthyroidism; and neoplasms such
as lymphoma (49). Jaundice-causing infections
such as babesiosis and leptospirosis should also be
included in the dierentials. Additionally, post-
hepatic obstructions should also be speculated
due to its jaundice-causing eects.
TREATMENT
No specic antidote is available for Allium
toxicosis; however, supportive care may be
helpful including hospitalization, administration
of intravenous uids and blood transfusions.
Treatment is indicated aer ingestion of any
quantity (37). Several therapeutic approaches have
been suggested to treat onion-poisoned animals,
Salgado BS, et al. Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats
J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis | 2011 | volume 17 | issue 1 9
including gastrointestinal decontamination,
administration of antioxidant vitamins (C and E)
(in dogs, ascorbic acid – 30 mg/kg of body weight
intravenously, each 6 to 8 hours) or N-acetyl-
cysteine, and intravenous uid therapy or blood
transfusions, but none has proven really eective
(31, 34, 62). Nevertheless, even taking into
account that lethal eects are infrequent in dogs,
avoiding animal exposure to any kind of onion
seems to be the best preventive health strategy
(15, 31, 34).
Induction of emesis (e.g. apomorphine 0.08
mg/kg intramuscularly or subcutaneously, or 3%
hydrogen peroxidase 2 mL/kg, no more than 45
mL) can be valuable in asymptomatic dogs and
cats that showed no complicating factors one or
two hours aer the ingestion. Administration of
activated charcoal (1 to 4 g/kg per oral) is indicated
aer emesis. In severely aected animals, a blood
transfusion and supplemental oxygen therapy
may be required. Administration of intravenous
crystalloids is indicated if extensive vomiting
and diarrhea occurred or if hemoglobinuria or
hypotension is evident (49).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
e ingestion of Allium species by various
animals may lead to toxicosis; however, dogs
and cats deserve special attention since they are
most susceptible. Allium toxicosis is typically
diagnosed through a combination of history,
clinical signs, and microscopic conrmation of
a Heinz body-type hemolytic anemia that if is
quickly performed can allow veterinarians to
give a support treatment in order to avoid animal
death. It is important to carefully monitor the
erythron of aected animals for several days aer
ingestion since it is when the anemic nadir usually
occurs. Antioxidants – such as sodium ascorbate,
vitamin E, and acetylcysteine – have minimal
protective eects on onion powder toxicosis in
cats (62). Diets with low potential oxidants are
recommended; semimoist food that contains
propylene glycol should be avoided, particularly
for cats (63).
Additionally, it is also important to educate
pet owners to not feed their animals with Allium-
containg food and not to store Allium in places
accessible to their pets; these measures may lead,
in long term, to a better control of this particular
life-threatening toxicosis.
COPYRIGHT
© CEVAP 2011
SUBMISSION STATUS
Received: June 11, 2010.
Accepted: October 26, 2010.
Abstract published online: November 5, 2010.
Full paper published online: February 28, 2011.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
ere is no conict.
CORRESPONDENCE TO
BRENO SOUZA SALGADO, Departamento de
Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu,
UNESP, Distrito de Rubião Jr., s/n, Botucatu, São
Paulo, SP, 18618-970, Brasil. Phone/fax: +55 14
3811 6293. Email: brenosalgado@globo.com.
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... Some food constituents are considered particularly functional because they selectively promote the alteration of specific physiological processes, benefiting health or preventing diseases (Chang et al., 2004). Plants or herbs generally have multiple uses, in addition to being used in cooking, they contain a wide diversity of phytochemicals with medicinal properties, which can potentially promote the homeostasis of beings (Ezeorba et al., 2022;Salgado et al., 2011). ...
... There is evidence in the Traditional Chinese Medicine that garlic has been used to preserve human health for over 3,000 years (Ezeorba et al., 2022). Garlic (Allium sativum Linn.) now belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae of the subfamily Allioideae (Salgado et al., 2011). The term sativum means "cultivated" (Orengo, 2016). ...
... Garlic is toxic to erythrocytes of several domestic animals, particularly canines (Chang et al., 2004). Ingestion or administration of garlic extracts with many oxidant OSCs can induce extra-and intravascular hemolysis in dogs, either accidentally or experimentally (Chang et al., 2005;Hu et al., 2002;Yamato et al., 2018), when their levels exceed the antioxidant capacity of erythrocytes (Salgado et al., 2011). Case reports in dogs about the ingestion of food with Allium plants, regardless of the form of preparation, generated toxicity either by single exposure to a large dose or by repeated exposure to smaller toxic doses due to its cumulative effect on erythrocyte oxidation (Kovalkovičová et al., 2009). ...
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Garlic (Allium sativum) is a plant with therapeutic/toxic properties in dogs, depending on the variety, place of origin, its preparation method or extraction method of its compounds and the dose administered. There are reports in preclinical and clinical investigations that active organosulfur compounds (OSCs) of garlic potentially exerts a series of beneficial activities in dogs. such as being an endoparasiticide, antithrombotic, hypotensive, diuretic and natriuretic, antimicrobial, cell antiproliferative, antioxidant, activator of the Nrf2 transition factor, antiarrhythmic, immuno modulator, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and ectoparasiticide. While they also potentially exert toxic effects on gastrointestinal system and erythrocyte cells of dogs. However, there is still no review on its possible beneficial and toxic effects. or hypotheses of its underlying mechanisms in dogs. The aim of this paper was to summarize the preclinical and clinical investigations on the effects of garlic and its OSCs in dogs, as well as the findings on their possible proven or presumed underlying mechanisms. We conclude that further in vivo and toxicity studies are needed to prepare specific herbal formulations for dogs with relatively low concentrations of garlic phytocompounds. We also emphasize that. regardless of the preparation method, dog owners should be advised that it is not safe to provide or add garlic to their dogs' food.
... Dogs and cats are highly susceptible to Allium spp. toxicosis and the ingestion of 5 g/kg of onions by cats and 15-30 g/kg by dogs is enough to cause clinically important hematologic changes [4]. Cooking, drying and processing do not eliminate the toxic effect of Allium spp. ...
... Onion intoxication is a well-known cause of hemolytic anemia in cats even with a small amount of onion ingestion (5 g/kg in the cat), and the occurrence of HBs is evident on blood smear evaluation [4,5]. However, in this case report the patient showed large percentage of ghost cells and remarkably large HBs which have not been described before, as HBs are usually described as small surface projections (8). ...
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Onion ingestion has been documented to induce hemolytic anemia in several species, including cats, following oxidative degeneration of hemoglobin and subsequent Heinz body (HB) formation. The presence of ghost cells on peripheral blood smears suggests recent intravascular hemolysis. The present case report aimed to describe a case of hemolytic anemia in a client-owned 5-year-old male neutered domestic shorthair cat following onion consumption with the occurrence of large ghost cells with Heinz body inclusions. On presentation, the cat had a recent history of weakness, diarrhea, and pigmenturia. The physical findings included pale mucous membranes, tachycardia with IV-grade heart murmur, and low body temperature (36.6 °C). Diagnostic investigations showed moderate microcytic hyperchromic anemia with mild regeneration and a large percentage of ghost cells with large HBs observed on microscopic examination of stained blood smears. These findings were supportive, along with the proof of onion ingestion, of hemolytic anemia associated with oxidative injury. The cat was euthanized following the diagnosis due to severe prognosis and to the financial constraint of the owner. Heinz bodies develop in case of oxidative injury of red blood cells, and during hemolytic anemia, lysed red blood cells can also be evident (ghost cells). This case report suggests that onion ingestion can lead to anemia with more severe erythrocyte alterations such as ghost cells with remarkably large HBs, which have not been previously described in feline onion ingestion.
... Sharp and Russell (2021) had reported that onions also contain one of the natural oils sometimes used in hair oil. Onions are toxic to dogs, cats, guinea pigs, and many other animals (Salgado et al., 2011). Onions and garlic which are the most widely used vegetables in all world cuisines always have their outer coverings being thrown away (Soedarto et al., 2021).The outer covering is actually nutrient dense and would concentrate many of their protective properties in the outer coverings where most environmental attacks take place. ...
... [8] Notably, N-propyl disulfide has been found to interfere with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in red blood cells, leading to oxidative damage to hemoglobin. [9] Ingesting onions has even been reported to cause hemolytic anemia. [10] Despite these concerns, garlic continues to be widely studied for its numerous health-promoting effects and is often regarded as a functional food with disease-preventative properties. ...
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Formalin is widely used for disinfection and embalming but is associated with respiratory complications due to prolonged inhalation. Allium sativum (garlic) contains bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. This study examined the protective effects of Allium sativum on formalin-induced lung damage in adult male Wistar rats. Twenty rats (100–120 g) were divided into five groups (A–E, four per group). Group A served as the control. Group B was exposed to 4 mL of 100% formalin. Group C received 500 mg/kg of Allium sativum. Groups D and E received 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg of Allium sativum with formalin exposure, respectively. Formalin exposure lasted 30 minutes daily, while garlic extract was administered orally for 28 days. Histological analysis revealed thrombus-like aggregates in blood vessels in Group B. Group D showed alveolar proliferation, thickened alveolar epithelium, and alveolar sac expansion, while Group E exhibited terminal bronchiole constriction. These findings suggest that formalin alters lung tissue structure, and Allium sativum exerts a protective effect, mitigating formalin-induced lung damage. KEYWORDS: Formalin toxicity, Allium sativum, Lung protection, Oxidative stress
... For example, garlic extracts have been shown to deplete thiol levels in erythrocytes, leading to increased susceptibility to oxidative damage and subsequent Heinz body formation [141]. Similarly, the ingestion of Allium species, such as onions, has been documented to cause oxidative damage to hemoglobin, resulting in the precipitation of denatured hemoglobin and the formation of Heinz bodies in affected animals [142]. These findings underscore the importance of environmental and dietary factors in the pathogenesis of hemolytic anemia associated with Heinz body formation. ...
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Hemoglobin is an oxygen-transport protein in red blood cells that interacts with multiple ligands, e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide. Genetic variations in hemoglobin chains, such as those underlying sickle cell disease and thalassemias, present substantial clinical challenges. Here, we review the progress in research, including the use of allosteric modulators, pharmacological chaperones, and antioxidant treatments, which has begun to improve hemoglobin stability and oxygen affinity. According to UniProt (as of 7 August 2024), 819 variants of the α-hemoglobin subunit and 771 variants of the β-hemoglobin subunit have been documented, with over 116 classified as unstable. These data demonstrate the urgent need to develop variant-specific stabilizing options. Beyond small-molecule drugs/binders, novel protein-based strategies—such as engineered hemoglobin-binding proteins (including falcilysin, llama-derived nanobodies, and α-hemoglobin-stabilizing proteins)—offer promising new options. As our understanding of hemoglobin’s structural and functional diversity grows, so does the potential for genotype-driven approaches. Continued research into hemoglobin stabilization and ligand-binding modification may yield more precise, effective treatments and pave the way toward effective strategies for hemoglobinopathies.
... Adicionalmente, os efeitos oxidativos da planta podem alterar o citoesqueleto eritrocitário, resultando na formação de excentrócitos (Ruiz et al., 2022). Corpúsculos de Heinz e excentrócitos levam à rigidez da membrana celular, favorecendo a hemólise e anemia subsequente (Thrall, 2012;Machad, 2009;Salgado, 2011). ...
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Foi atendida uma cadela da raça Lhasa Apso, com 18 meses de idade, com histórico de prostração, dor abdominal, febre e episódios de êmese. Os exames complementares demonstraram anemia normocítica normocrômica de grau leve (hematócrito 29%) e leucocitose por neutrofilia, sem desvio à esquerda. Os exames bioquímicos estavam todos dentro da normalidade. Na ultrassonografia abdominal foi possível visualizar aumento da espessura da parede da mucosa gastrointestinal. Após 48 horas de internamento para tratamento clínico sintomático, a paciente obteve alta médica. Porém, na semana seguinte observou-se persistência da febre e da leucocitose por neutrofilia; trombocitopenia e piora da anemia (hematócrito 23%). Indagada sobre detalhes da dieta, a tutora relatou que o animal estava sob uso exclusivo da ração gastrointestinal, mas rotineiramente ingeria cebolinha (Allium schoenoprasum) da horta na residência. Diante do diagnóstico de intoxicação por Allium schoenoprasum, foi solicitado a retirada do animal ao alcance da planta, e após cinco dias o animal apresentou melhora relevante do quadro. O presente relato atenta para a importância de uma anamnese detalhada, assim como para o respeito aos hábitos alimentares e às particularidades fisiológicas da espécie canina, a fim de evitar possíveis quadros de intoxicação e riscos de vida por plantas e alimentos tóxicos, garantindo assim a segurança alimentar destes animais.
... Conhecendo o nível de desidratação do paciente, seu pH sanguíneo e o nível de seus eletrólitos é recomendada a correção, se alterados, por meio de solução cristaloide associada a compostos farmacológicos necessários para corrigir os distúrbios presentes, se for o caso, administração de cloreto de potássio, cálcio, sódio, glicose, entre outros (Reis, 2023). Algumas terapias têm sido amplamente difundidas para descontaminação gastrointestinal e antagonizar o efeito dos superóxidos provenientes das saponinas que causam hemólise, com antioxidantes como a vitamina C e vitamina E ou administração de N-acetilcisteína por via endovenosa a cada 8 horas até melhora parcial do quadro clínico (Cope, 2005;Salgado et al., 2011). ...
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Saint George's sword (Sansevieria trifasciata) is a plant with elongated leaves and of rhizomatous characteristics that is easily adaptable to different environments. It naturally produces chemical substances such as saponins, alkaloids and calcium oxalate to maintain its vital functions or as a defense mechanism. When ingested in high doses by dogs, they can pose a health risk, as they can cause gastrointestinal, liver and kidney damage, and even lead to the death of these animals. This is a descriptive study of the narrative literature review type, with the main objective of investigating and understanding the poisoning of domestic canines from ingestion of Saint George's sword, offering theoretical support to veterinary health professionals in identifying and treating occurrences, and understanding the potential damage that its components can cause to the animal’s organism if ingested, thus improving life expectancy and the prognosis, in addition to aiding in prevention through access to information. During this work’s implementation, it was observed that technical literature on the subject was scarce and that the majority of cases of canine poisoning occur due to the owners' lack of knowledge regarding the toxicity of the plant, and thus not considering any means of prevention. This work was carried out based on extensive searches on the PubMed, Scielo, ResearchGate and Google Scholar platforms, using keywords such as “gastrointestinal disorders”, “ornamental plants” and “toxic plant”.
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A 3-yr-old female spayed bearded dragon ( Pogona vitticeps ) with lethargy, inappetence, and pale mucous membranes was presented to the clinic 3 days after being fed wild garlic ( Allium ursinum ). Diagnostic testing, including hematology, blood chemistry, and whole body radiographs, and a parasitological examination (flotation, native preparation) revealed low-grade leukocytosis (20,000/µl), anemia (hematocrit of 8%), and a parasite infestation with oxyurids and flagellates. The animal was hospitalized and treated with enrofloxacin IM, SteroG5 SC, activated charcoal and lactulose PO, Vit B complex SC, iron IM, Zylexis SC, fenbendazole PO, metronidazole PO, and HerbiCare PO and supplemental oxygen via an oxygen cage. During the animal’s hospitalization, the partner animal, a 3-yr-old male bearded dragon, was presented to the hospital for examination and also was found to be anemic, with a significantly decreased hematocrit of 11%. Because of the life-threatening anemia, both animals underwent whole blood transfusion via intraosseous catheter from two donor animals of the same species on day 2 of hospitalization. Two days posttransfusion, both animals showed an increase in hematocrit and improvement of their general condition. Fourteen days posttransfusion, hematocrit levels had increased to 16% in the female and 20% in the male and both animals showed completely normal species-specific behavior and general condition.
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Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a widely abundant spice, known for its aroma and pungent flavor. It contains several bioactive compounds and offers a wide range of health benefits to humans, including those pertaining to nutrition, physiology, and medicine. Therefore, garlic is considered as one of the most effective disease-preventive diets. Many in vitro and in vivo studies have reported the sulfur-containing compounds, allicin and ajoene, for their effective anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, immune-boosting, and cardioprotective properties. As a rich natural source of bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, saponins, tannins, linalool, geraniol, phellandrene, β-phellandrene, ajoene, alliin, S-allyl-mercapto cysteine, and β-phellandrene, garlic has many therapeutic applications and may play a role in drug development against various human diseases. In the current review, garlic and its major bioactive components along with their biological function and mechanisms of action for their role in disease prevention and therapy are discussed.
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A revised and updated classification for the families of flowering plants is provided. Many recent studies have yielded increasingly detailed evidence for the positions of formerly unplaced families, resulting in a number of newly adopted orders, including Amborellales, Berberidopsidales, Bruniales, Buxales, Chloranthales, Escalloniales, Huerteales, Nymphaeales, Paracryphiales, Petrosaviales, Picramniales, Trochodendrales, Vitales and Zygophyllales. A number of previously unplaced genera and families are included here in orders, greatly reducing the number of unplaced taxa; these include Hydatellaceae (Nymphaeales), Haptanthaceae (Buxales), Peridiscaceae (Saxifragales), Huaceae (Oxalidales), Centroplacaceae and Rafflesiaceae (both Malpighiales), Aphloiaceae, Geissolomataceae and Strasburgeriaceae (all Crossosomatales), Picramniaceae (Picramniales), Dipentodontaceae and Gerrardinaceae (both Huerteales), Cytinaceae (Malvales), Balanophoraceae (Santalales), Mitrastemonaceae (Ericales) and Boraginaceae (now at least known to be a member of lamiid clade). Newly segregated families for genera previously understood to be in other APG-recognized families include Petermanniaceae (Liliales), Calophyllaceae (Malpighiales), Capparaceae and Cleomaceae (both Brassicales), Schoepfiaceae (Santalales), Anacampserotaceae, Limeaceae, Lophiocarpaceae, Montiaceae and Talinaceae (all Caryophyllales) and Linderniaceae and Thomandersiaceae (both Lamiales). Use of bracketed families is abandoned because of its unpopularity, and in most cases the broader circumscriptions are retained; these include Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceace and Xanthorrheaceae (all Asparagales), Passifloraceae (Malpighiales), Primulaceae (Ericales) and several other smaller families. Separate papers in this same volume deal with a new linear order for APG, subfamilial names that can be used for more accurate communication in Amaryllidaceae s.l., Asparagaceace s.l. and Xanthorrheaceae s.l. (all Asparagales) and a formal supraordinal classification for the flowering plants.
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Onion poisoning is reported worlwide in several animal species. The toxic principle (n-propyl dissulfide) present in onions causes the transformation of hemoglobin in methemoglobin. In order to study the laboratory, gross and histopathological findings in onion poisoning in cats, five 4-month-old cats were fed a single dose of 10g/kg of dried-onion each. Another cat of the same age did not receive the onion meal and served as control. All five cats developed clinical signs of the toxicosis; one of them died within 24 hours of the ingestion of the onion meal. Clinical signs included apathy, tachycardia, tachypnea, and cyanosis. Laboratory findings included hemolytic anemia associated with Heinz bodies and methemoglobinemia. Main necropsy findings were splenomegaly and brown discoloration of blood. Histopathological findings included splenic and hepatic hemosiderosis and multifocal extramedullary hematopoiesis.
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The internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA was sequenced from 195 representative species of Allium, two species of Nothoscordum, and one species each of Ipheion, Dichelostemma, and Tulbaghia. Within the Allium species the lengths of the ITS regions were in a range from 612 to 661 base pairs and pairwise genetic distances reached up to 46%. The ITS data supported the inclusion of Nectaroscordum, Caloscordum, and Milula into Allium. Subgenera Rhizir-ideum and Allium, as well as sects. Reticulatobulbosa and Oreiprason were non-monophyletic taxa. Based on the phylogenetic relations, a new classification of genus Allium consisting of 15 monophy-letic subgenera is presented. Sections Microscordum, Anguinum, Porphyroprason, Vvedenskya, Bu-tomissa, Cyathophora, and Reticulatobulbosa are raised to subgeneric rank.
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Onion (Allium cepa) toxicosis was diagnosed in a flock of local breed sheep, which had grazed daily on onion fields for 1month. Two ewes died, four aborted and many showed clinical signs of toxicosis including pale mucous membranes, weakness and poor appetite. Haematology of 12 ewes revealed low PCV, erythrocyte number and haemoglobin, Heinz bodies in erythrocytes, polychromasia and mild leukocytosis. In those animals that died, there was haemoglobinuric nephrosis with haemosiderin deposition in tubular cells and centrilobular necrosis of liver. Onion feeding was discontinued and haematinics were used for treatment of the affected animals.
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A normally active poodle arrives for its appointment appearing weak and listless. On examination, the animal's heart and respiration rates are elevated, a fresh urine sample is tinged dark red, hematocrit is low, and mucous membranes are pale. The client is sure that the poodle has not had access to anything harmful (e.g., garbage, houseplants, mousetraps). In fact, the owner explains that she has taken special steps to enhance both her health and that of her pet. After reading about the numerous benefits of onions, she added grilled Bermuda onions to both of their diets about a week ago. Now, her dog has become depressed and weak. What could be wrong?
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Phenol content and antioxidant activity of two Spanish onion varieties, namely white onion and Calçot de Valls, have been studied. White onions contained higher phenol content than Calçot onions, with values which ranged from 2.57 ± 0.51 to 6.53 ± 0.16 mg gallic acid equivalents/g dry weight (GAE/g DW) and 0.51 ± 0.22 to 2.58 ± 0.16 mg GAE/g DW, respectively, depending on the solvent used. Higher phenol content was associated with higher antioxidant capacity. White onion extracts had the highest antioxidant activity at 86.6 ± 2.97 and 29.9 ± 2.49 μmol Trolox/g DW for TEAC and FRAP assays, respectively, while the values for the Calçot variety were 17.5 ± 0.46 and 16.1 ± 0.10 μmol Trolox/g DW.The antioxidant capacity of freeze dried powder from both onion varieties was also tested in sunflower oil-in-water emulsions, and hydroperoxide formation was monitored during storage at 40 °C. In accordance with differences in phenol content, Spanish white onions had better antioxidant activity, while Calçot was only effective in the early stages of the oxidation process.