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35
D. Sedmera and T. Wang (eds.), Ontogeny and Phylogeny of the Vertebrate Heart,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3387-3_2, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Introduction
Numerous review articles have reported on the morphology and physiology of the
fi sh heart (see for instance Santer 1985 ; Satchell 1991 ; Farrell and Jones 1992 ;
Burggren et al. 1997 ) through the years. The recent use of the teleost heart as an
organ model has focused a lot of attention on this fi sh group. Genetic (see Harvey
and Rosenthal 1998 ; Chen and Fishman 2000 ; Lohr and Yost 2000 ; Yelon 2001 , and
references herein) and epigenetic (Taneda et al. 2010 ) studies carried out in teleosts
have provided deep insights into several mechanisms of great developmental
signi fi cance for the heart of vertebrates. Furthermore, teleosts are being used to
study several other biological mechanisms ranging from the establishment of the
left–right axis (Chen et al. 1997 ; Nagai et al. 2010 ) , to heart regeneration (Poss et al.
2002 ; Lepilina et al. 2006 ) , to organ development in the absence of gravity (Niihori
et al. 2004 ) . Full understanding of all these data requires a thorough knowledge of
the morphological aspects of the teleost heart.
The heart of modern teleosts has classically been described as being formed by
four segments arranged in series: sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle, and bulbus arte-
riosus. Recent studies indicate that, in addition to those four chambers, all teleosts
contain a conus arteriosus (Schib et al. 2002 ; Grimes et al. 2006 ; Icardo 2006 ) and
a distinct atrioventricular segment (Icardo and Colvee
2011 ) . Accordingly, the
morphology of the heart is reviewed to include these two segments. Attention is
also focused on the various structural patterns of the conus and bulbus. The archi-
tecture of the heart ventricle has been divided into four main types (Tota et al.
1983 )
depending on the absence, or on the presence and the extent of a compact layer.
Chapter 2
The Teleost Heart: A Morphological Approach*
José M. Icardo
J. M. Icardo (*)
Departamento de Anatomia y Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina ,
Universidad de Cantabria , c/Cardenal Herrera Oria, s/n , 39011 Santander , Spain
e-mail: icardojm@unican.es
*Contract grant number: CGL2008-04559/BOS from the “Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia,” Spain.
36 J.M. Icardo
Ventricle classi fi cations are not merely academic. Different modes of heart performance
have been attributed to the several ventricle types. For instance, completely trabe-
culated ventricles are thought to be unable to cope with increasing amounts of
afterload. Evidence is reviewed here supporting the notion that the teleost heart can
maintain high ventricular work in the absence of a compacta. In higher vertebrates,
the collagenous skeleton of the heart plays an important role in myocardial mechan-
ics (Weber
1989 ) . However, this subject has received very little attention in the fi sh
heart. The possible role of the heart collagenous skeleton in the maintenance of the
ventricular shape and in the performance of the teleost heart is also discussed.
Finally, the structure of the venous pole of the heart is reviewed. Despite the great
biological importance of several species such as the zebra fi sh and the medaka as
model organisms, this review is not focused on any particular species. Rather, it
intends to re fl ect the enormous morphological diversity of the teleost heart, put the
focus on controversial subjects, and addresses several issues of general morpho-
functional signi fi cance.
The Out fl ow Tract: The Bulbus, the Conus,
and the Conus Valves
The out fl ow tract (OFT) is the morphological division of the heart located between
the ventricle and the beginning of the dorsal aorta. In most primitive fi sh, the OFT
is formed by two segments: a proximal, muscular, conus arteriosus, and a distal,
arterial-like, bulbus arteriosus (Icardo et al. 2002, 2005a ; Durán et al. 2008 ; Grimes
and Kirby 2009 ) . The anatomical composition of the OFT in several other ancient
fi sh, like hag fi shes and lampreys, is unclear, but most uncertainties appear to derive
from partial observations (Parsons 1930 ; Yamauchi 1980 ) . In fact, the overall picture
that emerges from the different studies is that the OFT of all primitive fi sh abides to
the same general rule. Like primitive fi sh (Parsons 1930 ; Icardo 2006 ; Grimes and
Kirby 2009 ) , ancient teleosts show a conus and a bulbus. In all genera studied
(Albula, Pterothrissus, Megalops, Elops, Tarpon), the heart shows a muscular conus
arteriosus (Parsons 1930 ; Santer 1985 ; Satchell 1991 ) . The conus is of variable
length and contains up to two valve rows, with a total of four to six valves. These
are the conus valves, which regulate the ventricular fl ow dynamics. In addition to
the conus, the heart of ancient teleosts presents a distal out fl ow segment, the bulbus
arteriosus, which opens in the ventral aorta. This segment contains connective tis-
sue and elastic fi bers (Parsons
1930 ) . By contrast, the OFT of modern teleosts has
classically been described as being formed solely by the elastic bulbus arteriosus.
Consequently, the out fl ow valves were named bulboventricular valves.
In modern teleosts, the prominent bulbus arteriosus dominates the morphology
of the heart out fl ow (Fig. 2.1 ). The bulbus is an elastic chamber with a “windkessel”
function. It expands during ventricular ejection to store a large part of the cardiac
stroke volume. Gradual elastic recovery allows a steady fl ow of blood toward the
gills, preventing damage of the delicate gill vasculature (Priede
1976 ; Satchell 1991 ;
37
2 The Teleost Heart
Fig. 2.1 Right lateral views of Trachurus trachurus ( a ), Trigla lucerna ( b ), and Sparus pagrus
( c ) hearts. The ventricle (V) may be pyramidal ( a , c ) or sac-like ( b ). The atrium (A) may be very
large ( b ) or much smaller ( a ). The out fl ow tract (OFT) is dominated by the prominent bulbus arte-
riosus (B). No other OFT component is apparent. The bulbus is pear-shaped in ( a ), cylindrical and
elongated in ( b ), and short and thick in ( c ). Note the relationship between the length of the bulbus
and that of the ventricle: the ratio is close to a 1:1 in ( a ) and ( b ), and approximately 1:3 in ( c ). The
arrows mark the upper insertion of the pericardium and the boundary between the bulbus and the
ventral aorta. Scale bars: 0.1 cm (From Icardo
2006 , Anat. Rec. A, 288:900–908)
Farrell and Jones 1992 ; Jones et al. 1993 ) . To this end, the wall of the bulbus is
endowed with high amounts of elastin material and an external (subepicardial) col-
lagen layer, which probably controls bulbus compliance by limiting circumferential
deformation (Icardo et al. 1999a ) .
From the morphological point of view, the external shape of most bulbus ranges
from pear-shaped, to elongated, to thick and robust (Fig. 2.1 ). The wall of the bulbus
is organized into layers: the endocardium, the endocardial ridges, the middle layer,
the subepicardium, and the epicardium (Fig. 2.2a, b ). Given the high level of radia-
tion in fi sh, the existence of various shape patterns is not surprising. The surprising
fact is the high variability in bulbus structure. A series of studies carried out in our
laboratory (Icardo et al. 1999a, b, 2000a, b ) has shown that the structure of the
bulbus is close to being species-speci fi c. The inner surface of the bulbus is charac-
terized by the presence of ridges (Fig. 2.2a, b ). These are longitudinal columns,
which occupy the full length of the bulbus (Fig. 2.2a ). On the whole, they are thicker
at the base of the bulbus and attenuate toward the ventral aorta. Depending on the
species, the ridges may be very prominent (Fig. 2.2a, b ) or much more discrete
(Icardo et al. 2000b ) . However, the real signi fi cance of these variations is currently
unknown. The inner surface of the ridges is covered by endocardium (Fig. 2.2b ).
The ridge endocardium shows histological differences across species, ranging from
squamous to columnar (Icardo et al. 2000b ) . In addition, endocardial cells in many
species contain moderately dense bodies (Benjamin et al. 1984 ) of (mostly) unknown
nature. The presence of the dense bodies indicates a secretory function, which may
38 J.M. Icardo
be different between older and more modern teleost families (Leknes 2009 ) . This
secretory function appears to be enhanced in the bulbus of the Antartic teleosts
(Icardo et al. 1999a, b ) , where endocardial cells may be implicated in the production
of anti-freeze mucins. Of note, endocardial cells in other heart chambers show scav-
enger functions (Seternes et al. 2002 ) , bind natriuretic peptides (Cerra et al. 1997 ) ,
are a source of endogenous nitric oxide (Imbrogno et al. 2003 ) , or may be involved
in autocrine/paracrine regulation of the subjacent tissue (for a recent review, see
Icardo 2007 ) . The middle layer of the bulbus contains smooth muscle cells and vari-
able amounts of elastin. It may also contain, as in the common eel (Fig. 2.2c ), a few
collagen layers interspersed with the elastin material (Icardo et al. 2000a ) , or, as in
tuna, collagen bundles, blood vessels and nerves (unpublished observations).
However, it may lack elastin, as in the Antarctic teleosts (Icardo et al. 1999a, b ) . In
these species, the elastin material is replaced by a fi brillar network (Fig. 2.2d ),
which is probably made up of glycosaminoglycans. The subepicardium is a thin
layer rich in collagen and elastin, fi broblasts, vessels, and nerves (Icardo et al.
2000b ) . Although this constitutes a general description, the subepicardium of the
bulbus can be a more complex layer. For instance, it may contain lymphocytes,
plasma cells, and dendrite-like cells, and has been implied to be involved in the
development of the humoral immune response (Icardo et al. 1999b ) . This is surpris-
ing, but it is not an isolated feature in fi sh. The subepicardium of the sturgeon con-
tains thymus-like tissue (Icardo et al. 2002 ) which has been implicated in the
Fig. 2.2 Bulbus and conus in different teleost species. ( a ) Thunnus alalunga . Internal heart structure.
The out fl ow tract, the ventricle (V), and the atrioventricular (AV) regions are exposed. The bulbus
(B) shows well-marked longitudinal ridges. The cranial bulbus boundary corresponds to the peri-
cardial insertion ( arrow ). The conus supports three semilunar valves of roughly equal size ( arrow-
heads ). The ventricle is pyramidal and appears mostly formed by a thick compacta. The AV ori fi ce
is guarded by the AV valves. ( b ) Trigla lucerna . Cross-section of the bulbus. Hematoxylin–eosin.
The ridges protrude into the lumen (L) and are covered by endocardium ( arrowheads ). The middle
layer (M) contains large amounts of extracellular material. The subepicardial layer ( dark in the
picture ) is rich in collagen. ( c ) Anguilla anguilla . TEM micrograph of the middle layer of bulbus.
A smooth muscle cell (S) is surrounded by elastin and fi brillar material interspersed with collagen
fi bers ( arrows ). ( d ) Trematomus bernacchii . TEM micrograph of the middle layer of bulbus. The
extracellular matrix is formed by a fi lamentous network. Note the absence of collagen and elastin.
Scale bars: ( a ) 0.5 cm; ( b ) 100 m m; ( c ) 1 m m; ( d ) 0.5 m m; ( c ) from Icardo et al.
2000a , Cells Tissues
Organs, 167:184–198; ( d ) from Icardo et al.
1999b , Anat. Rec. 256:116–126
39
2 The Teleost Heart
establishment and the maintenance of the cellular immune responses. The absence
of elastin in stenothermal teleosts may be considered a sort of adaptation to subzero
temperatures. However, the rationale for the structural variety in temperate teleosts
is unknown. A number of factors such as cardiovascular dynamics, lifestyle, eco-
physiology, range of diversi fi cation, may have speci fi cally adapted the fi ne bulbus
structure to comply with its “windkessel” function.
The conus arteriosus, present in ancient teleosts (see above), was thought to have
disappeared in more derived species. The loss of the conus was attributed to intus-
susception into the ventricle (Smith 1918 ) , or it was considered a direct consequence
of heart evolution (Santer 1985 ) . However, evidence raised in the last decade indi-
cates that the conus is not lost at all in the heart of modern teleosts (Schib et al. 2002 ;
Icardo et al. 2003 ; Grimes et al. 2006 ; Icardo 2006 ) . Examination of up to 28 species
belonging to different families and orders (Icardo 2006 ) has revealed that the conus
arteriosus is a distinct anatomical segment interposed between the ventricle and the
bulbus arteriosus. The Macrouridae (Greer Walker et al. 1985 ) could also be added to
that list (discussed in Icardo et al. 2003 ) . However, species differences do exist
(Fig. 2.3 ). The conus is easily recognizable in hearts whose ventricles lack a compact
layer (Fig. 2.3a ), and may be more dif fi cult to discern in hearts possessing a com-
pacta (Fig. 2.3b ). It is formed by compact myocardium (very evident in completely
trabeculated ventricles), and contains more collagen, elastin, and laminin than the
ventricular muscle. With very few exceptions, the conus contains vessels (Fig. 2.3a )
even when the neighboring myocardium is not vascularized (Icardo 2006 ) . As occurs
with other fi sh hearts having conus, the teleost conus arteriosus supports the out fl ow
valves, which should more properly be named conus valves (Schib et al. 2002 ) .
Most teleosts possess a single row of conus valves formed of two (left and right)
pocket-like lea fl ets and the supporting sinus (Fig. 2.3 ). Only a few species pertaining
to the order of the Elopiformes show two valve rows (Parsons 1930 ) . In modern
Fig. 2.3 Conus arteriosus in two hearts with different ventricular structure. B, bulbus; C, conus;
V, ventricle; v, conus valves. ( a ) Spondylosoma cantharus . Martin’s trichrome. The compact
musculature of the conus differentiates easily from the completely trabeculated ventricle. Conus
vessels ( arrowheads ) are apparent. ( b ) Echiicthys vipera . Sirius red. A collagenous ring isolates
the conus myocardium from the ventricular myocardium. The conus valves are anchored to the
conus and show a proximal stout body and a thick, luminal fi brosa ( arrow ). In ( b ), a thin rim of
collagen ( arrowheads ) locates at the boundary between the compact and spongy layers of the
ventricle. Scale bars: 200 m m
40 J.M. Icardo
teleosts, a third valve, mostly rudimentary, may appear on the ventral or the dorsal
side of the conus (Icardo et al. 2003 ) . However, this situation does not appear to be
universal. Examination of up to 40 specimens of Thunnus alalunga shows the con-
stant presence of three lea fl ets of roughly equal size, the third one being located
dorsally (Fig. 2.2a ).
Each valve lea fl et presents a stout proximal body, anchored to the conus, and a
fl ap-like distal region that enters the bulbus (Fig. 2.3 ). The lea fl ets present a thick
luminal fi brosa, which probably bears most of the stress generated by the back fl ow
of blood (Icardo et al. 2003 ; Icardo 2006 ) . This is a feature shared with other fi sh
groups (Sans-Coma et al. 1995 ; Icardo et al. 2002 ) , but it is opposite to the situation
observed in mammals, where the fi brosa is located on the parietal side of the lea fl et.
Differences in extracellular matrix composition have been described in the conus
valves of several teleost species (Greer Walker et al. 1985 ; Raso 1993 ; Icardo et al.
2003 ) . These differences in composition may be implicated in the mechanical func-
tion of the valve. At least in several species (Schib et al. 2002 ; Icardo et al. 2003 ;
Icardo 2006 ) , the conus myocardium has a distinct structural organization, which
has also been implicated in valve physiology.
The Ventricle
The teleost heart ventricle is a chamber that shows (Fig. 2.1 ) considerable species
variability (Santer 1985 ; Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . Indeed, this assertion can be
applied to all fi sh heart ventricles (Santer 1985 ) . The external shape, the architec-
tural organization, the histology, the coronary distribution, the relative mass, the
work dynamics, etc., vary widely between species. In an attempt to classify this
variability, several authors have grouped the ventricles into broad categories (Greer
Walker et al. 1985 ; Santer 1985 ; Tota 1989 ) . The problem is that the ventricles do
not quite fi t into any particular category very often. This is especially true when data
between different categories are crossed. Nonetheless, divisions based on the external
shape of the ventricle (Santer 1985 ) , or on the degree of “muscularization” and
vascularization of the ventricular wall (Tota 1989 ) , have proven useful.
The external ventricular shape has been grouped (Santer 1985 ) into three main
categories: tubular, sac-like, and pyramidal (Fig. 2.1 ). This division has several
functional implications. For instance, pyramidal ventricles have been related to an
active lifestyle, a robust ventricular wall, and a high output work. The salmonid and
scombrid families present this type of ventricle (Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . The very
active tuna also shows a pyramidal ventricle (Fig. 2.2a ). However, the presence of a
pyramidal ventricle does not correlate with either a robust ventricle or a very active
lifestyle in many other cases such as in the Antarctic teleosts and in members of the
sparid and serranid families. The signi fi cance of the two other morphologies is
unclear (Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . Furthermore, the relation between the external
ventricular shape and the inner architecture is not constant (Simoes et al. 2002 ) .
Sac-like ventricles are observed in many marine teleosts, and tubular ventricles are
frequently observed in fi sh which, like the eel, present and elongated body shape.
41
2 The Teleost Heart
Another heart classi fi cation (Tota et al. 1983 ; Tota 1989 ; Tota and Garofalo 2012 )
relies on whether the ventricle presents a compact layer, on the relative thickness of
the compacta, and on the extent of myocardial vascularization. Type-I hearts show
entirely trabeculated ventricles and lack a compacta. The ventricles of the rest of the
heart types present both an external compacta and an inner spongiosa. Type-II hearts
show vessels in the compacta but not in the spongiosa, and type-III hearts have vessels
in both the compacta and the spongiosa. Type-IV hearts are different from type-III
hearts in that a large proportion of their ventricular mass is formed by a compacta.
Most teleost ventricles (close to 80%, Santer 1985 ) are entirely trabeculated and
thus belong to type-I hearts (Fig. 2.4a ). The trabecular network has been described
as a highly organized system of small lumina and trabecular sheets which radiate
outward from a central lumen (Fig. 2.4b ) (Munshi et al. 2001 ; Icardo et al. 2005b ) .
The size of the lumina decreases progressively toward the ventricular periphery. Of
note, a similar pattern is observed in the spongy component of ventricles having a
compacta (Pieperhoff et al. 2009 ) . Although observations have been made in just a
few species, this architectural arrangement may be more common than previously
Fig. 2.4 Hearts with completely trabeculated ventricles. A, atrium; av, atrioventricular valves; B,
bulbus; C, conus; c, conus valves; V, ventricle. ( a ) Balistes carolinensis . Orcein. The elastic bulbus
is intensely stained. The ventricle is saccular and entirely trabeculated. The AV ori fi ce is delimited
by a ring of compact myocardium. The atrium shows a complex network of thin trabeculae which
originates from the AV ori fi ce. Inset : Detail of coronary vessels in the ventricular subepicardium.
( b ) Sparus auratus . SEM composite shows the architectural organization of the heart, sagital sec-
tion. The left side of the heart is shown from the right. In the ventricle, an interconnected system
of trabecular sheets and lumina ( black and white arrows ) radiate outward from the main ventricu-
lar lumen. The lumina become smaller ( white arrows ) toward the periphery. At the ventricular
periphery, the trabecular sheets give origin to a system of single trabeculae that reach the outer
myocardial layer. Note the formation of arch systems ( arrowheads ). Scale bars: ( a ) 100 m m; inset ,
20 m m; ( b ) 50 m m. ( b , from Icardo et al.
2005b . J Exp Zool., 303A:665–675)
42 J.M. Icardo
realized. It transforms the ventricle into a multi-chambered segment formed of a
small number of lumina separated by trabecular sheets. This arrangement has
important functional implications. The main ventricular lumen would support the
highest amount of stress, and the stress would be progressively attenuated toward
the periphery. The trabecular sheets would produce enough contractile force, and
the communication between the different lumina would facilitate blood squeezing
(Icardo et al.
2005b ) .
Coronary vessels have been reported to be nearly absent in the ventricles of
type-I hearts. In fact, coronary vessels are thought to be present in just a few species
of temperate teleosts and to be mostly absent in stenothermal species. However, the
conus arteriosus (Icardo 2006 ) and the atrioventricular segment (Icardo and Colvee
2011 , see below) show vascular pro fi les in most of type-I hearts examined. More
importantly, this is accompanied by the presence of vessels in the ventricular
subepicardium (Fig. 2.4a , inset). Strikingly, this feature is not restricted to temper-
ate teleosts. Coronaries are also observed in the Antarctic species Dissostichus
mawsoni (Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) and Nothotenia angustata (Eastman 1993 ) .
Overall, ventricular subepicardial vessels are not very numerous, and they do not
appear to form a very rich plexus. Consequently, their presence may have been
underestimated. On the other hand, their exact role in this type of hearts is unclear.
It is assumed that myocardial cells in the entirely trabeculated ventricles are supplied
by the blood fl owing through the ventricular chamber.
The ventricle of many other teleost species shows both a compacta and a spon-
giosa (Fig. 2.5 ), belonging to type-II hearts. The compacta is formed by myocardial
cells arranged into bundle layers which appear more complex and thicker in more
athletic fi sh (Sánchez-Quintana and Hurle 1987 ; Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . The bundles
are oriented in different directions (Fig. 2.5b ) forming interrelated loops and coils,
which provide the structural basis for developing high blood pressures (Farrell and
Jones 1992 ) . The compact layer is always vascularized, while the spongiosa is not.
However, several species do not fi t well within this classi fi cation. For instance, a
large part of the ventricular wall thickness in tuna is formed by a very thick, exten-
sively vascularized compacta (Fig. 2.5b ). Curiously, an apparently extensive vascu-
lar network is also observed in the spongy layer (Fig. 2.5c ). Thus, the overall
ventricular architecture of tuna is closer to that of type-IV hearts.
The existence of the two muscular components does not mean that all ventricles
have a similar structure. The thickness of the teleost compacta may range from a
mere two- to three-cell-thick layer (as in Echiicthys vipera ) to occupy a large part of
the ventricular thickness (as in tuna). Estimations of the thickness relation between
the spongiosa and the compacta in type-II hearts indicate that it ranges from about
30 (as in E. vipera ), through 10 (as in Oncorhynchus mikiss and Salvelinus alpinus ),
to 3 (as in Trachurus trachurus ). It should be stressed that these values are rough
estimates and have been obtained at the mid-ventricle level. The thickness of the
compacta is not completely regular, undergoing variations from apex to base.
Percentage values between the relative mass of the ventricle and that of the
compacta have been reported earlier (Farrell and Jones
1992 ) for several teleost
species. However, the relation between the two muscle components, albeit speci fi c,
43
2 The Teleost Heart
is not an invariable value. The proportion of the compacta has been reported to vary
with changing seasons (Farrell and Jones 1992 ) and growth (Farrell et al. 1988 ;
Cerra et al. 2004 ) , but not with physical activity (Farrell et al. 1990 ) . It should be
mentioned that both the compacta and the spongiosa are formed by typical cardio-
myocytes (Yamauchi 1980 ; Santer 1985 ; Cerra et al. 2004 ; Icardo et al. 2005b )
whose structural, functional, and metabolic characteristics have been reviewed a
number of times through the years (Yamauchi 1980 ; Santer 1985 ; Farrell and Jones
1992 ; Burggren et al. 1997 ) . The different morphological arrangements do not
depend on distinct characteristics of the myocardial cells, but on the speci fi cs of
the heart design.
Much less interest has been placed on the way the compacta and the spongiosa
become structurally connected to form a functional unit. The basic problem derives
from the overall circumferential arrangement of the compacta, to which the overall
perpendicularly arranged spongiosa must be attached. If the two components are not
connected tightly, they would tend to separate from each other. In fact, the spon-
giosa can be peeled off from the compacta quite easily after fi xation (Farrell et al.
2007 ) . The existence of a layer of connective tissue located at the boundary between
Fig. 2.5 Ventricular organization in hearts with compacta and spongiosa. ( a ) Oncorhynchus
mikiss . Hematoxylin–eosin. Detail of the ventricular chamber (V). The outer compacta ( arrows )
limits the ventricle. Note the unequal thickness of the compacta and spongiosa. ( b ) Thunnus ala-
lunga . Detail of the ventricular structure. The compacta (C) is organized into bundles showing
different orientations. Arrows indicate the compacta–spongiosa boundary. The spongiosa shows
numerous vascular pro fi les ( arrowheads ). ( c ) Detail of the boxed area in ( a ). Coronaries of differ-
ent sizes are clear. Scale bars: ( a ) 1 mm; ( b ) 300 m m; ( c ) 100 m m
44 J.M. Icardo
the two muscle components was considered to act as bonding glue (Poupa et al. 1974 ;
Tota 1978 ) . This concept has recently been challenged (Pieperhoff et al. 2009 ) in the
salmonid heart, where the collagenous layer between the compacta and the spongiosa
is quite discrete. It has been suggested that the outer myocardial cells of the spon-
giosa bend their tips to create a parallel attachment surface. This surface is enriched
in desmosome and fascia adherens elements (Pieperhoff et al.
2009 ) . The presence
of a high number of intercellular junctions would create a strong attachment surface
(Pieperhoff et al. 2009 ) , providing the force necessary to maintain the compacta and
the spongiosa together. However, our own observations indicate that collagen is
always present, albeit in variable amounts, at the compacta–spongiosa boundary
(Fig. 2.3b ). Rather than rejecting any of the two alternatives, it is suggested that the
combined effect of the cellular junctional elements and the extracellular matrix
establish the synergy needed to sew the two muscle components together, allowing
at the same time for a coordinated ventricular contraction. This is in line with the
early observation that both collagen and desmosomes accumulate at the junction
between the two muscle compartments (Midttun 1983 ) .
It has also been suggested that a similar junctional arrangement could be present
at the outer myocardial boundary in entirely trabeculated hearts (Pieperhoff et al.
2009 ) . This occurs in hearts with spongy ventricles, like in the African lung fi sh
(Icardo et al. 2005a ) , and may also occur in many teleosts. However, it does not
appear to be a universal feature. In the teleost Sparus auratus , the outer myocardium
forms a continuous single-cell layer, like a shell, to which the trabecular muscle
cells become attached in a mostly perpendicular direction (Icardo et al. 2005b ) .
Another subject which has received little attention in fi sh is the possible role of
the connective tissue in the maintenance of the architectural design of the ventricle
and in the mechanical performance of the heart. The presence of a collagenous scaf-
fold in the avian and mammalian hearts provides structural support for the myocar-
dium and appears to play an important role in myocardial mechanics (Caul fi eld and
Borg 1979 ; Weber 1989 ; Icardo and Colvee 1998 ) . Collagen is an important compo-
nent of the subepicardial tissue in fi sh. In teleosts, it may increase ventricular resil-
ience and limit ventricle deformation (Icardo et al. 2005b ) . Subendocardial collagen
and coiled collagen fi bers running along the main trabecular axis have been described
in the teleost heart ventricle (Sánchez-Quintana et al. 1995 ) . However, the exact role
of this collagen, or even the existence of a collagen scaffold, is still unclear.
A simple method to visualize the collagen network is to digest the tissue with
NaOH. This preserves the collagenous component, which can then be observed with
the scanning microscope (Ohtani 1987 ) . When this procedure is applied to entirely
trabeculated ventricles, the pieces of tissue are reduced to threads during processing.
This indicates the absence of a collagenous scaffold which could have strong impli-
cations in either the maintenance of shape or the ventricular performance. These
negative fi ndings reinforce the role of the trabecular architecture in heart dynamics.
In heart ventricles having a compacta the situation appears to be quite different.
Unpublished observations in the common eel show the presence of an extensive
collagen network extending between the subepicardium and the spongiosa
(Fig.
2.6a ). This network mimics the distribution of the muscular bundles in the
compacta and the architecture of the spongiosa. Collagen connections between the
45
2 The Teleost Heart
compacta and the spongiosa are numerous (Fig. 2.6a ). Furthermore, collagen in the
trabeculae occupies a subendocardial location (Fig. 2.6a , inset), the muscle cells
occupying a central position (Fig. 2.6b ). Curiously, the distribution of collagen in
the trabeculae is similar in type II (Fig. 2.6b ) and type I (Fig. 2.6c ) hearts.
Fig. 2.6 Collagen arrangement in the ventricular chamber. ( a ) Anguilla anguilla . SEM micrograph
depicting a portion of the ventricle digested with NaOH. The collagenous skeleton reproduces the
ventricular architecture. Trabecular sheets ( arrows ) reach the compacta ( asterisks ). Arrowheads ,
arch system. Inset : Trabecular surface. Wavy collagen bundles run super fi cially and are joined by
thin collagen fi brils. ( b ) Anguilla anguilla . Sirius red. Wavy collagen bundles (in red ) run along the
surface of the ventricular trabeculae. Collagen is nearly absent at the inner side of the trabeculae.
( c ) Monopterus albus . Sirius red. The trabecular collagen shows the same distribution as in ( b ),
despite that the ventricle lacks a compacta. Scale bars: ( a ) 150 m m; inset , 5 m m; ( b ) 100 m m; ( c )
100 m m
46 J.M. Icardo
These observations are not meant to infer the existence of a common pattern for
all teleost species having a compacta. However, the collagenous skeleton observed
in the eel ventricle is similar to that obtained in sturgeons (Icardo et al. 1996 ) . At
least in the eel, the collagen network should play an important role in the mainte-
nance of the ventricular architecture. In addition, its presence raises several ques-
tions of biological importance. For instance, does this network play a functional role
similar to that described in the mammalian heart? The answer is unclear as yet, but
the improvement of ventricular performance observed in the eel heart during growth
occurs concomitantly with an increase in the amount of interstitial collagen (Cerra
et al.
2004 ) . On the other hand, the collagen connections between the compacta and
the spongiosa should play an important role in the bonding of the two muscular
components of the ventricle (see above).
From a functional point of view, the presence of pyramidal ventricles having a
compacta has been associated with species showing active lifestyles (Santer et al.
1983 ) . These hearts are able to sustain high levels of stroke work by pumping small
volumes of blood at high heart rates against relatively high blood pressures. They
work as pressure pumps, as much as the mammalian hearts do. The heart of the
extremely active tuna constitutes the prototype of the pressure pump. At the opposite
end of the functional spectrum (Tota et al. 1997 ) , other hearts work as volume pumps.
They are also able to maintain high levels of stroke work. However, they do it by
pumping large blood volumes against low blood pressure. Cardiomegalia and
bradycardia de fi ne these hearts functionally. The Antarctic teleost Chionodraco
hamatus is the prototype of the volume pump. This species shows low activity, and
its ventricle is entirely trabeculated. Curiously, it is also pyramidal. It can be argued
that the morpho-functional design of the heart in the Antarctic teleosts is very
speci fi c and that it has developed as the result of adaptation to extreme climate con-
ditions. However, it appears clear that the external shape and the inner architecture
of the ventricle do not allow to establish, at least in many cases, the performance
characteristics of the heart (for a comparative functional analysis between teleosts
and other fi sh species, see Farrell and Jones 1992 ; Tota and Gattuso 1996 , and refer-
ences herein).
A related question is whether the hearts are able to sustain increasing levels of
afterload. For instance, the extreme morpho-functional adaptation of the hearts of
the Antarctic teleosts makes them fail when afterload is increased. This is very
patent in the ice fi sh C. hamatus (Tota and Gattuso 1996 ) , and less remarkable in
other Antarctic species such as Trematomus bernacchii (Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . In
fact, only hearts with a pyramidal ventricle and a compacta were thought to be able
to cope with signi fi cant increases in afterload (Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . A recent
study has challenged this view. The teleost S. auratus that has a pyramidal ventricle
(Fig. 2.4b ) is able to increase ventricular work signi fi cantly, and to maintain cardiac
output, when the output pressure is increased (Icardo et al. 2005b ) . This occurs
without signi fi cant variations in heart rate. Thus, the heart of S. auratus works like
a pressure pump, in a similar way as the hearts of very active species such as salmo-
nids and tuna (Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . The remarkable thing is that the ventricle of
S. auratus lacks a compacta (Fig. 2.4b ). It is still unknown whether other hearts with a
47
2 The Teleost Heart
similar morphological pattern may perform similarly. What appears clear is that the
functional capabilities of the teleost heart cannot be directly inferred from examina-
tion of the external heart shape or the myoarchitectural design.
The Atrioventricular Region
The atrioventricular (AV) region is formed by a ring of cardiac tissue which sup-
ports the AV valves (Santer and Cobb 1972 ; Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . This succinct
description, together with several references to the presence of a delay in the electri-
cal conduction in the heart (Satchell 1991 ; Sedmera et al. 2003 ) , sums up most of
our knowledge of this part of the heart. However, recent morphological analyses
show a more complex picture (Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) . When the heart of teleosts
with completely trabeculated ventricles is examined, the AV region appears formed
by a distinct ring of myocardium (Fig. 2.7a, b ). This myocardium is compacted,
shows vascular pro fi les in most of the species, and contains variable amounts of
collagen and elastin (Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) . These three characteristics differen-
tiate clearly the AV area from the ventricular and atrial chambers. A ring of connec-
tive tissue contributes to delineating the AV muscle from that of atrium and ventricle.
In hearts possessing a compacta (Fig. 2.7c, d ), the histological differences with the
neighboring musculature are maintained, and the ring of connective tissue also con-
tributes to differentiating the AV segment (Sedmera et al. 2003 , for observations in
the zebra fi sh). It should be stressed that the isolation of the AV muscle ring from the
surrounding musculature is by no means complete. Areas of continuity with the
atrial and ventricular muscle are always observed (Fig. 2.7 ) (Icardo and Colvee
2011 ) . From a morphological point of view, the AV region constitutes a distinct seg-
ment of the adult teleost heart. Furthermore, the morphological appearance of the
AV segment parallels that of the conus in all hearts examined (Icardo 2006 ; Icardo
and Colvee 2011 ) . This includes the presence of vessels.
Regarding the vascular supply of these two segments, there are several relevant
features which should be mentioned since they re fl ect both the diversity of the
teleost heart and the dif fi culty to establish categories of general signi fi cance. As
stated above, the conus arteriosus and the AV segment show vessels in most of the
species examined. However, vascular pro fi les could not be demonstrated in several
species such as Mullus surmuletus , Coris julis , and most of the Antarctic species
(Icardo 2006 ; Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) . In these cases, endocardial extensions
(endocardial sinusoids) penetrate the compact muscle and appear to substitute the
coronary vessels. That is, the compact myocardium takes the blood supply directly
from the heart lumen. In another species, Periophthalmodon schlosseri , the vascular
endothelium present in the AV muscle is continuous with the atrial endocardium.
These vascular pro fi les, instead of representing a true coronary circulation, may
correspond to some kind of endothelial sinusoids. (The term sinusoid is applied here
in a general sense. The existence of endothelial fenestrations is currently unknown.)
The observations made in P. schlosseri cast some doubts on the real nature of the
48 J.M. Icardo
myocardial vessels found both in the conus and in the AV segment in several teleosts.
Yet in other cases, like in E. vipera , coronary vessels co-exist with endocardial sinu-
soids in continuity with the heart lumen. It appears that several species have devel-
oped a dual mode of blood supply for the myocardium, or that part of the vascular
pro fi les may represent a primitive form of the mammalian Thebesian system.
Irrespective of the mode of vascular supply, the morphological evidence that the
conus arteriosus and the AV region are distinct segments of the teleost heart is impor-
tant from the phylogenetic point of view. Interestingly, the segmental division of the
adult fi sh heart is similar to that found in the heart of higher vertebrates during
embryogenesis (Moorman and Christoffels 2003 ; Wong et al. 2012 ) . In higher ver-
tebrates, the two heart segments exhibit speci fi c patterns of gene expression (He and
Burch 1997 ; Franco et al. 1999 ; Horsthuis et al. 2009 ) during development. These
genetic patterns appear to be conserved across the evolutionary scale (Chang et al. 2004 ;
Fig. 2.7 Composite showing the atrioventricular (AV) region of type I ( a , b ) and type II ( c , d )
hearts. A, atrium. V, ventricle. In all cases, the AV valves ( arrows ) anchor to a ring of compact,
vascularized myocardium ( asterisks ). The arrows also indicate the thick atrial fi brosa of the
lea fl ets. The myocardial AV ring is partially isolated from the atrial and ventricular musculature by
a layer of connective tissue rich in collagen. The collagen appears red in ( c ) and ( d ). Double
arrows in ( a ) and ( c ) indicate continuity between the AV muscle and the ventricular trabeculae.
Arrowheads in ( c ) and ( d ) indicate the presence of collagen at the compacta–spongiosa boundary.
( a ) Serranus cabrilla . Orcein. Note the robustness of the AV ring. The dense cellular core of the
valve lea fl ets is apparent. ( b ) Balistes carolinensis . Hematoxylin–eosin. The AV ring is thin but the
compactness of the myocardium contrasts with the delicate ventricular and atrial musculature. ( c )
Echiicthys vipera . Sirius red. The connective tissue ring separates the AV myocardium from the
ventricular compacta. ( d ) Anguilla anguilla . Sirius red. The entire AV ring is exposed. Note the
continuity between the AV and the atrial muscle. Scale bars: 100 m m
49
2 The Teleost Heart
Beis et al. 2005 ; Rutenberg et al. 2006 ; Scherz et al. 2008 ; Shimada et al. 2009 ) . The
two segments also exhibit speci fi c morphogenetic properties such as the induction of
cushion tissue and the formation of valves (Eisenberg and Markwald
1995 ) . Thus,
despite that the conus and the AV segment are not septated in fi sh, they are conserved
across the evolution of the vertebrate heart and appear to share many molecular and
functional characteristics.
The AV valves are generally formed by two lea fl ets (Figs.
2.4b and 2.7 ) that
contain numerous cells grouped into a dense core, and large amounts of connective
tissue. The lea fl ets exhibit a strong atrial fi brosa rich in collagen (Fig. 2.7 ) and elas-
tin. Within the lea fl ets, the cell number, the cell morphology, and the amount
of extracellular material vary widely between species (Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) .
A system of chordae, similar to that observed in mammals, is always absent (also,
see Hu et al. 2000 ) . However, ventricular trabecular sheets can often be seen
anchored in the AV muscle ring (Sedmera et al. 2003 ; Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) .
These sheets should bear some of the stress generated by the ventricular contraction
and could represent a primitive form of the papillary system.
The Atrium and the Sinus Venosus
The teleost atrium is a single chamber which shows considerable variability in size
and shape between species (Fig. 2.1 ) (Santer 1985 ; Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . It is
formed of an external rim of myocardium and of a complex network of thin trabeculae
(pectinate muscles) (Fig. 2.4a ). The presence of two arcuate systems of pectinate
muscles, fanning out from the atrioventricular aperture, has been described in sev-
eral teleosts (Santer 1985 ) . The atrial myocardium is surrounded by a subepicardial,
thick layer of collagen (Fig. 2.3b ). Collagen also encircles the atrial trabeculae.
In general, the trabecular collagen is more abundant in the atrium than in the ven-
tricle (Figs. 2.3b and 2.7d ). It probably helps to support the atrial architecture.
However, the signi fi cance of this feature in terms of chamber contraction and
distension is unclear.
The sinus venosus is a thin-walled chamber whose composition varies between
species. It is generally described as being formed by muscle and connective tissue.
However, the proportion of the two components appears to vary widely. The sinus
venosus wall may be mostly made up of connective tissue (as in Danio rerio ), of
connective tissue with sparse myocardial bundles (as in Pleuronectes platessa ), or
mostly of myocardium (as in Anguilla anguilla ) (Santer and Cobb 1972 ; Yamauchi
1980 ; Farrell and Jones 1992 ) . To add more variation, the myocardium may be
replaced by smooth muscle cells in other species such as Cyprinus carpio (Yamauchi
1980 ) . The sinus venosus conveys the blood into the atrium from which it is sepa-
rated by the sinus valve (Yamauchi 1980 ) .
An important characteristic of the sinus is that it contains the heart pacemaker. In
most teleosts, the presence of a specialized ring of tissue located at the sinoatrial
region has been identi fi ed as the primary pacemaker region. This area is also densely
50 J.M. Icardo
innervated (Yamauchi 1980 ) . Other components of the cardiac conduction system,
similar to those present in mammals, have not been identi fi ed in the teleost heart.
Despite that an electrocardiogram with P, QRS, and T waves can be recorded
(Satchell
1991 ) , the teleost heart lacks a morphologically de fi ned conduction system
(Nair 1973 ; Sedmera et al. 2003 ) . The absence of a regionalized pattern of connexin
expression in the zebra fi sh (Christie et al. 2004 ) also argues against the presence of
a conduction system in teleosts. It has been suggested that the geometry of the
muscle trabeculae allows for the preferential spread of electrical excitation (Sedmera
et al. 2003 ) , thus being the functional correlate of the His-Purkinje system. The
trabeculae anchored in the AV muscle ring (Fig. 2.7 ) may constitute that preferential
pathway (Sedmera et al. 2003 ; Icardo and Colvee 2011 ) .
Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank L. González and B. Gallardo for technical
assistance.
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