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The aim of this research was to determine yield, chemical composition and antioxidant properties of extracts and essential oils of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) leaves harvested during the months of June to September 2004. The maximum essential oil yields in the leaves were observed during July (3.24%) in sage and during August (1.35%) in rosemary. The maximum extract yields were found in July (15.57%) for sage and in June (30.48%) for rosemary. The sage oil was characterized by the presence of main components: camphore (20.73-26.07%), α-thujone (13.84-21.96), 1, 8-cineole (13.94-20.40%), ß-thujone (7.07-9.34%) and ß-caryophyllene (2.28-9.19%). Fourteen compounds of rosemary essential oil were identified and the main components were found as camphore (14.77-31.12%), 1, 8-cineole (7.70-26.18%), α-pinene (3.53-9.75%) and borneole (5.07-13.03%). Antiradical activities of sage and rosemary essential oils were found as IC 50=2492.84-6645.43 μg ml-1 and IC50=370.03- 2812.50 μg ml-1, respectively. Antioxidant capacities were also 25.20-43.46 mg AAE g-1 essential oil for sage and 18.53-37.95 mg AAE g-1 essential oil for rosemary. Sage and rosemary essential oils distilled from the early season (June) harvested leaves had the highest antioxidant activity, expressed as low concentration providing 50% inhibition of antiradical activity and high levels antioxidant capacity. Total phenolic content was between 85.33-110.52 mg GAE g-1 extract for sage and 94.29-104.44 mg GAE g-1 extract for rosemary. It was the lowest in June and the highest July in both extracts. Both antiradical activities and antioxidant capacities changed significantly depending on the phase in the growing season.
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Yield, Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Extracts
and Essential Oils of Sage and Rosemary Depending on Seasonal
Variations
H. Baydar
1
, G. Özkan
2
, S. Erbaş
1
and D. Altındal
1
1
Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops, 32260
Isparta, Turkey
2
Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Food Engineering,
32260 Isparta, Turkey
Keywords: Salvia officinalis L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., antioxidant capacity,
antiradical activity, essential oil composition, seasonal variation
Abstract
The aim of this research was to determine yield, chemical composition and
antioxidant properties of extracts and essential oils of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) leaves harvested during the months of June to
September 2004. The maximum essential oil yields in the leaves were observed
during July (3.24%) in sage and during August (1.35%) in rosemary. The maximum
extract yields were found in July (15.57%) for sage and in June (30.48%) for
rosemary. The sage oil was characterized by the presence of main components:
camphore (20.73-26.07%), α-thujone (13.84-21.96), 1,8-cineole (13.94-20.40%),
β-thujone (7.07-9.34%) and β-caryophyllene (2.28-9.19%). Fourteen compounds of
rosemary essential oil were identified and the main components were found as
camphore (14.77-31.12%), 1,8-cineole (7.70-26.18%), α-pinene (3.53-9.75%) and
borneole (5.07-13.03%). Antiradical activities of sage and rosemary essential oils
were found as IC
50
=2492.84-6645.43 μg ml
-1
and IC
50
=370.03-2812.50 μg ml
-1
,
respectively. Antioxidant capacities were also 25.20-43.46 mg AAE g
-1
essential oil
for sage and 18.53-37.95 mg AAE g
-1
essential oil for rosemary. Sage and rosemary
essential oils distilled from the early season (June) harvested leaves had the highest
antioxidant activity, expressed as low concentration providing 50% inhibition of
antiradical activity and high levels antioxidant capacity. Total phenolic content was
between 85.33-110.52 mg GAE g
-1
extract for sage and 94.29-104.44 mg GAE g
-1
extract for rosemary. It was the lowest in June and the highest July in both extracts.
Both antiradical activities and antioxidant capacities changed significantly
depending on the phase in the growing season.
INTRODUCTION
Antioxidants can minimize or prevent lipid oxidadation in food products (Shahidi
and Wanasundara, 1992). Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene BHT,
butylated hydroxyanisole BHA, propyl galate PG and tertiary butyl hydroquinone TBHQ.
However, such synthetic antioxidants are not preferred due to toxicological concerns
(Bracco et al., 1981). In the recent years, considerable attention has been devoted to herbs
and spices with antioxidant properties. The use of herbs and spices as antioxidants in
processed foods is a promising alternative to the use of synthetic antioxidants. A general
recommendation to the consumer is to increase the intake of foods rich in antioxidant
compounds (e.g. polyphenols, flavanoids, carotenoids) due to their well-known healthy
effects. As a consequence, these evidences accelerated the search for antioxidants
principles, which led to the identification of natural resources and isolation of active
antioxidant molecules (Katalinic et al., 2005).
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites that are derivatives of the pentose
phosphate, shikimate, and phenylpropanoid pathways in plants, and exhibit a wide range
of physiological properties, such as anti-allergenic, anti-artherogenic, anti-inflammatory,
anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-thrombotic, cardioprotective and vasodilatory effects
(Balasundram et al., 2006). Many herbs and spices such as rosemary and sage belonging
383
Proc. I
s
t
IC on Culinary Herbs
Eds.: K. Turgut et al.
Acta Hort. 826, ISHS 2009
to the family Labiatae are an excellent source of phenolic compounds which have been
reported to show good antioxidant activity (Schwartz and Ternes, 1992). The antioxidant
activities of Labiatae family species could be mainly due to phenolic compounds,
especially rosmarinic acid (Gerhart and Schröter, 1983; Capecka et al., 1997; Dorman et
al., 2003; Erdemoglu et al., 2006).
Rosemary and sage essential oils have also antioxidative properties. Antioxidant
capacity of these essential oils is largely related with the phenolic compounds (Lu and
Foo, 2001; Zheng and Wang, 2001; Stefanovits-Bányai et al., 2003; Durling et al., 2007).
1,8-cineole, camphore and borneole in rosemary and α-thujone, 1,8-cineole and camphore
in sage oil are the primary essential oil components (Pıtarevic et al., 1984; Boutekedjiret
et al., 2003).
The aim of the present work is to characterize the composition of the essential oils
and extracts obtained from samples of leaves of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis L.) at different stages of the of plant growth and to determine
their antiradical activities and antioxidant properties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material
Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) leaves
harvested in approximately the middle of the month from June to December, 2004, at the
Experimental Station of Suleyman Demirel University in Isparta, Turkey.
Isolation of Essential Oil
The plant leaves from Rosmarinus officinalis and Salvia officinalis were air-dried
(200 g, each), mill powdered and water-distilled for 3h using Clevenger-type apparatus.
The distilled oils dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and, after filtration, stored at
-20°C until tested and analyzed.
Preparation of the Extract
Dried and powdered herb material (15 g) were extracted with 100 ml mixture of
methanol:acetone:water:acetic acid (55:40:4.5:0.5) for 2h by using an ultrasonicated
water bath. The extracts were filtered and the solvent mixtures were concentrated by
using both rotary evaporator (Rotavator, T<40
o
C) under vacuum and lyophilizers (Virtis
2K, T=-60) to get crude extracts. The residues were stored in a desiccator until use.
Analysis of Essential Oil Components
Analyses of the essential oil components were performed on GC–MS/Quadropole
detector, using a Shimadzu QP 5050 system, fitted with an FFAP (50 m×0.32 mm (i.d.),
film thickness: 0.25 μm) capillary column. Detector and injector temperatures were set at
240°C. The temperature program for FFAP column was from 60°C (1 min) to 220°C at a
rate of 5°C min
-1
and than held at 220°C for 35 min. Helium was used as a carrier gas at a
flow rate of 14 psi. (Split 1:20) and injection volume of each sample was 5 μl. The
identification of the components was based on the comparison of their mass spectra with
those of Wiley and Nist, Tutore Libraries. The ionization energy was set at 70 eV.
Analysis of Phenolic Constituents
The procedure for quantization of the phenolic compounds has previously been
described by (Capanio et al., 1999). The reversed phase-high performance liquid
chromatography (RP-HPLC) was used. Detection and quantification was carried out with
a SCL-10 Avp System controller, a SIL–10AD vp Autosampler, a LC-10AD vp pump, a
DGU-14a degasser, a CTO-10 A vp column heater and a diode array detector set at 278
nm. The 250 x 4.6 mm i.d. C18 column used was filled with Agilent Eclipse XDB C-18
(250 x 4,6 mm), 5μ. The flow rate was 0.8 ml/min, injection volume was 10 μl and the
column temperature was set at 30°C. Gradient elution of two solvents was used: Solvent
384
A consisted of acetic–water (2:98, v/v), solvent B: methanol and the gradient program
used is given Table 1. The data were integrated and analyzed using the Shimadzu Class-
VP Chromatography Laboratory Automated Software System (Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo,
Japan). The extract samples, standard solutions and mobile phases were filtered by a 0.45-
μm pore size membrane filter (Vivascience AG, Hannover, Germany). The amount of
phenolic compounds in the extract was calculated as mg 100 g
-1
herb using external
calibration curves, constructed for each phenolic standard.
Determination of Total Phenolics, Antiradical Activity and Antioxidant Capacity
Total phenolic compounds of extracts were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu
colorimetric method (Singleton and Rossi, 1965). Estimations were carried out in
triplicate and calculated from a calibration curve obtained with gallic acid and total
phenolics were expressed as gallic acid equivalent (mg GAE g
-1
extract). Antiradical
activity was determined by the method given by Lee et al. (1998) and calculated
according to the following formula: antiradical activity = 100 x (absorbance of control
sample - absorbance of sample / absorbance of control sample). Extract concentration
providing 50% inhibition (IC
50
) was calculated from the plot of inhibition percentage
against extract concentration. The antioxidant activity of the extract and essential oil was
evaluated by the formation of molybdenum complex method according to Prieto et al.
(1999). The antioxidant activity was expressed relative to that of ascorbic acid. All
determinations were carried out in triplicates and the results were averaged.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The yields of the essential oil and extracts are given in Table 2. The essential oil
yields varied from 1.43% to 3.24% for sage and 0.60% to 1.35% for rosemary. The
maximum essential oil yields in the leaves were detected during July (3.24%) for sage and
during August (1.35%) for rosemary. The maximum extract yields were found in July
(15.57%) for sage and in June (30.48%) for rosemary (Table 2).
The composition of the essential oil samples of sage and rosemary are given in
Table 3. The sage oil was characterized by the presence of 16 compounds and showed as
main components camphore (20.73-26.07%), α-thujone (13.84-21.96), 1,8-cineole
(13.94-20.40%), β-thujone (7.07-9.34%) and β-caryophyllene (2.28-9.19%) (Table 3).
The examined oil, compared to the published literature, showed camphore, α-thujone,
β-thujone and 1,8-cineole were the main and/characteristic constituents of the Salvia
officinalis oil (Pıtarevic et al., 1984; Perry et al., 1999; Sagareishvili et al., 2000; Lenzi et
al., 2003; Santos-Gomes and Fernandes-Ferreira, 2003). It was observed that there were
changes in the composition of the essential oil during the months. In order to obtain an
essential oil with maximum percentages of α-thujone and camphore, the harvest of sage
leaves is recommended during August.
Fourteen compounds of rosemary essential oil were identified and the main
components were found as camphore (14.77-31.12%), 1,8-cineole (7.70-26.18%),
α-pinene (3.53-9.75%) and borneole (5.07-13.03%) (Table 3). Boutekedjiret et al. (2003)
reported also that camphore and 1,8-cineole were the main two components of rosemary
oil. Both camphor and 1,8-cineole contents were the highest in the samples harvested
during August (31.12% and 26.18%, respectively). Essential oil composition differed
depending on the harvest times similarly to the results by Yesil Celiktas et al. (2007).
Antiradical activity and antioxidant capacity of sage and rosemary essential oils
are presented in Table 4. Antiradical activities of sage and rosemary essential oils were
found as IC
50
=2492.84-6645.43 μg ml
-1
and IC
50
=370.03-2812.50 μg ml
-1
, respectively.
Antioxidant capacities were also 25.20-43.46 mg AAE g
-1
essential oil for sage and
18.53-37.95 mg AAE g
-1
essential oil for rosemary (Table 4). Rosemary samples had the
higher antioxidant capacity and antiradical activity than sage samples. These results are
similar the other studies reported by Baratta et al. (1998) and Erdemoglu et al. (2006). In
the essential oils of sage and rosemary, antioxidant capacity decreased while antiradical
activity increased from June to September. Thus, sage and rosemary essential oils
385
distilled from the early season (June) harvested leaves had the highest antioxidant ability,
expressed as low levels of antiradical activity and high levels antioxidant capacity.
Table 5 presents the results of the content of phenolic acids and flavonoids in the
dried herbs of the two species tested. A very important compound in herbs of Labiatae
family is rosmarinic acid, showing high antioxidant potential (Capecka et al., 1997), this
being related to the presence of four hydroxyl groups in its molecule (Houlihan et al.,
1985). The rosmarinic acid content in sage and rosemary extracts was very high (573.98-
725.02 and 410.10-1036.88 mg 100 g
-1
dried herb, respectively) (Table 5). The highest
rosmarinic acid values were in June for sage and in August for rosemary. Apart from
rosmarinic acid, the other phenolic acids (i.e. rutin, hesperidin, apigenin, quercetin,
naringenin and apigenin in sage and i.e. naringin, hesperidin, quercetin, naringenin, and
acecetin in rosemary) could be considered as a valuable source of potent antioxidants.
Total sixteen compounds were analyzed, and naringin, eriodictiol and acecetin in sage,
gallic acid, eriodictiol, luteolin and carvacrol in rosemary were not detected (Table 5).
Table 6 shows the total phenolic content, antiradical activity and antioxidant
capacity of sage and rosemary extracts. As shown in the table, total phenolic content was
found between 85.33-110.52 mg GAE g
-1
extract for sage and 94.29-104.44 mg GAE g
-1
extract for rosemary. Total phenolic content was the lowest in June and the highest July in
both extracts. Both antiradical activities and antioxidant capacities changed importantly
depending on vegetative periods of growing season. Antiradical activities and antioxidant
capacities for sage IC
50
=422.93-453.39 μg ml
-1
and 136.76-156.94 mg AAE g
-1
extract,
respectively. In rosemary, antiradical activity was between IC
50
388.47-537.42 μg ml
-1
and antioxidant capacity was between 128.22-178.35 mg AAE g
-1
extract (Table 6).
Antiradical activities were supported with literatures of Exarchou et al. (2002), Lu and
Foo (2001), Dorman et al. (2003), Tepe et al. (2005), Erdemoğlu et al. (2006) and
antioxidant capacity results were found similar with previous literature of Lu and Foo
(2001), Mensor et al. (2001) and Refaei et al. (2006).
In conclusion, regarding the significant growth season dependent variations in
both chemical composition and antioxidant properties, the extracts and essential oils of
sage and rosemary could be used as a source of natural antioxidants for food industry. In
the prospective experiments, it would be interesting to examine their applications in some
final food products, as natural antioxidant additives.
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Tables
Table 1. Solvent gradient conditions with linear gradient.
Final time 3 20 28 35 45 60 62 70 75 80
A% 95 75 72 70 65 63 55 50 20 0
B% 5 25 28 30 35 37 45 50 80 100
A (solvent): Acetic–water (2:98 v/v), B (solvent): Methanol.
Table 2. The yield of essential oil and extract for sage and rosemary.
Species Months Oil yield (%) Extract yield (%)
June 1.43 8.98
July 3.24 15.57
August 1.66 14.03
Sage
(S. officinalis)
September 2.88 15.24
June 0.60 30.48
July 1.15 22.25
August 1.35 22.30
Rosemary
(R. officinalis)
September 0.80 19.75
Table 3. Essential oil composition (%) of sage and rosemary in different harvest times.
Sage essential oil composition Rosemary essential oil composition Components
June July August Sept. June July August Sept.
α-pinene 1.33 3.25 1.66 2.88 3.53 8.09 8.50 9.75
Camphene 1.85 2.73 2.62 4.35 10.40 4.14 4.83 2.26
β-pinene 2.29 2.77 1.55 1.68 1.09 1.81 1.82 2.44
Limonene 1.00 1.31 1.49 1.55 1.94 2.87 3.05 3.61
1,8-cineole 13.94 20.40 17.22 19.87 7.70 20.03 26.18 14.02
γ-terpinene 0.64 0.44 0.43 0.50 0.86 1.05 0.99 0.63
p-cymene 0.43 0.42 0.37 0.35 1.30 1.10 0.71 0.97
α-thujone 13.84 14.16 21.96 21.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
β- thujone 9.34 9.22 9.28 7.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Linalool 0.39 0.54 0.19 0.26 3.99 1.89 1.56 6.11
Camphore 20.73 23.74 26.07 23.70 14.77 24.95 31.12 18.00
Nonanale 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.06 0.76 0.52 2.05
β-caryophyllene 9.19 4.11 2.60 2.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Terpineole 0.82 0.97 0.64 0.60 2.90 3.08 3.34 2.88
Borneole 1.99 4.00 2.07 2.01 13.03 6.78 5.07 7.90
Unknown 9.79 10.65 4.28 1.32 9.39 5.40 4.40 11.85
Carvacrol 3.23 1.22 0.47 1.72 14.87 4.38 0.00 2.55
388
Table 4. Antiradical activity and antioxidant capacity of sage and rosemary oils.
Species Months Antiradical activity
(IC
50
= μg ml
-1
)
Antioxidant capacity
(mg AAE g
-1
essential oil)
June 2492.84 43.46
July 4789.60 36.82
August 6562.76 28.77
Sage
(S. officinalis)
September 6645.43 25.20
June 370.03 37.95
July 402.16 28.48
August 1206.91 20.24
Rosemary
(R. officinalis)
September 2812.50 18.53
Table 5. Phenolic acids and flavonoids content of sage and rosemary.
Sage (mg 100 g
-1
dried herb) Rosemary (mg 100 g
-1
dried herb) Components
June July August Sept. June July August Sept.
Gallic acid 0.44 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Cafeic acid 1.92 2.81 2.77 1.56 2.68 2.09 1.55 1.10
Vitexin 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.86 4.82 0.00
Rutin 13.38 21.31 10.51 11.21 6.69 0.00 4.75 0.00
Naringin 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.39 9.32 8.37 12.99
Hesperidin 8.60 8.85 8.79 13.01 142.75 159.70 199.20 51.96
Apigenin-7-glucosid 5.04 10.19 6.50 12.73 0.00 0.00 3.08 0.00
Rosmarinc acid 589.99 588.12 573.98 725.02 410.10 604.68 1036.88 725.87
Eriodictiol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Quercetin 8.16 23.37 28.34 23.39 8.69 12.89 9.88 7.44
Naringenin 1.55 11.77 11.60 6.64 10.21 10.13 11.82 4.31
Luteolin 4.89 5.04 1.51 1.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Genistin 0.00 1.17 0.59 0.78 1.07 1.93 2.04 1.13
Apigenin 9.89 14.55 23.78 15.26 6.50 5.31 4.60 4.26
Carvacrol 5.75 0.00 5.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Acecetin 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.49 9.58 13.84 11.16
Table 6. Total phenolic content, antiradical activities and antioxidant capacity of sage and
rosemary extracts.
Species Months Total phenolic
content
(mg GAE g
-1
extract)
Antioxidant
capacities
(mg AAE g
-1
extract)
Antiradical
activities
(IC
50
=μg ml
-1
)
June 85.33±3.08 154.31±3.09 453.39±0.99
July 110.52±4.64 156.94±2.75 430.40±1.48
August 105.62±2.90 154.62±0.80 438.91±1.95
Sage
(S. officinalis)
September 108.32±1.84 136.76±1.43 422.93±1.16
June 94.29±0.59 128.22±0.95 537.42±0.62
July 104.44±2.55 178.35±1.66 388.47±0.46
August 99.37±4.79 151.19±1.59 445.80±0.49
Rosemary
(R. officinalis)
September 101.39±1.55
142.95±1.14 465.07±0.07
389
390
... Regardless, the market seeks high-quality medicinal plant extracts boasting elevated concentrations of essential oils. It is recognized that essential oil content fluctuates with the seasons and climatic conditions [35]. Given the partial shading by agrivoltaics (AV) systems, we posit that medicinal crops might display varying levels of essential oils and yields compared to conventional agronomic practices. ...
... Furthermore, the increased proliferation of weeds in the T plot might have led to a qualitative and quantitative reduction in the yield of several medicinal crops, as reported in prior research [50,51]. Conversely, the lower essential oil content observed in the T plot may be due to the loss of volatile compounds from the aerial parts of plants, as noted in a research study [35] conducted for sage and rosemary. ...
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This study investigated the comparative cultivation of six medicinal plant species (sage, oregano, rosemary, lavender, thyme, and mint) in a dynamic agrivoltaic (AV) system and a neighboring control plot exposed to full sun (referred to as “T”). Specifically, within the dynamic AV system, two distinct plot areas on the ground were identified due to the rotation of the panels: one consistently in the shade of the solar panels (UP), and another alternately in shade and sunlight (BP). The study involved the measurement of solar radiation, air temperature, and infrared leaf temperature during crop growth in these designated plots. Additionally, a weed survey was conducted at harvest time. The findings revealed that solar radiation, air temperature, infrared leaf temperature, and weed coverage were notably lower in the UP plot compared to both the BP and T plots. Furthermore, the yield of essential oils in sage, thyme, mint, and rosemary plants was higher in both the UP and BP plots than in the T plot. Hence, these factors seemingly positively impacted the performance of specific medicinal crops within the dynamic AV system. This information holds significance for producers and processors concerning crop quality.
... Although Tashani et al. (2022) reported about 2.8À9% EO yields for Salvia majdae species, depending on the essential oil extraction methods, (Tashani et al., 2022). Also, Baydar et al. (2009) showed, that yield and chemical composition of extracts and essential oils of sage and rosemary change depending on seasonal variations. The maximum yield of sage EO belongs to July with 3.24% and the minimum refers to June 1.43% ...
... The maximum yield of sage EO belongs to July with 3.24% and the minimum refers to June 1.43% (Baydar et al., 2009). The results of chemical analysis showed the monoterpenes (hydrocarbon and oxygenated) were the main components (24.02%). ...
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Volatile organic compounds especially terpenoid derivatives possess bioactivities including insecticidal effects, and they sometimes act synergistically when mixed. The potato tuber moth (PTM), Phthorimaea operculella Zeller, is one of the most serious pests of potatoes in Iran. Since the potato is an important source of human food, safe and non-chemical control of its pest is indispensable. This study evaluated the fumigant toxicity of pure and two mixtures of essential oils (EOs) of three Salvia subg. Perovskia species against P. operculella. GC–MS phytochemical profiling of species showed 1,8-cineole (12.55%) and linalyl acetate (11.48%), as dominant in S. yangii-EO, geranyl acetate (55.64%), and 1,8-cineole (10.50%) as major constituents in S. abrotanoides-EO, and δ-3-carene (29.29%) and 1,8-cineol (18.08%), as major compounds of S. artemisioides-EO. The EOs, especially combined types were toxic against the pest and showed ovicidal and repellent efficacies. Adults showed considerable sensitivity to the 25:75 mixture ratio of S. yangii and S. abrotanoides EOs (LC50 = 5.82 µL/L air) in comparison to eggs (LC50 = 10.10 µL/L air). The combined EOs also reduced the ovipositional rate. In addition, pure S. abrotanoides EOs showed great fumigant toxicities (11.09 µL/L air) effects against one-old-day eggs. The combination of EOs including 1,8 cineol and geranyl acetate as corresponding compounds, may affect survival, energy resource transfer during oogenesis, and oviposition, which are likely mechanisms involved with essential oil toxicity. As a result, Salvia essential oils can be used for the development of eco-friendly, safe, and effective botanical pesticides in integrated PTM management strategies.
... 19 Wild Sage also contains flavonoids such as luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin. 20 They contribute to sage's health benefits, and are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties as they help protect cells from damage, reduce inflammation, and support heart health. 21 Sage has also essential oil which contains α-thujone and β-thujone, which contribute to its aroma and may have antimicrobial properties as well as camphor, which offers anti-inflammatory effects and topical pain relief. ...
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The current study employed a semi-quantitative approach to investigate the inhibitory effects of water-extracted wild sage (Salvia officinalis) on β-hematin formation in vitro. Spectrophotometric analysis over a nine-day period evaluated the antimalarial efficacy of water and sodium bicarbonate extracts derived from wild sage leaves. Results indicated that bicarbonate extracts exhibited superior in-vitro effectiveness against malaria compared to water extracts. Furthermore, both extracts exhibited a marginal decrease in efficacy over the nine days. Polyphenols present in the water extract of wild sage were analyzed using UPLC coupled to photodiode array and quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-PDA-ESi-MS). Key compounds identified included Hispidulin-7-glucuronide, Luteolin-7-O-rutinoside, Apigenin-7-O-glucoside, Luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, Rosmarinic acid, Isorhamnetin, Hispidulin, Pectolinarigenin, Epirosmanol, Genkwanin, Carnosol, Carnosic acid, Hesperetin, and Rosmaridiphenol. The diverse array of polyphenols present in the wild sage extracts effectively formed complexes with free heme, thereby preventing the formation of β-hematin, which is crucial for disrupting the plasmodium parasite during its intraerythrocytic stage.
... Salvia species have a great value in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical and food industries (Baydar et al., 2009;Carović-Stanko et al., 2016). The Mediterranean Kastamonu Uni., Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 2023, 23(1): 1-10 Tığlı Kaytanlıoğlu et al. ...
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Aim of the study: This study was performed to determine the essential oil components of Salvia tomentosa Mill., Salvia argentea L. and Salvia bracteata Bank et Sol. Area of study: The study was carried out in two districts (Eğirdir and Şarkikaraağaç) located at Isparta province in Turkey. Material and methods: The isolation of essential oil components was performed from shoots with leaves and flowers. Qualitative analysis of essential oils was carried out by using a Shimadzu 2010 Plus GC-MS device. The identification of the constituents was carried out by comparing the retention index (RI) and mass spectral data (MS) to those reported in the literature. Main results: As a result of the GC-MS analysis, the major components of the essential oil were (-)- caryophyllene oxide (49.56%), β-vatirenene (7.87%), and α-Muurolol (6.78%) in S. tomentosa, sclareol (40.01%), germacrene-D (13.93%) and β-pinene (11.93%) in S. argentea and eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) (16.6%), β-pinene (14.7%) and cembrene (10.88%) in S. bracteata. Sclareol, which was determined at a high concentration in S. argentea in this study, is an economically valuable component that is widely used as flavoring in food and tobacco industry and as a perfume ingredient in the cosmetic industry. Highlights: According to this study, the cultivation of S. argentea can provide high economic returns
... Salvia species have a great value in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical and food industries (Baydar et al., 2009;Carović-Stanko et al., 2016). The Mediterranean Kastamonu Uni., Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 2023, 23(1): 1-10 Tığlı Kaytanlıoğlu et al. ...
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Aim of the study: This study was performed to determine the essential oil components of Salvia tomentosa Mill., Salvia argentea L. and Salvia bracteata Bank et Sol. Area of study: The study was carried out in two districts (Eğirdir and Şarkikaraağaç) located at Isparta province in Turkey. Material and methods: The isolation of essential oil components was performed from shoots with leaves and flowers. Qualitative analysis of essential oils was carried out by using a Shimadzu 2010 Plus GC-MS device. The identification of the constituents was carried out by comparing the retention index (RI) and mass spectral data (MS) to those reported in the literature. Main results: As a result of the GC-MS analysis, the major components of the essential oil were (-)-caryophyllene oxide (49.56%), β-vatirenene (7.87%), and α-Muurolol (6.78%) in S. tomentosa, sclareol (40.01%), germacrene-D (13.93%) and β-pinene (11.93%) in S. argentea and eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) (16.6%), β-pinene (14.7%) and cembrene (10.88%) in S. bracteata. Sclareol, which was determined at a high concentration in S. argentea in this study, is an economically valuable component that is widely used as flavoring in food and tobacco industry and as a perfume ingredient in the cosmetic industry. Highlights: According to this study, the cultivation of S. argentea can provide high economic returns
... Hossain et al. (2010) and Sakurai et al. (2016) showed the presence of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid and vanillic acid, quercetin and luteonin in R. officinalis and O. vulgare extracts. Cavero et al. (2006) reported the presence of naringenin in oregano and Baydar et al. (2009) in rosemary. Vallverdú-Queralt et al. (2014) verified gallic and protocatechuic acids, among other phenolics in rosemary and oregano. ...
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Oregano (Origanum vulgaris L.) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) may contribute to the control of anthracnose in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). This study aimed to investigate the chemical composition of both extracts by LC-HRMS and their in vitro and in vivo inhibitory activity against C. lindemuthianum isolates. We evaluated the inhibition of mycelial growth, the inhibition of the conidia germination, the phytotoxicity of the extracts in bean detached leaves and the reduction of severity of anthracnose under greenhouse conditions. Ten phenolics were identified: caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, gallic, gentisic, protocatechuic and vanillic acids, and quercetin, luteolin and naringenin. Gentisic acid was not reported for these plants in the consulted literature. We verified the complete inhibition of the mycelium growth of C. lindemuthianum by both extracts at about 2% (oregano) and 3% (rosemary), the inhibition of spore germination was for rosemary: 100% and for oregano: 85%, at a concentration of 3% of extracts and no symptoms of phytotoxicity were observed in common bean leaves treated with them. Both extracts were efficient in reducing the severity of anthracnose caused by C. lindemuthianum BRM 007447 in BRS Campeiro and Perola cultivars, in preventive and curative modes. These extracts have shown promise in the practice of sustainable agriculture, under the experimental conditions used.
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This study aimed to investigate the phytochemical constituents, total phenols, total antioxidant, and mineral contents of Rosmarinus Officinalis L. The aerial parts of the plant were extracted using different solvents, including water, ethanol, ethyl acetate, and chloroform. The extracts were analyzed for their phytochemical constituents. The total phenolic content and total antioxidant capacity were measured using colorimetric assays. The mineral content of the plant was analyzed using AAS. The results showed that the plant extracts were rich in carbohydrates, proteins, phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, and coumarins. The total phenolic content of the plant extracts ranged from 76.7 to 95.5 mg GAE/g, indicating strong antioxidant activity, with a total antioxidant capacity of 50.03 mg/g. The plant was found to be rich in macro elements such as Na, K, Ca, Mg, and P, with concentrations ranging from 1760 to 12155 mg/kg. While the concentrations of heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cu) ranged from 56.19 mg/kg to 14.38 mg/kg. The water extract contained fewer phytochemical constituents compared to the ethanolic extract, while the ethyl acetate and chloroform extracts showed the presence of only specific compounds. These findings suggest that Rosmarinus Officinalis L. is a valuable natural source of bioactive compounds and essential nutrients. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the therapeutic properties of the plant and to explore its potential use in the prevention and treatment of various diseases.
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Taif rose (Rosa damascena Mill) is one of the most important economic products of the Taif Governorate, Saudi Arabia. Cadmium chloride (CdCl2) is a common environmental pollutant that is widely used in industries and essentially induces many toxicities, including hepatotoxicity. In this study, the major compounds in the waste of Taif rose extract (WTR) were identified and chemically and biologically evaluated. GC–MS analysis of WTR indicated the presence of many saturated fatty acids, vitamin E, triterpene, dicarboxylic acid, terpene, linoleic acid, diterpenoid, monoterpenoid, flavonoids, phenylpyrazoles, and calcifediol (vitamin D derivative). The assessment of potential anticancer activity against HepG2 cells proved that WTR had a high cell killing effect with IC50 of 100–150 µg/mL. In addition, WTR successfully induced high cell cycle arrest at G0/G1, S, and G2 phases, significant apoptosis, necrosis, and increased autophagic cell death response in the HepG2 line. For the evaluation of its anti-CdCl2 toxicity, 32 male rats were allocated to four groups: control, CdCl2, WTR, and CdCl2 plus WTR. Hepatic functions and antioxidant biomarkers (SOD, CAT, GRx, GPx, and MDA) were examined. Histological changes and TEM variations in the liver were also investigated to indicate liver status. The results proved that WTR alleviated CdCl2 hepatotoxicity by improving all hepatic vitality markers. In conclusion, WTR could be used as a preventive and therapeutic natural agent for the inhibition of hepatic diseases and the improvement of redox status. Additional in vitro and in vivo studies are warranted.
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The antioxidant effects, the levels of total phenol and the total phenol contents of volatile oils and plant extracts were determined in eight various Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) clones. Antioxidant acitvities and the total phenol contents were measured by spectophotometric method as well as the volatile oil content of the fresh plants with gas chromatograph. Our preliminary results clearly indicate that the antioxidant capacity of volatile oils and plant extracts closely related to the total phenol contents. Reason of the observed differences should be revealed by the determination of the quantity and quality of the individual volatile oil components.
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Rosemary oil was extracted by both steam and hydrodistillations then analysed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The effect of time of extraction enabled us to follow the evolution of the yield and oil composition obtained by both processes. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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The leaves of Salvia officinalis L. were collected during the months of June to December 1981, from the same locality. The yield and composition of essential oil have been determined in seven samples with special reference to the content of thujone, 1,8-cineole, and camphor. It was found that the yield and composition of the oil changed from month to month. The maximum of essential oil in the leaves appeared during July. In order to obtain an essential oil with a maximum percentage of thujone, the harvest of sage leaves is recommended during October.
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An experimental investigation was carried out on olive oils of the Ogliarola Salentina and Coratina cultivars to assess the influence of the two different olive grinding techniques and kneading process on the quality of the oils. The experimental data obtained showed that resistance to oxidation, total phenols and phenolic compounds analysed for HPLC were higher in the Coratina oils than in the Ogliarola oils. The use of hammer-crushers plus kneader rather than stone mills plus kneader always produced significant increases in the total phenols. Resistance to oxidation was assessed by the Rancimat method and showed a significant correlation with the amounts of total phenols and of an unidentified substance (peak I) which was conspicuously present amongst the substances evaluated for HPLC.
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We have developed a new industrial process for obtaining natural antioxidants from spices and other vegetables by primarily adapting mechanical and physical treatments. Rosemary, sage, paprika, nutmeg and cocoa shells have been submitted to a mechanical treatment (micronization), and the finely powdered material was extracted with an edible vegetable oil, i.e., groundnut. The antioxidant dissolved in the lipid phase was collected by two-stage falling film molecular distillation to separate the lipid phase to be recycled) from the active, low molecular weight fraction. Antioxidant activity was measured for fats, oils and fat-containing foods by oxygen absorption, head-space analysis (i.e., pentane) extent of secondary degradation products and organoleptic evaluations. Results obtained indicate that molecular distillates from spices, i.e., rosemary derivatives, effectively protect foods against oxidative rancidity.
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A new diterpene, named rosmariquinone, was isolated from the leaves ofRosmarinus officinalis L. The leaves were first extracted using methanol and, upon further purification, this extract yielded rosmariquinone. Structure elucidation of the antioxidant was done using IR, MS,1H-NMR and13C-NMR.
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Essential oil (1.1%) is isolated fromSalvia officinaliscultivated in Georgia. Its properties are: 20 0.921, n D 20 1.463, [] D 20 +24.91 , acid number 2.8, ketone content 65.4% (oxime method). GLC showed the presence of 11 terpenes, among which -thujone (31.56%), -thujone (17.55), camphor (16.48), and 1,8-cineol (17.53) are present in the highest amounts.
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De-odourised aqueous extracts of four commonly consumed herbs belonging to the Lamiaceae family, i.e. oregano (Origanum vulgaris L.), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), were investigated for their antioxidant properties. Various experimental models were used for the characterisation of the activity, including iron reduction capacity, DPPH, ABTS+ and OH radical-scavenging activities and the capacity of the extracts to inhibit copper-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins (LDL) ex vivo. The extracts showed varying degrees of reductive and radical scavenging capacity, and were capable of a marked prolongation of the lag-time in the LDL oxidation assay. The hierarchy of the observed antioxidant activity of the extracts was dependent on the type of assay used. The observed antioxidant characteristics were not fully related to the total phenolic contents of the extracts in any of the assays, but were presumably strongly dependent on rosmarinic acid, the major phenolic component present in this type of Lamiaceae extract.