No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Relationships Between Young Adults and Their Parents
Abstract
Relationships between young adults and their parents have received considerable media attention in recent years. However, research on relationships between young adult children and their parents during the transition to adulthood are scant. Using data from the Family Exchanges Study and national data sets, we document parental involvement in the lives of young adult children (aged 18–24). Parents and offspring are highly involved in one another’s lives as evident by their phone conversations (more than once a week) and frequent parental financial, practical, and emotional support. This involvement represents an increase from parental involvement 30 years ago. Students are more likely to talk with parents by phone, and nonstudents are more likely to see parents in person. Students received more support from their parents than nonstudents, and that support contributed to their life satisfaction. Parents also use student status as an indicator of the offspring’s potential future success and experience more positive relationships with grown children they view as on target for achieving adult milestones.
... Youth 2024, 4 510 A compelling literature is beginning to show the ways in which parental importance persists into emerging adulthood [13][14][15][16], especially regarding the ways that parents and their emerging adult children must navigate developmental tensions between ongoing support and connection alongside increased autonomy and reduced parental control [16]. The present study seeks to contribute to this understanding by examining constellations of emerging adults' perceptions of their parent's demandingness, responsiveness, and autonomy supportive parenting behaviors ("parenting styles" in emerging adulthood), with an emphasis on elucidating the roles of potentially autonomy supportive or inhibiting parental behaviors in the context of the broader parenting relationship, during a developmental period when autonomy development is crucial. ...
... Emerging adulthood is an important period of transition between adolescence and adulthood, during which parent-child relationships must evolve to accommodate the emerging adult's normative need for increased independence within the context of the parent-emerging adult relationship [22]. Research on parenting during emerging adulthood underscores the importance of understanding the same dimensions that were important in childhood and adolescence (i.e., responsiveness and demandingness, though the ideal level and behavioral manifestations of these indicators may look different as the offspring ages and leaves the home environment [13,14,[23][24][25]). Indeed, the case for parental responsiveness as facilitative of positive emerging adult outcomes is strong [14][15][16]23]. ...
... Emerging adulthood is an important period of transition between adolescence and adulthood, during which parent-child relationships must evolve to accommodate the emerging adult's normative need for increased independence within the context of the parent-emerging adult relationship [22]. Research on parenting during emerging adulthood underscores the importance of understanding the same dimensions that were important in childhood and adolescence (i.e., responsiveness and demandingness, though the ideal level and behavioral manifestations of these indicators may look different as the offspring ages and leaves the home environment [13,14,[23][24][25]). Indeed, the case for parental responsiveness as facilitative of positive emerging adult outcomes is strong [14][15][16]23]. During emerging adulthood, demandingness is often conceptualized to include parental rules and attempts to control behaviors such as emerging adult activities, finances, and work-or school-related decisions (behavioral control); efforts to shape behavior can also include tactics like parental guilt induction and withdrawal of affection (termed psychological control). ...
Parents/caregivers remain important in the lives of emerging adults in the modern era and understanding the ways in which parents of emerging adults balance responsiveness, demandingness, and autonomy support can help inform evidence-based recommendations around developmentally appropriate protective parenting. The present study identified four “parenting styles” in emerging adulthood in a sample of 680 4-year university and community college students (M = 19.0, ranging from 18 to 25; 70.7% female, 22.6% male) who reported on their primary parent/caregiver’s parenting behaviors. These parenting styles largely overlapped with traditional conceptualizations of parenting styles (two authoritarian profiles, a potentially indulgent profile, and a profile characterized by the average levels of all parenting behaviors measured, which may reflect the modern authoritative parenting style of emerging adults). No hypothesized overparenting profile emerged. The potentially indulgent profile saw the lowest levels of depression, mood, and anxiety symptoms, whereas the potentially indulgent and authoritative profiles saw the most positive wellbeing outcomes. The findings underscore the way in which responsiveness and autonomy support in emerging adulthood appear developmentally appropriate and adaptive, and how helicopter parenting does not appear to be as important as other aspects of parent–emerging adult relationships.
... It is especially important to examine the impact on the quality of the relationship with the parents. In young adulthood, a positive relationship with parents is linked to important developmental outcomes, including successful transition to adulthood and life satisfaction (Fingerman et al., 2012). ...
... Young adults who abuse social media may therefore be less close to their parents since they would not meet parental expectations. Third, adolescence is characterized by a quest for independence from the parents accompanied by an increased involvement in the peer group, whereas young adulthood generally includes the reinsertion of the importance of parents (Fingerman et al., 2012;Miller-Slough & Dunsmore, 2016). It is therefore possible that young adults who present social media addiction may maintain this preference for peers due to the social networking nature of these platforms, which could then affect the relationship with parents. ...
... Hypotheses are that: (a) social media addiction is linked with poorer relationship quality with the mother and the father, (b) social media addiction is linked with higher level of internalizing problems, and (c) internalizing problems are a mediator in the association between social media addiction and the quality of the relationship with parents. Family income, gender, and parental levels of education are also considered as these could be important confounding variables (Fingerman et al., 2012;Hair et al., 2008;Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2020). ...
L’omniprésence des médias sociaux dans le quotidien des jeunes adultes soulève des préoccupations quant à l’éventualité d’un usage problématique. La dépendance aux médias sociaux est susceptible de modifier les aspects positifs et négatifs de la relation avec les mères et les pères, mais les mécanismes qui sous-tendent ces associations demeurent inconnus. Les participants à cette étude (N = 435; Mâge = 19,17; É.-T. = 0,30) ont rempli l’échelle de Bergen sur la dépendance aux médias sociaux et ont consigné leurs symptômes d’anxiété et de dépression, ainsi que la qualité de leurs relations avec leurs pères et leurs mères (conflit, satisfaction, égalité). Compte tenu de l’importance des variables confusionnelles, les résultats d’un modèle d’analyse des pistes causales montrent que le niveau de dépendance aux médias sociaux est associé à un niveau de conflit élevé, à une faible satisfaction et à une faible égalité avec le père, et à un niveau de conflit élevé et à une faible égalité avec la mère. En outre, la dépendance aux médias sociaux est positivement liée aux symptômes d’anxiété et de dépression. Enfin, l’anxiété et la dépression ont un effet médiateur sur les liens entre la dépendance aux médias sociaux et le conflit, la satisfaction et l’égalité avec la mère, et le conflit et la satisfaction avec le père. Nos résultats contribuent à la compréhension des mécanismes potentiels qui sous-tendent les associations entre la dépendance aux médias sociaux et la relation avec les parents chez les jeunes adultes. Des explications théoriques et des répercussions pratiques sont proposées. Les recherches futures pourraient reposer sur un concept longitudinal afin de préciser l’effet médiateur.
... Further, parental support of emerging adults has become increasingly prevalent over historical time (Eggebeen 1992). Parental support may be especially important in successful transitions out of the family home (Hussong and Chassin 2004), including among emerging adults who leave to attend college (Fingerman et al. 2012). Many scholars include parental provision of social support as a dimension of positive parent-child connection (Furman and Buhrmester 1985), which can include forms of nurturant (emotional and/or esteem), informational (or advice), and tangible (or instrumental) support (Barrera and Ainlay 1983;Cutrona and Russell 1990). ...
... Recent research highlights the importance of parsing the emerging adult's level of desired support (and for what type) relative to the quantity and type of support provided by their parent (Wang 2019). Across these literatures, a positive, connected, supportive parent-emerging adult relationship is clearly a valuable resource that can bolster healthy emerging adult relatedness, well-being and adjustment (Barry et al. 2008;Fingerman et al. 2012; Padilla-Walker and Nelson 2019). ...
... We also hypothesized that emerging adults would perceive more support in parents text messages if they exchanged more frequent text messages and exchanged more texts reflecting positive connection. Given higher rates of mother than father communication with emerging adults (Fingerman et al. 2012), we analyzed mother-and father-emerging adult dyads separately, and hypothesized that texting frequency, positive connection, and monitoring and disclosing behaviors would all be more common in mother-than fatheremerging adult dyads. Based on prior research, we did not make specific predictions about differential associations of text message frequency and content with digital pressure and text message support between mother-and father-emerging adult dyads (Padilla-Walker and Nelson 2019). ...
In emerging adulthood, when many young people are away from their families for the first time, mobile phones become an important conduit for maintaining relationships with parents. Yet, objective assessment of the content and frequency of text messaging between emerging adults and their parents is lacking in much of the research to date. We collected two weeks of text messages exchanged between U.S. college students (N = 238) and their parents, which yielded nearly 30,000 parent-emerging adult text messages. We coded these text message exchanges for traditional features of parent-emerging adult communication indexing positive connection, monitoring and disclosures. Emerging adults texted more with mothers than with fathers and many messages constitute parental check-ins and emerging adult sharing regarding youth behavior and well-being. Findings highlight that both the frequency and content of parent-emerging adult text messages can be linked with positive (perceived text message support) and negative (perceived digital pressure) aspects of the parent-emerging adult relationship. The content of parent-emerging adult text messages offers a valuable, objective window into the nature of the parent-emerging adult relationships in the digital age of the 21st century.
... In a study examining parental involvement with college students in Germany, Hong Kong, the United States, and Korea, the students reported frequent contacts with parents, with both practical and emotional support being received from parents on a monthly basis . As for gender differences in the quality of relationships between adults and their parents, studies revealed that mothers gave more support to their grown children and reported stronger bonds with them than did fathers (Bucx, van Wel, & Knijn, 2012;Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe, et al., 2012;Fingerman et al., 2011;Hogan, Eggebeen, & Clogg, 1993;Lawton, Silverstein, & Bengtson, 1994). ...
... Affective support from parents might improve the overall well-being of their adult children (Roberts & Bengtson, 1993). Grown children reported better adjustment and well-being when they were receiving emotional support from their parents (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe, et al., 2012;Fingerman, Cheng, Wesselman, et al., 2012;Fingerman et al., 2013). A study that examined the relationships between perceived social support and several components of subjective well-being (positive and negative affect, as well as satisfaction with life) among college students in Iran, Jordan, and the United States revealed that perceived support from family significantly predicted well-being in each country (Brannan, Biswas-Diener, Mohr, Mortazavi, & Stein, 2012). ...
... Significant positive associations were found in both countries between the degree of emotional closeness with both mothers and fathers, and the children's life satisfaction. These findings support previous studies showing that close personal relationships contribute to well-being (Roberts & Bengtson, 1993) and that, in particular, emotional support from parents is associated with adult children's well-being (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe, et al., 2012;Fingerman, Cheng, Wesselman, et al., 2012;Fingerman et al., 2013). This also indicates that emotional closeness is a strong and autonomous component in the parent-child relationship that adds to the child's well-being. ...
This study explores the relationships of adult children with their parents, and their impact on the child's life satisfaction, in Israel and in Germany. Structural equation models tested three types of parental support (practical, emotional, and advice) and emotional closeness as predictors of the child's life satisfaction. Israeli students aged 21 to 40 years (N = 590) reported significantly more frequent social support and a higher degree of emotional closeness with their mothers than German students of the same age-group (N = 535). Differences between the Israeli and German samples were evident in the association of fathers' support and the child's emotional closeness. Significant positive associations were found between the degree of emotional closeness with mothers and fathers and the child's life satisfaction in both Israel and Germany. These findings suggest that emotional closeness continues to play an essential and universal role in the relationships between adult children and their parents.
... Children often need parents' support in adulthood, and many perceive receiving parental support as normative and beneficial (Arnett, 2000;Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe et al., 2012). Theory and extensive studies documented the health and well-being benefits of receiving social support, especially from significant others (Uchino, 2009). ...
... We considered both adult children's and their parents' characteristics that may be associated with children's experience with parental advice (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe et al., 2012;Fingerman et al., 2015;Greene & Grimsley, 1990;McDowell et al., 2003). Participants provided information about their age, gender (1 = female, 0 = male), years of education, marital status (1 = married or remarried, 0 = not married), and employment status (1 = working, 0 = not working). ...
... This finding was not consistent with the contingency theory, which argued that children's needs evoke a response by parents in the form of providing advice. It was probably due to the unique feature of parentto-adult child advice, in that such advice occurs more often compared to other forms of social support (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe et al., 2012). Parents may have advised their children on how to deal with problems, how to succeed in their careers, and even how to make choices in everyday life. ...
Objectives: Parents often provide advice to their adult children during their everyday interactions. This study investigated young adult children’s daily experiences with parental advice in U.S. families. Specifically, the study examined how receiving advice and evaluations of parental advice were associated with children’s life problems, parent-child relationship quality, and daily mood.
Method: Young adult children (aged 18–30; participant N = 152) reported whether they received any advice and perceived any unwanted advice from each parent (parent N = 235) for seven days using a daily diary design (participant-day N = 948). Adult children also reported their positive and negative mood on each interview day.
Results: Results from multilevel models revealed that adult children who reported a more positive relationship with their parents were more likely to receive advice from the parent, whereas adult children who had a more strained relationship with their parents were more likely to perceive advice from the parent as unwanted. Receiving advice from mother was associated with increased positive mood, whereas unwanted advice from any parent was associated with increased negative mood. Further, the link between unwanted advice and negative mood varied by children’s life problems and parent-child relationship quality.
Discussion: Indeed, parental advice is not “the more the better,” especially when the advice is unsolicited. This study highlights the importance of perceptions of family support for emerging adults’ well-being.
... Rates of contact between young adults and their parents have increased dramatically over the past few decades. Studies in US in the 21st century find that over half of young adults (55 per cent) report contact with parents -by phone, in person, by text -daily or nearly every day and another 25 per cent report contact several times a week (Arnett & Schwab, 2012;Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe et al., 2012). Similarly, data from the Netherlands revealed that nearly three quarters (72 per cent) of young people had at least weekly phone contact with parents and nearly as many saw them in person that often (Bucx et al., 2008). ...
... Similarly, data from the Netherlands revealed that nearly three quarters (72 per cent) of young people had at least weekly phone contact with parents and nearly as many saw them in person that often (Bucx et al., 2008). In the 1980s, data from a variety of sources indicated that contact between adults and parents occurred less frequently; just over half of parents reported any type of contact with a grown child once a week or more often (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe et al., 2012). ...
... For example, the US showed a trend of increased contact between generations prior to widespread use of cellphones. Only 38 per cent of the US population reported using a cellphone in 2000, yet national data in the US reveals a trend of increasing contact between adults and their parents beginning in the early 1990s (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe et al., 2012). ...
... Relationships with family also have a profound impact on student well-being. Family support can provide stability and a sense of security, especially during this phase of the transition to college life (Fingerman et al., 2012). However, academic relationships such as peers and faculty should not be overlooked; they have a direct impact on students' academic achievement and academic satisfaction, which in turn affects well-being (Tinto, 1998). ...
... Family relationships play a cornerstone role in the lives of college students. The emotional support, encouragement, and sharing of resources provided by family is critical for students to cope with academic and life stressors (Fingerman et al., 2012). Additionally, positive interactions with family members have been found to increase students' self-esteem and self-efficacy, which correlates with higher levels of well-being (Tavernier & Willoughby, 2012). ...
This review study focuses on the key factors influencing college students’ well-being, broken down into four main areas: self-perception, mental health, interpersonal relationships, and overall developmental competence. In the self-perception section, the study highlights the positive impact of self-efficacy, goal setting and growth consciousness on individual well-being. Mental health is seen as the cornerstone of emotional regulation and stress management, which is directly linked to an individual’s well-being. Relationships are discussed in relation to the importance of support from family and friends in providing emotional support and a sense of social belonging. The section on the development of holistic developmental competencies explores how education and social engagement can enhance an individual’s self-actualisation and social competence. Using self-determination theory and the PERMA model of positive psychology, this paper constructs a multidimensional framework of understanding that analyses how these factors contribute independently and jointly to the well-being of university students. The study points out that although the existing literature provides a wealth of information for understanding college students’ well-being, there are limitations in methodology, cultural comparisons, and scientific and technological applications. Therefore, future research should adopt a longitudinal design and interdisciplinary approach to more fully explore the dynamics of well-being, especially the differences across cultures. In addition, research needs to focus on the role of digital technology in the development of holistic developmental competencies and how data science can be used to develop personalised strategies for well-being enhancement. Through these endeavours, future research will help to promote positive relationships among university students in terms of academic, career and social adjustment, and provide practical guidance to enhance the overall well-being of university students.
... Importantly, we further expanded the set of parental actions reported by previous research (Apostolou, 2013) to include actions which are ambivalent (for example, Talking about the offspring's partner, Giving feedback to the offspring, Not giving feedback or advice) or supportive ones (for example, Respecting the offspring's attitude, Emotional support, Practical/material support, Defending the offspring/ offspring's partner, Spending time together). Our findings thus support previous reports of high parental investments in financial, practical, and emotional support, including listening and talking about events from the daily life of the adult offspring (e.g., Fingerman et al., 2012;Kim et al., 2014). Interestingly, the parents in our sample provided emotional support to the offspring and to the couple, but not to the offspring's partner. ...
... Semi-structured interviews enabled us to investigate actual experienced interactions of parent-offspring dyads in detail without the need for any direct questions regarding the influence or interference of the parents or others, i.e., question about how the relatives, or friends' parents influenced the relationship of the offspring (e.g., Apostolou, 2013). Hypothetical scenarios (Apostolou, 2015(Apostolou, , 2017) may fail to identify nuanced behavioral patterns in everyday situations (Seidman, 2006), which are a natural consequence of the fact that parents and their adult offspring tend to be in regular contact (Fingerman et al., 2012). In general, the mutual parent-offspring relationship tends to gradually improve as the offspring get older (Tighe et al., 2016). ...
Mate choice in humans is specific by the involvement of kin both in partner choice and in the functioning of the relationship. The influence of relatives ranges from providing advice all the way to arranged marriages. Existing research so far tended to map neither the actual parental interventions and further reactions (counteractions) nor the independently pursued behavior (actions) by which the offspring or their partners assert their interests. This study identified such sets of behaviors through semi-structured individual interviews with members of 20 dyads of adult offspring and their biological parents (five son–mother, five son–father, five daughter–mother, and five daughter–father dyads). Thematic analysis revealed sets of parental actions aimed at the offspring, their partners, and the couple as a whole, as well as further counteractions (reactions to parental interference) and independently pursued behavior (actions) of the offspring and their partners aimed at the parents in the context of the offspring’s previous or current relationship. Our findings showed that parental interference differed depending on the recipient: toward the couple were applied mainly indirect and supportive parental actions, whereas when facing their offspring or offspring’s partner, parents’ actions were more direct and disruptive. Our results thus indicate the importance of reporting about actual interactions which differ from the hypothetical settings used in prior studies by lower intensity. Moreover, by interviewing both members of dyads, we expanded the sets of actions and counteractions identified by prior studies and managed to limit self-reporting bias.
... Parents and children are highly involved in one another's lives and frequent parental financial, practical, and emotional support in young adulthood reflects the transition to adulthood. The majority of young adults live this period accompanied by their parents (Fingerman et al., 2012). Also, studies revealed that filial piety is common among young adults (Xu, 2012). ...
... The intergenerational bonds provide a framework for service providers to support families in later years (Brubaker & Brubaker, 1999). However, qualities of parent-child relationships in young adulthood stem from earlier histories and prior relationship qualities from childhood or adolescence as confirmed in our study (Fingerman et al., 2012). ...
This study examines the associations between childhood trauma experiences and filial piety among young adults in the context of life course parent–child relationships. Data collection was performed by an online survey that included 483 university students samples from Turkey. Results showed that the stronger the filial piety expressed by young adults, the lower their likelihood of being exposed to childhood trauma experiences. In addition, when some sociodemographic variables were controlled, physical and emotional neglect and sexual abuse decreased the level of filial piety. Findings were discussed by taking a life course approach to investigate parent–child relationships. Young adults’ attitudes toward caring for their parents when they get older are influenced by their early relationships with their parents. This study provided a perspective and recommendations for social workers working in various welfare fields. Future researches, should evaluate the parent–child relationship in other life periods. Also, intervention practices on parent–child relationship should be developed and effectiveness should be tested.
... In this analysis, we focus on two social domains-parents and peers-that figure heavily in studies of criminal "onset" but that have been relatively neglected in studies of adult desistance. Particularly within the contemporary context, parents and peers may continue to play a role as significant sources of support and influence, as more general research on the uncertain period of "emerging adulthood" has recently highlighted (Barry, Madsen, and DeGrace 2015;Fingerman et al. 2012;Young et al. 2015). ...
... Yet while many studies have examined links between problematic relationships with parents and juvenile delinquency, few studies have considered the continuing role of parents on young adults' offending trajectories (but see Johnson et al. 2011). Nevertheless, the more general literature on the adult transition period provides growing support for the idea that the parent's role is not confined to the periods of childhood and adolescence (Fingerman et al. 2012;Swartz and O'Brien 2016). This developing literature suggests that parents may continue to play an important role for young adults not only for tangibles such as housing but as a more general source of emotional support (see, e.g., Aquilino 2006;Johnson et al. 2011;Schulenberg and Zarrett 2006). ...
Objectives
Research on criminal continuity and change has traditionally focused on elements of the adult life course (e.g., marriage and employment); however, recent social and economic changes suggest the need to consider a broader range of factors. In addition, researchers have increasingly recognized the importance of identity changes in the desistance process.
Methods
Using five waves of structured data from the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study (TARS), we examined identity changes, shifts in involvement with delinquent peers, and variability in closeness with parents as influences on desistance. In-depth interviews with a subset of TARS respondents offered a person-centered lens on individual and social processes associated with variability in criminal behavior.
Results
Findings indicated that identity changes were associated with declines in offending. In addition, changes in parental closeness and the extent of affiliation with antisocial peers contributed to patterns of offending, net of these subjectively experienced cognitive changes.
Conclusions
Cognitive processes are important to desistance. However, they do not independently provide a path to sustained behavioral change. Social experiences, including changes in relationships/supports from parents and affiliation with delinquent peers, also figure into change processes. We discuss the implications of our findings for future research and programmatic efforts.
... Because parents usually live with and are the primary caregivers for their minor children, there is likely to be little variation by age in the amount of contact between parents and their children under 18, though studies find that as children enter adolescence and early adulthood, they seek more independence from their parents (Noack & Buhl, 2004) and may have less contact with them. Studies also show that parents tend to be more involved in the lives of younger adult children than older adult children (Fingerman et al., 2016), but still have frequent contact with their adult children at all ages (Birditt et al., 2017;Fingerman et al., 2012;Swartz, 2009). ...
Parent–child relationship quality has critical implications for parental emotional well‐being across the lifespan. The present study assessed how relationship quality is related to daily encounters between parents and children, how those encounters are linked with parents' mood, and how these associations vary by age. Participants ( N = 129, ages 33–91) reported baseline relationship quality with a total of 337 children (ages 1–69). In ecological momentary assessments, participants reported encounters with their children and their mood every 3 h for 4 days ( N = 2220). Analyses revealed that relationship quality was not associated with whether parents had contact with their children. More negative relationship quality was positively associated with unpleasant encounters and negatively associated with pleasant encounters with children. Pleasant encounters with a child were associated with a more positive mood regardless of relationship quality. Unpleasant encounters were associated with a more negative mood, particularly when parents had a more negative relationship with their children. These associations varied significantly by age. Parents were more likely to have contact with more irritating adolescent children than less irritating adolescents and were less likely to have unpleasant encounters with children in emerging adulthood compared to childhood. Older parents' moods were not as strongly associated with unpleasant encounters, though the likelihood of experiencing unpleasant encounters was more closely tied to relationship quality for older parents than younger parents. These findings have important implications for understanding the relationship between family conflict and emotional well‐being across the life course.
... In recent years, parents have begun to maintain more regular contact with, provide additional financial assistance to, and more frequently share households with their adult children (Fingerman et al., 2012;Fry, 2016;Johnson, 2013). Over the past 2 decades, adult children have become a significant financial responsibility for American parents, surpassing even young children under 6 years old (Merrill Lynch, 2020). ...
Today, adult children depend financially on their parents more than ever before. This poses challenges for the financial well-being of parents, particularly in the context of retirement planning. Our research investigates the crossover of financial anxiety from adult children to their parents and its impact on parents’ retirement intentions. Drawing on crossover theory and the resource-based view of retirement, we examine the mechanisms underlying this stress crossover. Across three studies (Studies 1a, 1b, and 2) conducted in developed economies, we found that adult children’s financial anxiety was associated with their parents’ delayed retirement intentions through an increase in their parents’ own financial anxiety. Study 3, conducted in a developing economy, further established that financial stress crossover occurred primarily through an increase in social undermining and financial expenditure, although these mechanisms do not translate into delayed retirement intentions. Our work contributes to the stress-crossover literature by testing different mechanisms of stress crossover and highlighting how children’s financial anxiety might “trickle-up” to affect their parents’ stress and important life decisions.
... Whether or not interdependence is healthy (of course) depends on the psychological health of the young adult and parents. Lack of parental involvement during this time contributes to risk because parents are needed to support identity development and self-regulation as well as provide material assistance to young adults (Fingerman et al., 2012;Moilanen & Manuel, 2017). Parents who cannot perform these functions may be a source of stress instead of help. ...
This is Part 2 of Lifespan Development a Biopsychological Perspective, Puberto through Early Adulthood. We wrote this text for students entering helping professions. It covers many topics not addressed by other texts including, development of behavioral systems attachment, caregiving, dominance and sex. We thoroughly address what clinicians need to know about "the self" including the development of self-regulation.
... Young adulthood is a time of social-emotional, cognitive, and physical growth, as shown by growing independence from parents, finishing education and entering the workforce, forming romantic relationships, and becoming a parent. It is a crucial time in life because these developments set the stage for later experiences with health and well-being, as well as with family and close relationships [9]. Young adulthood has consistently been a crucial developmental stage that separates autonomous adulthood from adolescence. ...
This study investigates the influence of parental control on the academic decision-making processes of young adults. Although the general public has strongly supported parental engagement as a solution for school education, there are still some difficult questions surrounding this topic because the research in this field has shown conflicting results [1]. Academic decisions, such as choice of college major, career path, and educational goals, are critical milestones in the transition to adulthood. The extent to which parental control shapes these decisions has significant implications for personal development and future outcomes. Through a structured questionnaire (google form) surveys, data of 100 respondents from Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology were collected from a diverse sample of young adults. Findings suggest that parental control manifests in various forms, including direct influence on decision outcomes, indirect shaping of aspirations, and psychological impact on autonomy and self-confidence. The study reveals nuanced dynamics wherein parental involvement ranges from supportive guidance to restrictive directives, influencing young adults' perceptions of their relationship with their parents. When parental participation is viewed as a tool to help children succeed academically, the nature of the independent variable and the degree to which it can influence learning outcomes become research topics in and of themselves [2]. These insights contribute to understanding the complex interplay between familial influence and individual autonomy in the educational and career pathways of young adults.
... South and Lei (2015) states that in America the number of adults residing in their parent's home has increased remarkably, due to family connectively especially being emotionally attached to the mother considered to be instrumental help from family. Fingerman et al. (2012) posits that children who are students continue to receive more support from parents than non-students and this enhances a positive relationship with the parents who view the student status as an indication of the child's future success. This relationship could make the adult child to prolong their studies to continue receiving parental financial and emotional support. ...
In recent years, the prevalence of adult children living with parents has increased and appears to contradict a traditional marker associated with self-reliance independent living. Many emerging adults currently rely on their parents' home as a safety nest because these increasingly common non marital paths to independence are characterized by high levels of instability that may jeopardize independent living. This study explored the Experiences of Parents living with Adult Married Children in Ongata Rongai, Kajiado County, Kenya. The study was conducted with parents who reside in Ongata Rongai Kajiado County. The study employed a phenomenological research design. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were employed in selecting the participants for the study. The study utilized Interview Guide in collecting data. The data collected was analyzed using thematic analysis. The results showed the reasons for parents to live with their adult married children were financial constraints, family wealthy inheritance, overprotective parenting, emotional attachment, avoidance of loneliness and taking care of the aging parents. The study recommends parents to be sensitized about cultivating sense of independence to their children in order to a meaningful life in their future.
... They often display higher levels of psychosocial distress [2,3], mostly concerning their health and health-management, which may result in limitations in daily life participation. The parent-child relationship is one of the strongest sources of support for children facing psychosocial stress [4]. However, parents too experience stress related to their child's condition. ...
... Even though there is variability in perceptions of youth autonomy and independence (Benito-Gomez et al., 2020), many emerging adults rely on their parents as a source of support. Emerging adults are in frequent contact with their parents (98% report weekly contact, 65% daily contact) and they frequently seek help from their parents to resolve and cope with stressors (Fingerman et al., 2012;Fry et al., 2020). Yet even though emerging adults are regularly discussing stressors with their parents, no prior studies have examined specific strategies as to how parents help EAs manage stress, and which strategies help, and which hinder mental health. ...
Emerging adults (EAs) are at high risk for mental health challenges and frequently reach out to their parents for support. Yet little is known about how parents help emerging adults manage and cope with daily stressors and which strategies help and which hinder EA mental health. In this cross-sectional pilot study of students at a 2-and 4-year college (ages 18-25, N = 680, mean age = 19.0), we extend models of dyadic coping from intimate relationships to the parent-emerging adult relationship and test whether six specific parent strategies to help emerging adults manage stress are associated with EA mental health. Emerging adults with parents who provided problem and emotion-focused supportive dyadic coping, delegated dyadic coping , and common/joint dyadic coping reported fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression, as well as higher levels of psychological well-being. In contrast, college-attending emerging adults who reported higher levels of parent-provided negative dyadic coping reported higher levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms and lower psychological well-being. Parent-emerging adult dyadic coping is a fruitful area for future research and intervention development.
... Parental support remains crucial as children transition from childhood to adulthood. Many young adults rely on their parents for living conditions while completing their education and seeking employment (Fingerman et al., 2012;Swartz, 2009). Inequalities in access to parental support in late adolescence creates disparities among young adults' socioeconomic outcomes and life opportunities (Johnson & Benson, 2012;Swartz, 2009). ...
Although previous studies suggest that parental behavior is associated with children’s adulthood outcomes, few studies have focused on the role of parental incarceration in School-to-Work transitions. Based on a life course perspective, this study constructs the School-to-Work trajectories of Chinese young adults born between 1940 and 1979 to examine the effect of parental incarceration on these transitions and the mediating role of family support. We found that adolescents whose parents were incarcerated transitioned from School-to-Work earlier and had more vulnerable transition trajectories than those of children whose parents were not incarcerated. Moreover, the former was more likely to engage in agricultural labor, enter the labor market with low education, and experience long-term unemployment after leaving school. We also found that family support mediated the effect of parental incarceration on School-to-Work transitions. Parental incarceration led to low levels of family support, further increasing the likelihood of affected adolescents embarking on a vulnerable transition trajectory. These findings underscore the long-term effect of positive parental behaviors and family support on young adults’ School-to-Work trajectories and provide crucial policy implications for developing a young adult-friendly family environment and young adult support programs to promote effortless transitions from School-to-Work.
... When exposed to a potentially risk conducive peer influence, adolescents might opt to pursue the behavior due to their curiosity for experimenting and exploring to further form their identity as well as to seek peer approval (Ciranka and Hertwig, 2023;. Nevertheless, parents continue to play an important socializing role in the lives of youth through early adulthood years, and youth who have positive and supportive relationships with their parents report more positive outcomes (Fingerman et al., 2011). Starting early in development, attachment patterns formed with parents/caregivers during infancy and later the presence of warm, nurturing and supportive parenting during early childhood years facilitate the development of executive functions and self-regulation (Belsky et al., 2007;Wang et al., 2013). ...
... However, research focused on parental warmth and parental involvement during emerging adulthood has reported an increase in both variables perceived by older children throughout this developmental stage (e.g., Fingerman et al., 2012). ...
During emerging adulthood, family relationships remain salient. This study examined, from a gender perspective, continuity/discontinuity and stability/instability in family relationships, in a two-time repeated-measures study with Spanish emerging adult college students. It also analyzed the implications of the quality of parent–child relationships for emerging adults’ psychological distress. A sample of 400 Spanish college students aged between 18 and 29 years was followed across two time points ( M = 20.31 and SD = 2.04 at Time 1; M = 23.66 and SD = 2.08 at Time 2), completing a self-report measure of parenting behaviors and psychological distress. Results indicated continuity in family social support, parental autonomy support, and psychological control; however, they also revealed discontinuity, with parental warmth, parental involvement, and behavioral control decreasing over time. Results also indicated high rank-order stability in family relationships, seen globally. Regression analyses showed that, only for men, parental involvement at T1 consistently predicted psychological distress at T2, as well as changes in psychological distress between T1 and T2. This study provides data supporting the idea that both change and continuity exist in family relationships. It also expands on the scarce research focused on this developmental context during emerging adulthood in Spain and provides support for designing preventive parenting interventions.
... As we have seen, the parent/young-adult relationship holds great responsibility and impact over the lifecourse in terms of relational and emotional outcomes (Faw et al., 2019). Parents play a key role in their young adult's transition to adulthood (Fingerman et al., 2012). Additionally, parents and young adults have been shown to share an interdependent relationship where each person has an acute and longitudinal impact into adulthood (Knoester, 2003). ...
... 34 Spain's stronger safety nets, particularly the role of the family, including the fact that young Spanish adults are more likely to live with their parents, may also contribute to having lower absolute and relative levels of deaths of despair, particularly in recent decades. 4,40 However, further research is needed to better understand the determinants of suicide, drugs and alcohol consumption among loweducated middle-aged adults. Moreover, the opioid epidemic, a longstanding public health issue in the USA characterized by the misuse and addiction to opioids including the prescription of pain relievers, heroin and synthetic opioids 7,41 is not yet prevalent in Spain, and could be another reason for the higher rates of deaths of despair in the USA. ...
Background
Research from various countries has shown increases in alcohol- and drug-related deaths and suicide, known as ‘deaths of despair’ over recent decades, particularly among low-educated middle-aged individuals. However, little is known about trends in death-of-despair causes in Spain. Therefore, we aim to descriptively examine this among 25–64-year-olds from 1980 to 2019 and by educational attainment for the years 2017–19.
Methods
We obtained mortality and population data from the National Institute of Statistics to estimate age-standardized mortality rates and assess educational inequalities using the relative index of inequality (RII).
Results
Deaths of despair as a share of total mortality slightly increased from 2000 onwards, particularly among 25–64-year-old men (from 9 to 10%). Only alcohol-related mortality declined relatively more since 1980 compared with all-cause mortality. Regarding educational differences, low-educated men presented higher mortality rates in all death-of-despair causes (alcohol-related: RII 3.54 (95% CI: 2.21–5.66); drug-related: RII 3.49 (95% CI: 1.80–6.77); suicide: RII 1.97 (95% CI: 1.49–2.61)). Women noteworthy differences were only observed for alcohol-related (RII 3.50 (95% CI: 2.13–5.75)).
Conclusions
Findings suggest an increasing proportion of deaths of despair among 25–64-year-olds since 2000, particularly among men. Public health policies are needed to reduce and prevent these premature and preventable causes of mortality.
... The increase in young adults (i.e., aged 18 to 30) living with their parents has led to a concern about a longer "transition to adulthood" (Fingerman et al., 2012;Settersten & Ray, 2010). Some scholars have examined possible attitudinal changes in young adults' willingness to assume adult roles (Harvey, 2005). ...
Few social policies provide financial support to parents whose children are transitioning to adulthood. The earned income tax credit (EITC) is one exception. Parents with children between 18 and 24 years old who are enrolled in school full-time can claim their children for the EITC on their tax returns. Yet, scholars have largely overlooked how families access and use the EITC when they have adult children. Drawing on 30 interviews with low-to-moderate-income single mothers, primarily women of color, I illustrate how neoliberal socio-cultural values of independence, self-sufficiency, and responsibility dominate the mothers’ decisions regarding tax filing and tax refund allocations. Some mothers forego claiming their adult child for EITC and encourage their child to “claim themselves” to foster independence and responsibility. Their child receiving a tax refund also gave mothers an opportunity to observe their child’s financial responsibility. Other mothers balanced fostering independence with the family’s financial needs by explaining to their child that as a parent they would receive a larger tax refund if they claimed them but wanted their child to decide how to file their tax returns. Still, some mothers who could not claim their adult child for the EITC due to the school attendance requirements felt the policy did not respond to the financial responsibilities they had to their children, who navigated harsh economic circumstances produced under neoliberalism. Given neoliberalism’s influence on socio-cultural values and public policy, reforms that center the socialization goals and financial needs of economic and racially marginalized families are discussed.
... For instance, nearly 75% of modern parents of EAs provide some financial support to their EA child, whereas only 40% of these parents received such support from their own parents in their own emerging adulthoods (Arnett & Schwab, 2013). For the most part, parental responsiveness, warmth, and support are linked to healthier parent-EA relationships and adjustment outcomes (Barry et al., 2008;Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2019) and may be of particular importance during transitional periods (e.g., moving out of the family home, starting college; Fingerman et al., 2012). ...
Parents and their emerging adult children are highly connected via mobile phones in the digital age. This digital connection has potential implications for the development of autonomy and sustained parent-child relatedness across the course of emerging adulthood. The present study uses the qualitatively coded content of nearly 30,000 U.S. parent-college student text messages, exchanged by 238 college students and their mothers and fathers over the course of 2 weeks, to identify distinct dyadic parent-emerging adult digital interaction styles across dimensions of responsiveness and monitoring. Results reveal that digital interaction styles are largely consistent across age, gender, and parent education as well as reflective (i.e., texting patterns of parents and emerging adults mirror one another), with little evidence of overparenting profiles. Results also show that those college students who are reciprocally disengaged in text messaging with their parents perceive their parents as less digitally supportive. However, no styles were associated with perceived parental pressure to digitally engage. Findings suggest that the mobile phone is likely a valuable tool to maintain connection with few risks for undermining the privacy and autonomy of emerging adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Young adults are finishing school later, are more likely to live with their parents as they age, and are less likely to find stable, long-term jobs (Furstenberg 2010;Fingerman et al. 2020). Due to the growing period of uncertainty among young adults, children are more likely to be dependent on their parents for emotional, instrumental, and financial support compared to previous decades (Fingerman et al. 2012). Parent-child relationships may be marked with challenges and conflict as young adults navigate normative expectations on the timing of leaving the parental home, finishing schooling, and experiencing transitions in and out of romantic relationships and jobs (Schulenberg and Schoon 2012;Fingerman et al. 2020). ...
Background: Parent–child relationships are increasingly central in family life due to the delayed transition to adulthood. Methods: Using data from Add Health and the Add Health Parent Study from 1994–2018, we examine changes in parent–child relationships reported by the child and the parent across gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES) from ages 12–43 years old. We examine three broad categories of intergenerational solidarity: Affectual (closeness, relationship quality, and emotional support), associational (satisfaction with communication), and functional (financial and instrumental support). Results: For the overall sample, parent–child closeness remains high but decreases from ages 12–43. By gender, we find that daughters report lower relationship quality with their mothers and fathers in adolescence. By race and ethnicity, we find that parent–child closeness is highest among Black respondents. By SES, we find that respondents whose mothers attained less than a high school degree report the greatest mother–child closeness. Conclusions: Overall, parents remain an important source of emotional, instrumental, and financial support in the transition to adulthood, especially for Black and low-SES adolescents. It is important to pay attention to the intersectional nature of the parent–child relationship with regard to the timing of the life course and race, ethnicity, gender, and SES.
... Parents' emotional support fulfills adolescents' basic need to feel secure and safe. Parents provide emotional support through listening to problems, discussing problems and issues, sharing companionship, and having a strong parent-child attachment (Fingerman et al., 2012;Scully al., 2020). Through their advice and emotional support, parents provide a safety net when late adolescents and young adults feel vulnerable, as well as support and care when adolescents or young adults feel depressed or lonely. ...
Despite extensive research documenting associations between adverse early-life experiences and negative outcomes in later life, little is known about how adverse experiences in late adolescence relate to young adulthood disadvantages. This study examines the role of adverse experiences during late adolescence on young adults’ education and work trajectories in Taiwan. Drawing theories and research from human development and sociology, the study links indicators of disadvantages in young adulthood to measures of adverse experiences in late adolescence using data from the Taiwan Youth Project data (n = 1221; median ages 18, 20, and 22; 49.4% female). The analysis found that running away from home was associated with instability in education or employment and that having cumulative adverse experiences was associated with graduating with debt and instability in education or employment. Some associations were explained by financial pressure, however, taken together, the findings suggest that certain adverse experiences in late adolescence have a significant impact on disadvantaged education and work trajectories in young adulthood.
... In terms of parental employment, Lim (2012), for example, found that parental absence at home (due to long working hours) affected parents' emotional closeness with their children. Regarding young people's education level, Fingerman et al. (2012c) found that college students received more support from their parents than non-students, and Brooks (2015) found that attending college can contribute to improved closeness with parents and siblings. Higher parental education level has been found to be associated with supportive parenting and bonding in the parent-child relationship (Melby et al., 2008;Neves et al., 2019). ...
The transition to adulthood is typically marked by changes in relationships with family members, peers, and romantic partners. Despite this, the family often maintains a prominent role in young adults’ lives. A scoping review was conducted to identify the factors that influence families’ ability or capacity to provide young people with emotional support during the transition to adulthood, and to understand the gaps in this research area. Title and abstract searches were conducted from January 2007 to February 2021 in multiple databases, including PsycINFO, MEDLINE, and Sociological Abstracts. Fifteen semi-structured interviews were also conducted with stakeholders (professionals from relevant sectors/working within this field). In total, 277 articles were eligible for inclusion in the review. Following data extraction, 19 factors were identified. Factors with the most research (more than 20 articles) included: family proximity or co-residence; mental health; sex or gender differences; and family communication. Factors with less research included: societal context; young person’s sexual orientation or gender identity; social networks; and adverse life events. Gaps in the research area were also identified, including methodological issues (e.g., lack of mixed methods and longitudinal study designs), a disproportionate focus on the parent–child relationship, and a lack of contextually situated research. Our findings indicate that future research in this area could benefit from taking an intersectional, multi-method approach, with a focus on the whole family and diverse samples.
... Research has shown that maintaining close and supportive relationship with mothers is important for young adults and contributes to their adjustment (Ryan and Lynch, 1989;Aquilino, 2006;Kenny and Sirin, 2006;Buhl, 2007;Fingerman et al., 2012;Guarnieri et al., 2015). Research has also shown that many emerging adults can benefit from close relationships with their mothers also when they do not live with them (Kins et al., 2009(Kins et al., , 2014Mattanah et al., 2011). ...
Based on past theorizing and research, we posited that there are two kinds of specific experiences that contribute to the satisfaction of the general need for autonomy in emerging adults, as reflected in volitional, self-endorsed, actions. These experiences are: (1) feeling free, and (2) having a valid authentic inner compass (AIC). In the first study testing this hypothesis, college students in Israel (n = 163, mean age = 21.33), and in China (n = 72, mean age = 23.67) completed measures assessing experiences of freedom and having a valid AIC during contacts with mothers, extent of volitional contacts with mothers, and vitality during contacts with mothers. Confirmatory factor analyses and invariance analysis supported the validity of the measures, and their equivalence across cultures. In the Israeli sample, students also completed a measure assessing the extent to which the sense of having a valid AIC during contacts with one’s mother is based on intrinsic aspirations and goals. As expected, across cultures, participants distinguished between experiences of (a) having a valid AIC, and (b) feeling free. The findings also suggest that experiences of freedom and of having a valid AIC during contacts with mothers are associated with extent of volitional contacts with mother, and subsequent vitality during these contacts. Also as expected, experiencing a valid AIC during contacts with mother was associated with volitional contacts with her and subsequent vitality - only when the AIC was based on intrinsic aspirations. The results suggest that in assessing people’s sense of AIC, it is important to consider the content of the aspirations and goals on which this sense is based. The findings are consistent with the view that feeling free, and having a valid AIC are two specific autonomy experiences which promote a more global experience of need autonomy satisfaction, as indicated by feelings of volitional and self-endorsed action.
... First, they may offer support for altruistic reasons and care for the success and well-being of their child (Fingerman et al. 2009;). Alternatively, parents may help their children to secure support for themselves later in life (Fingerman, Cheng, Tighe, et al. 2012;Fingerman et al. 2009;Swartz 2009) or because parents are invested in their children's success because it represents their own success as parents Fingerman et al. 2009). Regardless of the reason, parents continue to provide support for their children as they age, often even after young adult children leave college (Fingerman et al. 2020;Hartnett et al. 2013;Swartz 2009;Swartz et al. 2011). ...
Funding children’s college expenses can be a family project, often requiring substantial savings from parents and educational debt from children, but parents also borrow to support their children’s postsecondary ambitions. Despite growing use of debt to finance children’s college expenses, studies have overlooked parent borrowing’s role in intergenerational financial support. This study investigates parent borrowing through the federally-funded Parent Loans for Undergraduate Student (PLUS) program to illustrate the risks and hope current higher education policies demand of families across the income distribution who are working to provide a middle-class life for their children. To do so, this research uses three datasets from the National Center for Education Statistics, including the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), a nationally-representative, cross-sectional survey of American undergraduates in 2015-16, the Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study (BPS), a nationally-representative, longitudinal study of American undergraduates followed between 2003 and 2009; and finally, the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), a nationally-representative, longitudinal study of 10th-graders surveyed between 2002 and 2012. First, this study investigates the risks parents take when they borrow through PLUS by identifying parents’ debt burdens across the income distribution. Second, I consider whether parent borrowing delivers on parents’ hopes by examining whether PLUS eases children’s path into adulthood by increasing Bachelor’s degree attainment and financial wellbeing for families across the income distribution. My project finds that parents’, regardless of their means, are burdened by PLUS loans, albeit in different ways. In addition, PLUS loan debt is highest among high- and upper-middle income parents, demonstrating that college costs are beyond the means of even advantaged families. In addition, rather than supporting young adult children as they transition to adulthood, PLUS is not guaranteed to deliver on parents’ hopes. Instead, PLUS provides limited benefits in terms of degree attainment, and higher levels of PLUS loans are associated with greater financial stress for young adult children. I discuss the theoretical and policy implications for intergenerational family support, debt, and college affordability.
... In sum, we anticipate that both structural and emotional aspects of adult grandchildren's relationships with their middle-generation parents will be influential for adult grandchildren's grief symptoms following a shared loss experience of an eldest generation (grand)parent. Moreover, we expect that structural aspects of the relationship -such as coresidence of adult grandchildren with middle-generation parents, and middle-generation parent's gender -will moderate associations between emotional aspects of this relationship (positive relationship quality, worry about parent) and adult grandchildren's grief symptoms (e.g., Fingerman et al., 2012;Stokes, 2016b;White & Rogers, 1997). Specifically, we expect the associations of (a) positive relationship quality with a middle-generation parent and (b) worry about a middle-generation parent with adult grandchildren's grief symptoms to be strongest when adult grandchildren coreside with their bereaved middle-generation parent, and when that middle-generation parent is a mother. ...
Objective: This study examined adult grandchildren's experience of losing a grandparent in the context of a multigenerational family.
Background: Although the death of a grandparent in adulthood is often an expected life event, this loss may still result in grief for adult grandchildren. Furthermore, bereavement is not merely an individual experience, but a family one. Characteristics of the relationship between bereaved adult grandchildren and their bereaved middle‐generation parents may influence adult grandchildren's grief responses. This includes both structural (e.g., gender of parent; coresidence with parent) and emotional (e.g., relationship quality; worry about parent) aspects of this tie.
Method: Young adult grandchildren from Wave 2 of the Family Exchanges Study (2013, N = 204) reported on their recent grandparent loss experiences (N = 216) and relationships with their middle‐generation parents (N = 142).
Results: Three‐level multilevel models revealed that (a) grandsons who lost a grandmother reported significantly fewer grief symptoms than all other gender combinations; (b) worry about a middle‐generation parent was associated with higher grief symptoms, but; (c) this effect was significantly stronger when the middle‐generation parent was a mother, and when adult grandchildren were coresident with that bereaved parent. Finally, relationship quality with the middle‐generation parent was not associated with grief symptoms, irrespective of context.
Conclusion: Results highlight the intersection of emotional and structural aspects of multigenerational relationships following the death of a family member.
... Substance use and social relationships are closely intertwined across the lifespanparticularly relationships with parents. Positive parent-child relationships have long been studied as a central component in the development of prosocial attitudes and behavior among children (Glueck and Glueck 1950;Hirschi 1969;Hoeve et al. 2009) and have been shown to be consequential for well-being throughout adulthood (Fingerman et al. 2012;Wang et al. 2019). Research indicates that youth who receive more social support from parents are less likely to binge drink; use illicit drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, inhalants, and stimulants; or develop problems at school, work, or in their interpersonal relationships because of their substance abuse (Barnes and Farrell 1992;Brook et al. 1983;Johnson et al. 2011;Small et al. 2011;Stice et al. 1993;Wills and Vaughn 1989;Wright and Cullen 2001). ...
Instrumental support from parents can be a protective factor in the lives of children and adolescents—one that serves to reduce the risks of drug and alcohol use. But the link between instrumental support from parents and substance use has seldom been explored in emerging adulthood. In particular, it is unclear whether instrumental support from parents during this stage in the life course is protective, or whether it enables young adults’ binge drinking and drug use. Four waves of panel data from the Pathways to Desistance Study are used. Multilevel models are estimated to examine the relationship between parental instrumental support (providing living expenses, loaning money, providing transportation, and shopping/cleaning/doing laundry) and two forms of substance use (binge drinking and illicit drug use) during the transition to adulthood (N = 1137 individuals; 3288 person-waves). Our findings indicate that instrumental support from parents is unrelated to changes in binge drinking or illicit drug use during emerging adulthood. This association was null regardless of the type of instrumental support provided, or how instrumental support was measured. Instrumental support also had no impact on substance use for individuals with prior histories of drug and alcohol use. The results raise questions about the salience of instrumental support from parents during emerging adulthood and instead suggest that parental support may matter most during earlier stages of the life course.
... For example, it has been demonstrated that rewarding and supportive ties with parents are linked to better wellness, whereas strain or tension in parent-offspring relationships is associated with poor wellness in their adulthood (Fingerman et al., 2008). In a recent study in university students (Fingerman et al., 2012), researchers observed that parents and offspring are more involved in one another's lives nowadays than in the past. This involvement, measured in the weekly frequency of phone conversations and in the frequency of parental financial, practical, and emotional support, was characterized as a contributor in students' life satisfaction. ...
Context
Family offers an important source of social support where individuals acquire social abilities that are necessary to create positive human relationships. This influence has been discussed by different sociological and psychological theories along the life span of individuals. In medicine, empathy, teamwork, and lifelong learning have been described as specific elements of professionalism that have special importance in the interaction with patients and in physicians’ well-being at the workplace. This study was performed with the aim of demonstrating the following hypothesis: In the absence of specific training in empathy and teamwork and lifelong learning abilities, their development in medical students is associated with the students’ perception of loneliness from their family environment.
Methods
A cross-sectional study was performed in the only two medical schools of Cusco (Peru), one private and the other public. Jefferson Scales of Empathy, Teamwork, and Lifelong Learning were used as the main measures. Mother–son and father–son relationships and family loneliness were measured to characterize the family environment. In addition, information related to sex, medical school, academic achievements, and place of origin were collected to control possible biases. Comparative, correlation, and multiple regression analyses were performed among the variables studied.
Results
In a sample of 818 medical students, differences by school appeared in empathy, teamwork, lifelong learning, and family loneliness. In addition, family loneliness showed an inverse correlation with empathy, teamwork, and learning measures. While having a positive relationship with the mother was associated with a greater development of empathy and learning abilities in the entire sample, a similar effect was observed in father–son relationships, but only in the private medical school group. Finally, in the public medical group, a multiple regression model explained 43% of the variability of empathy based on a lineal relationship with teamwork (p < 0.001), lifelong learning (p < 0.001), and family loneliness (p < 0.001).
Conclusion
These findings confirm how family loneliness is detrimental to the development of medical professionalism. Also, they support the important role that the family, and especially parents, plays in the development of empathy, teamwork, and abilities in medical students. Finally, these findings highlighted important differences among students enrolled in public and private medical schools.
... Opportunities for contact increased significantly since then with the advent of cell phones, email, and web cameras. Because geographical proximity has become less necessary for sustaining emotionally close relationships ( Fingerman et al., 2012), revisiting the topic of contact and relationship quality is needed to gain a more up-to-date understanding of the issue. Since face-toface meetings are still more bound by propinquity, treating contact via phone or email and face-to-face meetings separately would be more informative in capturing the nuanced differences between the two modes of contact. ...
Contact and relationship quality between adult children and aging parents are two widely used indicators of intergenerational solidarity and are often assumed to be positively correlated. However, the association between the two may depend on characteristics of the parent involved. Using Family Exchanges Study Wave 1, this study assessed whether parental difficulties—measured as functional limitations and life problems—and gender moderated the associations between middle-aged adults’ contact and relationship quality with their parents. We found that more frequent email or phone contact was associated with worse relationship quality for fathers who had functional limitations. For life problems, however, more contact was not related to relationship quality for fathers with life problems. The associations did not differ by mother’s difficulties. These results suggest that frequent contact between middle-aged adult children and aging parents does not uniformly reflect better relationship quality but rather depends on parents’ characteristics.
... Furthermore, the sample used in the current study consisted only of university students, which limits the generalizability of the findings. For instance, parents have been found to parent their children differently depending upon whether they were residential college students (Fingerman et al. 2012). Additionally, because emerging adults who do not live in close physical proximity to their parents may engage in greater risk behaviors than those living at home, it remains important for future researchers to control for whether emerging adults lived at home with their parents or away at a university (Cooney and Nonnamaker 1992;Simpson and Burnett 2017). ...
Many parents continue to parent their emerging-adult children, but what becomes developmentally appropriate for such children differs from that of earlier ages. In addition, culture and context shape parenting and in turn child outcomes. Among an adolescent sample, higher-SES youth engage in higher levels of risk behaviors to manage the pressures they face from trying to live up to their parents’ high expectations for achievement compared to low- and middle-SES youth. Researchers have not yet examined the role of SES on emerging adults’ likelihood of engaging in risk behaviors in response to controlling parenting. Therefore, the current study explored the role of SES on the associations among emerging adults’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting behaviors (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and helicopter parenting) and change in their own risk behaviors. Undergraduate students (N = 551; Mage = 19.87, SD = 2.00; 60.6% women; 61% European American; 28.6% higher-SES) from four universities throughout the U.S. completed both waves of the study. Participants completed scales on each of their parents’ behavioral control, psychological control, and helicopter parenting, as well as a self-report measure of their own engagement in risk behaviors. Results indicated that maternal and paternal psychological control were associated positively with change in risk behaviors. Additionally, maternal and paternal behavioral control were associated with greater change in risk behaviors for higher-SES, but not lower-SES emerging adults. The findings provide new insights into the role of SES on the differential influence of parental behavioral control, psychological control, and helicopter parenting on change in emerging adults’ risk behaviors.
... For example, in Turkish culture, mothers provide nurturing (such as providing nourishment, maintaining order in the house, etc.) and fathers provide economic support. Young individuals are often dependent on their parents, since they are financially insecure and in need of support in the decision-making process (Fingerman et al. 2012). In a study conducted in Turkish emerging adults, it was found that emerging adults still receive family support and cannot make their own decisions (Atak 2011). ...
As a developmental turning point, emerging adulthood has been a recent focus for researchers investigating both resilience and psychopathology. The aim of this study was to examine the roles of negative experiences and the nature of the relationship with parents and siblings in the resilience of college students as emerging adults. The study group included Turkish college students as emerging adults (199 females and 101 males) who lived apart from their parents, had at least one sibling and had experienced at least one negative event. Data were collected from Child and Youth Resilience, Adverse Life Events Form, Parent-Adolescent Relationship Scale, and Lifespan Sibling Relationship Scale. Hierarchical regression analysis was performed to determine the extent to which the independent variables explained the resilience variance. The results revealed that negative life experiences were significant factors in explaining resilience. Moreover, neither a positive nor a negative relationship with the mother had an effect on explaining the resilience, while a positive relationship with the father was an important factor in explaining resilience. Meantime, the role of protective factors in terms of family relationships and the quality of sibling relationships sustained in this period were significant relational strengths for resilience. All these results are considered to be significant contributions to the culturally meaningful family functionality and the resilience of college students as emerging adults.
... 한편, 가족과의 관계는 개인의 웰빙에 있어 전생애에 걸쳐 중대한 역할을 하며, 가족관계의 질은 개 인의 웰빙에 상당한 영향을 미친다는 사실을 보여주는 증거가 이미 다수 존재한다 [72] . 부모로부터의 재 정적, 정서적 지원은 성인 자녀의 삶의 만족도에 긍정적인 기여를 하는 것으로 나타나며 [21] , 부모와 성 인자녀의 결속(bond)에 대해 종단 분석한 네덜란드 학자들은 부모가 자녀의 심리적 웰빙에 지속적으로 중요한 역할을 한다는 것을 밝혔다 [74] . 그러나 자녀에게 지나치게 관여하여 이른바 헬리콥터 양육방식 을 취하는 부모들의 경우, 그들의 성인자녀의 삶에 대한 불만족, 우울이나 불안, 정서조절불능 수준에 기여했다 [13] . ...
The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between the developmental task achievement and subjective well-being of young adults in their emerging and early adulthood. The dataset used in the study was collected in 2018, targeting single-person households living in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. As for the developmental tasks of young adults, stress from the romantic partner relationship, educational attainment, whether currently employed, whether having debt, and family closeness were included. Control variables cover general efficacy and social self-efficacy, gender, age, physical and mental health condition as well as leisure satisfaction. The subjective well-being of young adults was measured with Flourishing Scale developed by Keyes. Results of the study showed that educational attainment, having debt, family closeness, and employ status (currently employed) were significantly related to the subjective well-being of young adult single-person households, while employment status showed a positive effect. Among control variables, general and social self-efficacy were significant, and male respondents showed a higher level of subjective well-being compared to female respondents. Physical and mental health condition were significant as was satisfaction with leisure time. The authors conclude with a discussion of the findings and implications of the study.
... Moreover, 'totally dependent' youths presented a high level of life satisfaction that may be explained by parental sustenancenot only tangible (practical and financial) but also emotional and psychological, for their life choices and studies. This is in line with previous research that showed that students receive more support from their parents than nonstudents, and that support contributes to their life satisfaction (Fingerman et al. 2012). On the other hand, it is possible that the life satisfaction of this group is influenced by the quality of parental relationship in terms of attachment (Guarnieri, Smorti, and Tani 2015;Ponti and Smorti 2018). ...
The transition toward adulthood in Italy lasts longer than in other countries with respect to living with the family of origin, starting work, and gaining economic independence. This study aimed to analyse the transition to adulthood in Italian youths by exploring these developmental tasks. The first aim was to analyse gender and age differences in these developmental tasks. Given that these tasks are not necessarily achieved at the same time, the second aim was to establish if it might be possible to identify different clusters of individuals according to their residential, economic and employment conditions. The third aim was to explore life satisfaction in different clusters. 191 Italian emerging adults (65 males) aged 20–30 years (M = 24.40) completed the Satisfaction with Life Scale and a specific questionnaire assessing residential independence, economic autonomy, and job stability. Results showed no gender differences in the three developmental tasks. However, older participants reported a higher level of independence. Cluster analysis identified three different groups: ‘totally dependent’, ‘partially independent’ and ‘totally independent’ from parental family, differently composed in terms of partnering. These groups do not differ in life satisfaction levels. Results are discussed focusing on different independence-from-parents conditions that characterize Italian emerging adults.
I investigated subjective well-being (SWB)—happiness, meaningfulness, sadness, stress, and tiredness—of 7,087 mothers, engaged in 11,154 cases of activities in which their children were present, using the Conservation of Resources theory. Results of OLS analysis of data from the American Time Use Study suggested that the presence of her parent(s) during the activities was associated positively with the mother’s happiness and negatively with her stress. Total time spent with her parent(s) was positively associated with the mother’s tiredness. Co-residence with parents was not significantly related to the mother’s SWB. The association between the mother’s SWB and her involvement with parents was positively moderated by demographic variables that may have increased her need for core resources in the form of kin support. The focus on sandwiched activities in which a mother engaged with her children and parents permitted direct assessment of how those activities affected the mother’s SWB.
The purpose of this study was to describe the family life and relationships of national family center users in 2023. A sample of 1,086 adults was recruited from 48 family centers across South Korea. Participants, both online and offline, reported on various aspects of family life, including satisfaction, gender equality, workhome- life balance, family leisure, and internet usage for family and household purposes. Additionally, family relationships were explored in terms of dynamics with a spouse, children, and adult children. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t -tests. In the family life domain, center users reported a high level of satisfaction, with women exhibiting greater awareness of gender equality and higher engagement in household chores than men. Furthermore, although a moderate balance among work, home, and life was reported, time emerged as a significant challenge for family leisure. Regarding technology, center users frequently utilized the internet for family communication, leisure, shopping, and household management. In the family relationships domain, men were more satisfied with spousal relationships than women. Center users reported high satisfaction with parentchild relationships. Parents of school-aged children perceived economic burdens, while those with adult children frequently provided psychological and instrumental support. These findings suggest the need for program modification and the development of new initiatives within national family centers to better support the diverse needs of families in terms of life satisfaction and relationship dynamics.
We examined whether emerging adults' sense of intimate safety with their parents and their adult attachment style would predict emerging adults' social connectedness. Additionally, we investigated whether their social connectedness would mediate the association between emerging adults' sense of intimate safety with their parents and their rumination and anger expression. Social connectedness is essential to the psychological and relational health of emerging adults, particularly during the renegotiation of their relationships with their parents. Two hundred sixteen emerging adults (80% female; 61% non‐Hispanic White) completed a survey of close relationship variables. The results suggest that emerging adults' adult attachment style mediated the relationship between emerging adults' intimate safety with their parents and social connectedness. Additionally, social connectedness mediated the relationship between emerging adults' intimate safety with their parents and their rumination and anger expression. This research highlights the importance of emerging adults' sense of safety to be their authentic and vulnerable selves in parent–child relationships on emerging adults' development of social connectedness and their mental and relational health.
Traditional theories of grief suggest that individuals experience short-term increases in depressive symptoms following the death of a parent. However, growing evidence indicates that effects of parental bereavement may persist. Situating the short- and long-term effects of parental death within the life course perspective, we assess the combined influence of time since loss and life course stage at bereavement on mental health for maternal and paternal death. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 11,877) to examine biological parental death from childhood to mid-adulthood, we find that those who experience recent maternal or paternal death have heightened depressive symptoms. Furthermore, those who experience maternal death in childhood or paternal death in young adulthood exhibit long-term consequences for mental health. Our findings underscore the theoretical importance of early life course stages and parent’s gender when determining whether depressive symptoms persist following parental bereavement.
Objective
This study examined whether youth and parent perceptions of parent–child contact, closeness, and conflict change during the transition to adulthood, and how perceived parent–child relations vary as a function of life course experiences such as residential, education, and relationship status.
Background
The parent–child relationship is one of the most influential and long‐lasting social ties. Much research on this relationship focuses on childhood, adolescence, and late life, with data from one generation only. Guided by a life course perspective, this study sought to investigate youth and parent perceptions of parent–child relations during the transition to adulthood—a relatively understudied area.
Method
Data were from a community sample of German parent–child dyads (N = 2,301, 50% daughter, 65% mother) who participated in the German Family Panel study (pairfam; https://www.pairfam.de/en/) and were followed annually from ages 17 to 22.
Results
Latent growth models revealed that parent–child contact and conflict decreased, and parent–child closeness remained relatively stable from ages 17 to 22; youth coresidence with parents was associated with higher levels of youth‐ and parent‐reported contact and conflict, but youth student and relationship statuses were not related to changes in parent–child relations.
Conclusion
This study describes general patterns of parent–child relations in a transitional period and offers insights into the role of life course event status in changing parent–child relations. Findings reveal separation from parents along with connectedness, and provide support for understanding development in the context of linked lives.
For young adults in the general population, maintaining close bonds to parental figures and being able to rely on them in times of need contributes to positive adjustment in the transition to adulthood, yet, the consequences of transitioning to adulthood without strong bonds to family has received remarkably limited attention. This systematic review synthesizes information about the relationships aging out foster youth have with their birth or stepparents after legally mandated separations in foster care. Utilizing PRISMA guidelines, published and unpublished information from studies recruiting US-based samples were reviewed, yielding 16 articles from 10 studies. Findings indicate (1) a majority of studies have reported information about foster youths’ self-reported contact with birth parents and post-foster care living arrangements, and (2) fewer studies have sought to identify the types of support provided by birth parents or explored the benefits and risks that come from different types of support. This review identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the existing evidence, highlights avenues for future research, and offers guidance for establishing practices around facilitating relationships.
Aim
This study was undertaken to investigate how young people with and without mild intellectual disabilities experience and perceive their own behavioural autonomy.
Method
Fifty‐six young people with mild intellectual disabilities and 49 young people without disabilities aged 16–19 participated in a novel picture card sorting task to investigate their participation in a range of activities, and the obstacles preventing them from doing so.
Results
School pupils with intellectual disabilities engaged in significantly fewer activities than their typically developing peers and were more likely to state not to be allowed to. In contrast, the college students with and without disabilities were equally as likely to undertake each activity, and those with intellectual disabilities were more likely to express lack of interest in doing so.
Conclusions
The move from school to college may represent an opportunity for young people with intellectual disabilities to “catch‐up” with their typically developing peers.
Intergenerational contact occurs when the interactants live through different historical periods and may thus be operating with different communicative assumptions, skills, needs, and experiences This chapter begins with a review on health information sharing. It focuses on intergenerational health information sharing between midlife adults and their adult children and aging parents within the specific context of obesity. The chapter considers possible negative effects of intergenerational health information sharing and receiving, and presents a discussion on potential areas for future research. It examines the mediation process of the two‐step flow theory, in which individuals view and then share health information with others, specifically with respect to the intergenerational instance of midlife adults viewing and then sharing health information with their adult children and aging parents. The chapter explores potential outcomes of sharing health information, namely with respect to the adult children's or aging parents' receiving of that health information.
Due to extended transitions to adulthood and declining marital rates, bonds between adults and parents have grown increasingly salient in individuals' lives. This review organizes research around these topics to address ties between parents and grown children in the context of broader societal changes over the past decade. Literature searches included tables of contents of premier journals (e.g., Journal of Marriage and Family), Psychological Info, and Google Scholar. The literature review revealed patterns of social and intergenerational changes. Technological advances (e.g., introduction of the smart phone) co‐occurred with more frequent contact and interdependence between generations. The Great Recession and financial strains altered the nature of many parent/child ties, including increased rates of intergenerational coresidence. Individual life problems such as divorce, addiction, and physical health problems were reflected in complex changes in positive and negative relationship qualities, ambivalence, and intergenerational support. Government policies reflect societal values and in turn, affected the distribution of parents' and grown children's resources. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Demographic changes (e.g., constellation of family members, delayed marriage, same sex marriage) were also manifest in ties between adults and parents. Findings were consistent with the Intergenerational Systems in Context Model, which posits that societal transformations co‐occur with changes in intergenerational relationships via reciprocal influences.
Data gathered from mothers on parenting and family climate when almost 1,000 children in the Dunedin, New Zealand, longitudinal study were 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, and 15 years of age were used to predict intergenerational relations between young adult children (age 26) and their middle-aged parents. Analyses focused on distinct developmental epochs revealed greater prediction from the middle-childhood and early-adolescent periods than from the early-childhood years; most indicated that more supportive family environments and child-rearing experiences in the family of origin forecasted more positive and less negative parent–child relationships (in terms of contact, closeness, conflict, reciprocal assistance) in young adulthood, though associations were modest in magnitude. Some evidence indicated that (modestly) deleterious effects on intergenerational relations of experiencing relatively unsupportive child-rearing environments in 1 but not 2 (of 3) developmental periods studied could be offset by relatively supportive family environments in the remaining developmental periods.
This article reviews research from the 1990s on trends in leaving home in the United States and presents new research on trends in returning home. These trends are placed within the context of two key theoretical considerations: changes in family roles and changes in the economic opportunities of young adults. The leaving home process in early adulthood is tied to changes in the core nuclear family relationships because those between parents and children shape the launch and those between men and women help to shape the destinations. The economic considerations include variation in income sources, particularly wages and transfers, and the costs of independent residence. These considerations underline the importance of taking a comparative perspective to the process of leaving home in the transition to adulthood.
The concept of ambivalence represents an interactional process in which individuals evaluate social relations as simultaneously positive and negative. This study investigates ambivalence in interpersonal relations through an empirical analysis of relationships between aging mothers and their adult children from their joint perspectives. Multilevel models examine the influence of dependence on levels of ambivalence in relationship dyads as well as differences in levels of ambivalence between mothers and their adult children. Results suggest that ambivalence increases under conditions of potential dependence, rather than through the help that is more routinely exchanged among family members. Within the relationship, mothers experienced less ambivalence than their sons and daughters; overall findings demonstrate the importance of analyzing multiple perspectives in social relationships.
I examine how midlife women, who came of age in the 1950s, compare their career accomplishments with those of their young adult daughters who came of age in the 1970s. Analyses are based on quantitative and qualitative data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, which has tracked a sample of adults since their high school graduation in 1957. Nearly two-thirds of the mothers report that they have been less successful than their daughters; yet these unfavorable comparisons are linked only weakly to self-esteem. The open-ended interviews suggest that the mothers who rate themselves as “less successful” than their daughters maintain positive self-evaluations by characterizing their own decision to give family responsibilities priority over career pursuits as “in step” with their cohort peers; by attributing their less successful careers to cohort differences in the freedom to choose one's career; and by focusing on their daughters' difficulties in balancing work and family demands.
Although social support researchers have long acknowledged the utility of social network analysis, few have shown the scope of analysis that is most useful to understanding how our social ties `buffer' us from adversity and `channel' us to other resources in times of trouble or transition. For the most part, researchers have limited their analyses to what Barnes (1969) and Mitchell (1969) call the `primary zone' (the links among and between the support receiver and those persons directly linked to him or her). In this article, it is suggested that expanding analysis to the network's `second-order zone' (the primary zone plus the ties between persons tied directly to support providers, but not to the receiver) enhances understanding of social support outcomes. To explore this thesis, the article examines social support and social network data from a field study of social support mobilization among low-income African-American women household heads in Chicago. I first attempt to explain observed social support outcomes by reference to primary zone variables (density and percentage of ties of `high' versus `low' intensity). These are found to be only partially successful. Next, second-order zone variables are added to the analysis. This improves our ability to explain outcomes. It is suggested future social support analysis should encompass the second-order zone.
The article aims to answer three questions: How strong are the bonds of obligations and expectations between generations? To what extent are different types of support exchanged between generations? What are the impacts of filial norms, opportunity structures and emotional bonds on the exchange of inter-generational support between adult children and older parents across societies? It reports findings from the five-country (Norway, England, Germany, Spain and Israel) OASIS study, which collected data from representative, age-stratified, urban-community samples of about 1,200 respondents in each country. The findings indicate that solidarity is general and considerable although the strengths of its dimensions vary by country. Most respondents acknowledged some degree of filial obligation, although the proportions were higher in Spain and Israel than in the northern countries, and there was greater variation in the tangible forms than in the expressed norms. Adult children were net providers of support, but older parents provided emotional support and financial help. Most support was provided to unmarried older parents with physical-function limitations. The effect of filial norms on help provision by adult children was moderate but significant and variable across the five countries, appearing more prescriptive in the south than in the north, where inter-generational exchanges were more open to negotiation. The findings demonstrate that cross-national analyses provide insights into both country-specific factors and the sometimes unexpected similarities among them.
Recent studies suggest that parents maintain influence as their adolescents transition into college. Advances in communication technology make frequent communication between parents and college students easy and affordable. This study examines the protective effect of parent-college student communication on student drinking behaviors, estimated peak blood alcohol concentration (eBAC), and serious negative consequences of drinking.
Participants were 746 first-year, first-time, full-time students at a large university in the United States.
Participants completed a baseline and 14 daily Web-based surveys. Results: The amount of time spent communicating with parents on weekend days predicted the number of drinks consumed, heavy drinking, and peak eBAC, consistent with a protective within-person effect. No association between communication and serious negative consequences was observed.
Encouraging parents to communicate with their college students, particularly on weekend days, could be a relatively simple, easily implemented protective process to reduce dangerous drinking behaviors.
This article uses a panel study of children and mothers to examine how parents and children conceptualize, perceive, and report on their relationships with each other during the children's transition to adulthood years. The article provides strong support for the reliability and validity of reports of parent-child relationships. The article documents generally positive and supportive relationships between parents and children, more positive relationships with mothers than with fathers, and an improvement in relationships as children mature from age 18 to 23. Further, parent-child relationships are perceived differently by parents and children in that there is not just one perception of the relationship between child and parent, but a relationship as perceived by the child and a relationship as perceived by the parent. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/67343/2/10.1177_019251395016005003.pdf
Frank Furstenberg examines how the newly extended timetable for entering adulthood is affecting, and being affected by, the institution of the Western, particularly the American, family. He reviews a growing body of research on the family life of young adults and their parents and draws out important policy implications of the new schedule for the passage to adulthood.
Today, says Furstenberg, home-leaving, marriage, and the onset of childbearing take place much later in the life span than they did during the period after World War II. After the disappearance of America's well-paying unskilled and semi-skilled manufacturing jobs during the 1960s, youth from all economic strata began remaining in school longer and marrying and starting their own families later. Increasing numbers of lower-income women did not marry at all but chose, instead, non-marital parenthood—often turning to their natal families for economic and social support, rather than to their partners. As the period of young adults' dependence on their families grew longer, the financial and emotional burden of parenthood grew heavier. Today, regardless of their income level, U.S. parents provide roughly the same proportion of their earnings to support their young adult children.
Unlike many nations in Europe, the United States, with its relatively underdeveloped welfare system, does not invest heavily in education, health care, and job benefits for young adults. It relies, instead, on families' investments in their own adult children. But as the transition to adulthood becomes more protracted, the increasing family burden may prove costly to society as a whole. Young adults themselves may begin to regard childbearing as more onerous and less rewarding. The need to provide greater support for children for longer periods may discourage couples from having additional children or having children at all. Such decisions could lead to lower total fertility, ultimately reduce the workforce, and further aggravate the problem of providing both for increasing numbers of the elderly and for the young. U.S. policy makers must realize the importance of reinforcing the family nest and helping reduce the large and competing demands that are being placed on today's parents.
Tensions are normative in the parent-child tie, but there is less information on the strategies used to cope with such tensions. This study examined strategies parents and adult children use in reaction to interpersonal tensions and the implications of those strategies for relationship quality. Parents and their adult sons and daughters (aged 22 to 49 years; N = 158 families, 474 individuals) reported the strategies they used in response to tensions with one another (constructive, destructive, and avoidant). Across dyads, parents and adult children reported using constructive strategies more often than destructive or avoidant strategies. Strategy use varied between and within dyads by generation, gender of parent, ethnicity, education, and age of child. Constructive strategies predicted better relationship quality, whereas avoidant and destructive strategies predicted poorer relationship quality. Parents may be more likely to use constructive strategies, which are meant to maintain the relationship because of their greater investment in the tie. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).
The authors of this excellent text define social epidemiology as the epidemiologic study of the social distribution and social determinants of states of health, implying that the aim is to identify socio-environmental exposures which may be related to a broad range of physical and mental health outcomes. In the first systematic account of this field, they focus on methodological approaches but draw widely from related disciplines such as sociology, psychology, physiology, and medicine in the effort to develop and evaluate testable hypotheses about the pathways between social conditions and health. The persistent patterns of social inequalities in health make this a timely publication.
Considerable controversy has centered on the role of social support in the stress process. Some theorists (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, 1976; Kaplan, Cassel, & Gore, 1977) have argued that support acts only as a resistance factor; that is, support reduces, or buffers, the adverse psychological impacts of exposure to negative life events and/or chronic difficulties, but support has no direct effects upon psychological symptoms when stressful circumstances are absent. Several studies confirm this buffering-only view of social support influences (sec Turner, 1983, for a review). Others (Thoits, 1982a, 1983c) have argued that lack of social support and changes in support over time are stressors in themselves, and as such ought to have direct influences upon psychological symptomatology, whether or not other stressful circumstances occur. A number of studies now confirm this main-effect view of social support influences (e.g., Andrews, Tennant, Hewson, & Vaillant, 1978; Aneshensel & Frerichs, 1982; Lin, Ensel, Simeone, & Kuo, 1979; Thoits, 1983b; Turner, 1981; Williams, Ware, & Donald, 1981). These studies report an inverse association between measures of support and indicators of psychological disturbance, and no stress-buffering effects at all.
A theoretical framework is developed to explain how parent/adult child relationships affect adult children's and parents' psychological distress levels. Data from a 1986 national survey (n = 3,618) are analyzed to test hypotheses derived from this framework. Results show that (a) the quality of intergenerational relationships appears to be influenced by the structural circumstances of parents and adult children—especially as defined by divorced status, gender, and age; (b) the negative aspects of intergenerational relationships are more strongly associated with psychological distress of parents and adult children than are the positive aspects; and (c) the estimated effects of intergenerational relationships on distress levels sometimes depend on the structural circumstances of parents and children.
A dominant theme in the literature on relationships between elderly parents and adult children is the role of parents as sources of stress and burden for their offspring. In contrast, the present article examines the effects of adult children's problems on elderly parents' psychological distress. Using data from a recent national survey of the elderly in Canada, the study demonstrates that parents whose adult children experienced serious problems reported greater depression. Further, the effect appears to be direct, rather than mediated by such factors as parent-child conflict, lack of provision of support by the child, or the child's dependency.
A sample of parents (aged 50+) drawn from the 1988 and 1992 waves of the National Survey of Families and Households was used to examine two questions: How responsive is support from adult children in times of need? Is support from children greater for those who expected their children to provide help? Parents who experience one or more transitions in the time between survey waves are likely to receive help from their adult children over and above previous exchange patterns. Responsiveness on the part of children does not appear to be linked with parental expectations, however. Neither general value orientations about what children should do to support parents, nor expectations of help from one's own children in hypothetical situations are related to children's responsiveness to parental needs. Results are consistent with a contingent exchange perspective on intergenerational relationships.
Patterns of agreement and disagreement on the quality of intergenerational relationships were explored in a sample of parents and young adult children. Data on parent-child closeness, contact, control, and conflict were taken from parent and child interviews in the longitudinal National Survey of Families and Households. Parents gave more positive reports than their adult child on six of the eight relationship indicators where parent and child answered identical questions. Parents were especially likely to report higher levels of closeness. Three patterns of dyadic agreement were identified: high agreement (54%), parent more positive than child (25%), and child more positive than parent (21%). Despite these differences in perspective, regression models predicting intergenerational closeness and conflict were nearly invariant across the parent and child data.
This life-course analysis of family development focuses on the social dynamics among family members. It features parent-child relationships in a larger context, by examining the help exchange between kin and nonkin and the intergenerational transmission of family characteristics.
This study investigates the following questions: whether greater affection between adult children and their parents leads to more social contact, whether frequent social contact leads to greater affection, or whether each of these mutually influences the other. Using nationally representative data collected in 1990 by the American Association of Retired Persons, we examine predictors of each dimension of solidarity and then estimate a causal model that tests the indirect and reciprocal influence among these dimensions. After finding a reciprocal influence between contact and affection in the mother-child relationship, but not in the father-child relationship, we conclude that the motivations for contact are different in adult-child relations with mothers compared to those with fathers. These differences are important for understanding the consequences of family disruption for intergenerational solidarity in adulthood. Also, parallels are drawn between parent-child relationships and voluntary friendships.
This study uses data on support and contact in 4,055 parent-child dyads drawn from the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study to test explanations of reporting discrepancies, which focus on sources of bias and inaccurate reporting. Contrary to the generational stake hypothesis, parents’ reports are not characterized by a general positive bias. Consistent with notions of self-enhancement, parents and children overreport given help and underreport received help. Parents’ reports are susceptible to positive biases linked with strong feelings of family obligations. Limited evidence is found for an underreporting bias associated with dissatisfaction with support received from family. Positive reporting biases are observed in high-quality relationships. Consistent with expectations, results show greater reporting accuracy among better educated parents and children.
Using data from the 1987 National Survey of Families and Households, this study examines the distribution and determinants of the geographic distance between elderly parents and their adult children. The majority of elderly Americans have at least one adult child living within 10 miles of their residence; for those with two or more adult children, the second-closest child is usually within 30 miles. Compared with the urban elderly, rural elders live farther from their second closest-children. Daughters live no closer than sons to their parents. The analysis shows that education and number of children are the most important factors in predicting parent-child proximity. Other factors, such as age, health, and the family size of the closest adult child, are also important.
In this study, we integrate insights from the life-course and stress-process perspectives to argue that adult children's negative treatment of parents, as well as negative events that children experience, detrimentally affect elderly parents' mental health over time. We argue that these strains may affect mothers more than fathers, and blacks more than whites, because of the greater importance of the parental role to these groups in late life. Using data from more than 600 older African American and white parents over a four-year period, we show that negative treatment by adult children is positively related to changes in depression and anger, but effects on depression are limited to black parents and effects on anger are limited to mothers. Adult children becoming ill or unemployed positively relates to changes in distress over time, but only for black parents. Surprisingly, marital dissolution by adult children is related to decreases in anger for black parents. This research indicates that the social-psychological implications of the parental role do not end when children are adults; however, the influence on mental health in old age may vary by social status.
Abstract We review research on the family's role in gender development during childhood and adolescence. Our discussion highlights children's dyadic family relationship experiences with their parents and siblings; additionally, we describe ways in which the larger system of family relationships, including gendered dynamics in the marriage and the differential family experiences of sisters versus brothers may have implications for gender development. We also emphasize the significance of contextual factors—ranging from situational demands and affordances to forces emanating from the larger social ecology—in family gender socialization. We conclude that family experiences may have a more important impact on gender development than has previously been believed, and we highlight directions for future study. These include: (1) applying more complex models of parent socialization and family dynamics to the study of the family's role in gender development; (2) expanding on research directed at the socialization of sex differences to study how family dynamics are linked to individual differences in girls’ and boys’ gendered qualities and behaviors; and (3) further exploring how contextual factors exert an impact on gender socialization in the family.
Most parents and children are fortunate to share several decades of the life course when both parties are healthy adults. When parents reach the transition to old age, however, they typically experience health declines and both parties must adjust to changes in the relationship. The sample included older adults (aged 70+) suffering vision loss, hearing loss, or seeking general health care and a grown son or daughter (N=121 dyads, 242 individuals). Aging parents also suffered common health problems (e.g., hypertension, arthritis). Parents and offspring provided open-ended descriptions of changes and continuities in their relationship. Although prior studies link parental health declines to intergenerational ambivalence, most parents and offspring in this study mentioned positive changes in the relationship in recent years, regardless of parental health. Multilevel models revealed that perceptions of changes in parental health or receipt of support were associated with objective indicators of parental health. Findings suggest offspring's views of the relationship converge with parents’ when parents reach the transition to old age and show physical signs of aging.
This article documents differentials in patterns of exchange of aid and assistance between elderly American parents and their non-coresidential adult children by marital status and other components of family structure using data drawn from the National Survey of Families and Households. Descriptive results show that overall levels of giving and receiving support between elderly parents and their adult children are not especially high. However, these patterns vary considerably by marital status of the aging parent and of their adult children, with widowed and divorced parents less likely to provide support to their children. In contrast, widowed but not divorced parents are significantly more likely to receive support. Even with controls for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the parents and availability of adult children, parents who are widowed or divorced give less to their children, although there are few marital-status differences for reception of support. The marital status of children appears to be less important to the exchange process. However, the proportion of children who are stepchildren exerts a strong negative influence on giving assistance to children. Among the other characteristics of family structure that exert an effect on exchanges, the number of adult children remains strongly positively associated with both giving and receiving most forms of support.
In this study, time diary data are used to assess trends in mothers' and fathers' child care time from the mid-1960s to the late 1990s. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the results indicate that both mothers and fathers report spending greater amounts of time in child care activities in the late 1990s than in the "family-oriented" 1960s. For mothers, there was a 1965-75 decline in routine child care time and then a 1975-98 rebound along with a steady increase in time doing more developmental activities. For 1998 fathers report increased participation in routine child care as well as in more "fun" activities. The ratio of married mothers' to married fathers' time in child care declined in all primary child care activities. These results suggest that parents have undergone a behavioral change that has more than countered family change that might otherwise have reduced time with children.
Parent-offspring relationships in modern America are based more on emotional affection than on economic or cultural imperatives. The view is offered that certain relationships are more intense than others, and structural factors like geographic location and gender play a key role in defining the nature of parent-offspring ties. Interestingly, parents and offspring residing in the same geographical area often share strong affinities for their relationships. According to the author, geographical proximity permits a higher degree of intimacy and participation in day-to-day life than is possible with great separation by distance. The contention that frequent contact fosters emotional intensity is an important finding in the book. Evidence is also presented that mothers and daughters report deeper positive and deeper negative emotions than do fathers and sons in intergenerational relationships . The book is divided into 4 parts addressing the complexities of the mother-daughter relationship after mothers have begun to age, but are still healthy, active, and independent. Research included interviews with 48 mothers over the age of 70 and their adult daughters. Accordingly, the book limits its focus to the relations between this group of parents and their biological or adopted children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study builds on research addressing intergenerational ambivalence by considering emotional ambivalence toward the wider social network. Men and women ages 13 to 99 (N = 187) completed diagrams of their close and problematic social relationships. Social ties were classified as solely close, solely problematic, or ambivalent, based on network placement (n = 3,392 social contacts). Multilevel models revealed that individuals viewed certain close familial ties (e.g., spouse, son or daughter, parent, sibling) with greater ambivalence than they viewed more distal family ties, friendships, or acquaintances. Participants classified more acquaintances than other relationships as solely problematic. Feeling closer to a social partner was associated with increased ambivalence. Older adults were more likely to classify their relationships as solely close than as ambivalent, in comparison with younger adults. Discussion focuses on tension and closeness in familial and nonfamilial relationships.
Recent research suggests that intergenerational relations — the relationships between adult children and their parents in particular — are becoming increasingly important to Americans. Two main social forces appear to be driving these changes: marital instability and broader demographic shifts. Intergenerational relationships involve both affective ties and more instrumental forms of support such as financial resources or child care. Although actual material assistance tends to be episodic and primarily responsive to specific needs, these relationships appear to be durable and flexible and often fill in when marriage or other emotional attachments deteriorate. As such, intergenerational family relations may reflect adaptations to contemporary, postmodern economic and cultural conditions. Variations in these general patterns and dynamics are also exhibited, the most striking of which are those involving race and class. These variations are driven largely by social structure and position and suggest that intergenerational relations constitute an important and largely hidden aspect of how families contribute to the reproduction of social inequality in society. These findings reinforce the value of extending both scholarly and cultural notions of family beyond the traditional nuclear family model.
This study sought evidence for the proposition that experiences with earlier-born adolescents will improve parents' interactions with and parenting of later-born adolescents. Participants were mothers, fathers, and both first- and second-born siblings from 392 families participating in a longitudinal study. To collect information on siblings' family experiences, family members were interviewed individually in their homes. During the subsequent 2 to 3 weeks, 7 evening telephone interviews were also conducted, which focused on siblings' daily activities. Findings suggest that when parent-adolescent relationships were measured at the same age for both siblings, parents experienced less conflict with their second-born as compared with their firstborn adolescent offspring and exhibited greater knowledge of their second-born offspring's daily activities as compared with their firstborns' daily experiences. These results are consistent with the notion that parents may learn from their childrearing experiences.
This article reports on a study that incorporates two dimensions of complexity in intergenerational relations. First, the article focuses on ambivalence: the simultaneous existence of positive and negative sentiments in the older parent–adult child relationship. Second, the research described here applies a within-family design to the study of ambivalence, using a data set that includes 566 older mothers' assessments of ambivalence toward all of their adult children. The findings provide general support for our conceptual approach to parental ambivalence that highlights conflict between norms regarding solidarity with children and expectations that adult children should become independent. Lower ambivalence was related to an adult child's being married. Children's problems were positively associated with ambivalence, as was the mother's perception that exchange in the relationship was inequitable in the child's favor. Mother's health status and her perception that she and the child shared the same values were negatively associated with ambivalence. Finally, Black mothers reported higher levels of ambivalence than did White mothers, but the multivariate models explaining ambivalence did not vary by race.
A series of meta-analyses addresses whether and how parent-child conflict changes during adolescence and factors that moderate patterns of change. The meta-analyses summarize results from studies of change in parent-child conflict as a function of either adolescent age or pubertal maturation. Three types of parent-adolescent conflict are examined: conflict rate, conflict affect, and total conflict (rate and affect combined). The results provide little support for the commonly held view that parent-child conflict rises and then falls across adolescence, although conclusions regarding pubertal change as well as conflict affect are qualified by the limited number of studies available. Two diverging sets of linear effects emerged, one indicating a decline in conflict rate and total conflict with age and the other indicating an increase in conflict affect with both age and pubertal maturation. In age meta-analyses, conflict rate and total conflict decline from early adolescence to mid-adolescence and from mid-adolescence to late adolescence; conflict affect increases from early adolescence to mid-adolescence. Puberty meta-analyses revealed only a positive linear association between conflict affect and pubertal maturation. Effect-size patterns varied little in follow-up analyses of potential moderating variables, implying similarities in the direction (although not the magnitude) of conflict across parent-adolescent dyads, reporters, and measurement procedures.
The concept of ambivalence emphasizes the complexity of family relations and the potential for individuals to evaluate relationships as both positive and negative. Using multilevel models, we investigate ambivalence in adult children's relationships with their aging parents and in-laws (N= 1,599). We focus on factors predicting adult children's ambivalence toward parents and in-laws within a gendered kinship structure that shapes these relations. We conclude that ambivalence is a useful concept for representing the complexity of parent-child relationships and is produced within the context of social relations structured by gender and kinship. Results show greater ambivalence among dyads of women, toward in-laws, among those in poor health, for daughters providing assistance, and for adult children with poor parental relations in early life.
Middle-aged parents' well-being may be tied to successes and failures of grown children. Moreover, most parents have more than one child, but studies have not considered how different children's successes and failures may be associated with parental well-being.
Middle-aged adults (aged 40-60; N = 633) reported on each of their grown children (n = 1,384) and rated their own well-being. Participants indicated problems each child had experienced in the past two years, rated their children's successes, as well as positive and negative relationship qualities.
Analyses compared an exposure model (i.e., having one grown child with a problem or deemed successful) and a cumulative model (i.e., total problems or successes in the family). Consistent with the exposure and cumulative models, having one child with problems predicted poorer parental well-being and the more problems in the family, the worse parental well-being. Having one successful child did not predict well-being, but multiple grown children with higher total success in the family predicted enhanced parental well-being. Relationship qualities partially explained associations between children's successes and parental well-being.
Discussion focuses on benefits and detriments parents derive from how grown progeny turn out and particularly the implications of grown children's problems.
Middle-aged adults engage in support exchanges with generations above and below. This study investigated (a) how support to one generation is associated with support to the other and (b) factors accounting for whether parents or offspring receive more support in a family.
Middle-aged adults aged 40-60 years (N = 633) completed telephone interviews regarding their relationships and support exchanges with each grown child and living parent.
Multilevel models revealed that most participants provided more support to the average grown child than to the average parent. Yet, a proportion of the sample reversed this pattern, providing more support to parents. Mediation models revealed that middle-aged adults provided greater support to offspring because they viewed offspring as more important than parents and offspring had greater everyday needs (e.g., being a student, not married). Parental disability accounted for greater support to parents.
Discussion integrates solidarity theory, developmental stake, and contingency theory. Most middle-aged adults provide more to grown offspring than to parents, consistent with their greater stake in their progeny. Middle-aged adults also respond to crises (i.e., parental disability) and everyday needs (i.e., offspring student status) in providing intergenerational support, in accordance with contingency theory.
Parents may provide many types of support to their grown children. Parents aged 40 to 60 (N = 633) reported the support they exchange with each child over age 18 (n = 1,384). Mothers and fathers differentiated among children within families, but provided emotional, financial, and practical help on average every few weeks to each child. Offspring received most assistance when they: (a) had greater needs (due to problems or younger age) or (b) were perceived as more successful. Parents received more from high achieving offspring. Findings support contingency theory; parents give more material and financial support to children in need. Motivation to enhance the self or to assure support later in life may explain support to high achieving offspring.
Persons with more types of social relationships live longer and have less cognitive decline with aging, greater resistance to infectious disease, and better prognoses when facing chronic life-threatening illnesses. We have known about the importance of social integration (engaging in diverse types of relationships) for health and longevity for 30 years. Yet, we still do not know why having a more diverse social network would have a positive influence on our health, and we have yet to design effective interventions that influence key components of the network and in turn physical health. Better understanding of the role of social integration in health will require research on how integrated social networks influence health relevant behaviors, regulate emotions and biological responses, and contribute to our expectations and world views.
This study examined the worries adults and their parents experience for one another. To date, relatively little research has considered the experience of worry in this relationship. A small number of studies, however, suggest worry is relatively common in this relationship (Boutain, 2001; Cicirelli, 1988; Parker, Call, Dunkle, & Vaitkus, 2002). Furthermore, worrying may be linked with mental and physical health (Beck et al., 2001; Hoyer, Becker, & Roth, 2001). A son or daughter (aged 22 to 49) and mother and father (aged 40 to 84) from 213 families participated. Adult children worried primarily about their parents' health. Interestingly, adult children with older parents were not more likely than adult children with younger parents to worry about their parents' health. In contrast, parents' worries were more diverse than those of adult children and included worries about their adult children's health, safety, relationships, and finances, among others. Furthermore, parents' worries were associated with their perceptions of relationship quality. Notably, parents who worried about their adult children's finances reported having poorer quality relationships with their adult children than parents who experienced other worries (e.g., about safety).
Ambivalence theory suggests that parents experience ambivalence due to conflicting desires to help children in need and to
launch children into adulthood. This study examined parents’ reports of their adult children’s problems and successes and
implications for ambivalence. Participants aged 40–60 years (302 men and 331 women from different families) reported on up
to 3 of their adult children (N = 1,251). Men and women differentiated among children in ratings of problems, successes, and ambivalence. Men and not women
reported greater ambivalence regarding children with more physical–emotional problems and less career success. Men and women
reported greater ambivalence regarding children with less relationship success. Consistent with ambivalence theory, individuals
feel more ambivalent regarding problematic and less successful children but men’s ambivalence appears to be more sensitive
to their children’s problems and successes than women's ambivalence.
Although the perception of available support is associated with positive outcomes, the receipt of actual support from close others is often associated with negative outcomes. In fact, support that is "invisible" (not perceived by the support recipient) is associated with better outcomes than "visible" support. To investigate this paradox, we proposed that received support (both visible and invisible) would be beneficial when it was responsive to the recipient's needs. Sixty-seven cohabiting couples participated in a daily-experience study in which they reported on the support they provided and received each day. Results indicated that both visible and invisible support were beneficial (i.e., associated with less sadness and anxiety and with greater relationship quality) only when the support was responsive. These findings suggest that the nature of support is an important determinant of when received support will be beneficial.