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Training dogs with help of the shock collar: Short and long term behavioural effects

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Abstract

Behavioural effects of the use of a shock collar during guard dog training of German shepherd dogs were studied. Direct reactions of 32 dogs to 107 shocks showed reactions (lowering of body posture, high pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirection aggression, tongue flicking) that suggest stress or fear and pain. Most of these immediate reactions lasted only a fraction of a second. The behaviour of 16 dogs that had received shocks in the recent past (S-dogs) was compared with the behaviour of 15 control dogs that had received similar training but never had received shocks (C-dogs) in order to investigate possible effects of a longer duration. Only training sessions were used in which no shocks were delivered and the behaviour of the dogs (position of body, tail and ears, and stress-, pain- and aggression-related behaviours) was recorded in a way that enabled comparison between the groups. During free walking on the training grounds S-dogs showed a lower ear posture and more stress-related behaviours than C-dogs. During obedience training and during manwork (i.e. excercises with a would-be criminal) the same differences were found. Even a comparison between the behaviour of C-dogs with that of S-dogs during free walking and obedience exercises in a park showed similar differences. Differences between the two groups of dogs existed in spite of the fact that C-dogs also were trained in a fairly harsh way. A comparison between the behaviour during free walking with that during obedience exercises and manwork, showed that during training more stress signals were shown and ear positions were lower. The conclusions, therefore are, that being trained is stressful, that receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs, and that the S-dogs evidently have learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announces reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. This suggests that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owner.

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... Another study aimed to observe the immediate behavioral responses and potential long-term impacts on dogs receiving shocks during training [6]. Of the 46 police or working dogs recruited, 32 received a total of 107 shocks and were observed lowering their ears, yelping, licking their lips, and, for a few dogs, snapping at the handler during different exercises [6]. ...
... Another study aimed to observe the immediate behavioral responses and potential long-term impacts on dogs receiving shocks during training [6]. Of the 46 police or working dogs recruited, 32 received a total of 107 shocks and were observed lowering their ears, yelping, licking their lips, and, for a few dogs, snapping at the handler during different exercises [6]. A total of 15 control and 16 shocked dogs were then observed to compare if there were any behavioral differences between the groups. ...
... A total of 15 control and 16 shocked dogs were then observed to compare if there were any behavioral differences between the groups. Overall, the authors noted that the shocked dogs displayed more stress-related behaviors than the control dogs at the training ground and that the shocked dogs were also more stressed than the control dogs at a park with no association with training, suggesting that their overall welfare was impaired [6]. They also concluded that given the observed behavior, when the dogs were experiencing shock, they were experiencing pain, not just reacting to an irritant [6]. ...
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Controversy surrounds the efficacy and welfare implications of different forms of dog training with several studies asserting that electronic shock collars have negative welfare impacts while not being more effective than non-aversive methods. However, these studies did not specify the schedule and intensity of punishment used or the effectiveness of the training method. In the current study, we attempted to train dogs across six sessions to desist from chasing a fast-moving lure in one of three randomly assigned conditions and then tested for retention and generalization in four further test trials. Group A was trained with e-collars; Group B was trained with non-aversive methods and the lure moving as with Group A; and Group C was trained as for Group B but with the lure initially moving slowly before its speed was progressively increased. All dogs in Group A stopped running towards the lure after one or two sessions, and none chased the lure in the first three tests: 67% of these dogs chased the lure in the final test in a novel arena. None of the dogs in the either Group B or C successfully refrained from chasing the moving lure in training or any test. Video behavior coding indicated few stress-related behaviors across the training groups.
... When designed from a multidisciplinary perspective including cognition, ethology, welfare, and behavior analysis, interventions can modify interactions between animals and their conspecifics or humans [18][19][20][21], resolve unwanted behaviors [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37], temporarily increase enrichment usage, and expand the learner's behavioral repertoire [38] while ensuring good welfare. When an intervention's scope does not consider how the intervention impacts the learner, interventions focus on the elimination of behavior via punishment and aversive control [39], leading to outcomes that include fear, anxiety, pain, stress, aggression, and a negatively impacted dog-handler relationship [18,32,34,[40][41][42][43][44][45]. Effectiveness is important, especially as it pertains to social validity [46][47][48]. ...
... In 2004, Schilder and van der Borg [45] examined the behavioral effects of the use of a shock collar for working guard dog training using Malinois, Malinois cross, German Shepherds, and one Rottweiler. Methods used for training were determined by the trainers, and the authors report that dogs who were not trained with shock were trained with prong collars, beatings, kicks, and choke collar corrections. ...
... In reaction to receiving a shock, dogs demonstrated the following behaviors (in order of decreasing response frequency): lowering their ears, emitting a high-pitched yelp, flicking their tongues, lowering their tails, lifting their front paws, squealing, exhibiting "characteristic head movement" and avoidance behaviors, scream barking, crouching, snapping at their owners, or exhibiting no reaction [45]. After subjecting dogs to six different aversive stimuli, including sound blasts, short electric shocks, and a falling bag while measuring heart rate, salivary cortisol, and behavioral responses, Beerda et al. [201] found that with the exception of very low body posture, which was correlated with elevated salivary cortisol, the correlation between behavioral and physiological stress parameters were not significant. ...
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Simple Summary Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process. Abstract Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... The communication between pet dog and owner Miklosi et al., 2003;Soproni et al., 2001;Viranyi et al., 2004) and the efficiency of some stimuli and their consequences on behaviour (Hiby et al., 2004;Schilder and Van der Borg, 2004) have recently received some attention. Few studies have been conducted on human-animal communication in service dogs (guide-dogs for the blind in Naderi et al., 2001; search dogs in Lit and Crawford, 2005; military working dogs in Lefebvre et al., 2007). ...
... Few studies have been conducted on human-animal communication in service dogs (guide-dogs for the blind in Naderi et al., 2001; search dogs in Lit and Crawford, 2005; military working dogs in Lefebvre et al., 2007). Human-dog communication can be studied through dog training (Schilder and Van der Borg, 2004). In this case, the most usual method of training is operant conditioning: the animal learns that its response to a command (i.e. ...
... Traditional dog training techniques have mainly used aversive stimuli. Though the use of those stimuli can be efficient in some situations (Christiansen et al., 2001), serious negative consequences have been observed: well-being problems (Beerda et al., 1998;Schilder and Van der Borg, 2004) and an increase in the number of behavioural problems (stereotyped behaviour, fear, intra-and inter-specific aggression, Tortora, 1983;Roll and Unshelm, 1997;Hiby et al., 2004). Bibliographic review (e.g. ...
... Reviews have shown that these training techniques not only increase physiological stress markers but also contribute to behavioral issues, such as increased aggression and fearfulness, which can further elevate GC responses. The negative impact of aversive methods underscores the importance of adopting positive reinforcement-based techniques, which have been shown to promote learning and reduce stress without triggering excessive GC secretion [24,25]. coid (GC) levels in working dogs, particularly police dogs. ...
... Reviews have shown that these training techniques not only increase physiological stress markers but also contribute to behavioral issues, such as increased aggression and fearfulness, which can further elevate GC responses. The negative impact of aversive methods underscores the importance of adopting positive reinforcement-based techniques, which have been shown to promote learning and reduce stress without triggering excessive GC secretion [24,25]. Cortisol first enters the cell by diffusing through the plasma membrane and binds to the intracellular glucocorticoid receptor (GR), forming a complex. ...
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Cortisol, an essential glucocorticoid hormone, is crucial in regulating the stress response and maintaining physiological and behavioral homeostasis in mammals, including dogs. This review explores cortisol’s physiological and behavioral role in canines, focusing on its effects on stress, immune function, and metabolism. Various methods of measuring cortisol levels in dogs, invasive (blood, saliva, urine) and non-invasive (hair, fecal assays), are discussed regarding their accuracy and practical applications. The review also highlights the influence of different environmental factors, such as shelter conditions, human interaction, and music, on cortisol levels in dogs. Furthermore, the clinical and behavioral implications of abnormal cortisol levels are examined, with particular attention to conditions like Cushing’s disease and stress-related behavioral issues. The findings emphasize the importance of cortisol monitoring in veterinary practice and animal welfare, proposing future research directions to improve canine health and stress management.
... In sum, the study replicates past findings showing that positive punishment inhibits behaviour in dogs, as it does in other animals. Although aversive training tools are effective, several studies have shown that dogs trained with shock collars experience pain and distress (e.g., Johnson & Wynne, 2024;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004), are less attached to their owners, exhibit more pessimism, and display more stress-related behaviours even in contexts unrelated to shock collar use (Castro et al., 2020;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004;Ziv, 2017). Therefore, aversive training methods are typically opposed by veterinarians and board-certified animal trainers and behaviourists. ...
... In sum, the study replicates past findings showing that positive punishment inhibits behaviour in dogs, as it does in other animals. Although aversive training tools are effective, several studies have shown that dogs trained with shock collars experience pain and distress (e.g., Johnson & Wynne, 2024;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004), are less attached to their owners, exhibit more pessimism, and display more stress-related behaviours even in contexts unrelated to shock collar use (Castro et al., 2020;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004;Ziv, 2017). Therefore, aversive training methods are typically opposed by veterinarians and board-certified animal trainers and behaviourists. ...
... Anecdotally, there is also the possibility of significant misuse by owners who activate the device out of rage [31,33,34]. Moreover, it is argued that the use of shock collars is seen as a "quick fix" for undesirable behaviors when a more thoughtful approach better aligning with learning theory and dog behavior might allow for a more effective and welfare-compatible resolution of undesirable behavior [31,35]. A great deal of research and many welfare organizations discourage the use of shock collars due to their negative welfare implications [31,36]. ...
... Studies have shown that the usage of shock collars corrects "self-rewarding" behaviors by penalizing undesirable behavior in a time-appropriate manner [36,39]. In addition, shock collars are indicated to aid the trainer in teaching dogs alternate behavioral responses, and the usage of these devices has a lower risk of long-term welfare issues than other forms of punishment [35]. Nevertheless, a recent review of the evidence concluded that, overall, shock collars are detrimental to dog welfare [31]. ...
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Simple Summary This research aimed to explore cat and dog owners’ attitudes towards various pet care practices in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ). An online survey was conducted from January to March 2019, and 2358 people responded to the pet care questions. The study revealed that almost all respondents felt that providing adequate housing, regular worming and flea treatments, microchipping, and vaccinations were important pet care practices. Fewer respondents felt that regular veterinary clinic visits were important, and some did not appear to understand that breeding for certain looks causes health problems for animals. Characteristics of pet owners, such as gender, ethnicity, age range, having children, having a rural upbringing, and place of residence, were associated with particular attitudes towards the various practices. Knowing about these factors will help develop strategies that ensure everyone understands what pet care practices are important for responsible pet ownership. Our findings emphasize some of the complexities that underlie NZ pet owners’ attitudes and opinions towards various pet care practices. The findings underscore the need for additional research, culturally appropriate and effective educational resources, and customized strategies to encourage responsible pet care to ensure animals, along with their owners, live good lives. Abstract This research aimed to explore cat and dog owners’ attitudes and opinions towards various pet care practices in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ), and determine what factors were associated with them. An online survey composed of both closed and open-ended questions was administered from January to March 2019. A total of 2358 respondents answered the questions on pet care practices. Of these, 37.5 percent (n = 885) were both dog and cat owners, 28.0 percent (n = 652) were cat owners, and 26.0 percent (n = 609) were dog owners, while 9% (n = 212) of respondents did not own a cat or dog at the time of taking the survey. The study revealed that most respondents (>90%) acknowledge the importance of providing adequate housing, regular worming and flea treatments, microchipping, and vaccinations for their pets. Notably, demographic factors such as gender, ethnicity, age range, having children, having a rural upbringing, and place of residence influenced owners’ attitudes, with those towards cat care practices varying more than those for dogs. The study highlights the need for responsible pet ownership interventions considering these demographic factors. The study identifies a knowledge gap among pet owners concerning the importance of regular veterinary visits and the impact of breeding for certain looks on animal welfare. The use of shock collar devices provoked varying opinions on their usage for training and behavior modification. The study suggests that enhancing pet owners’ knowledge is pivotal for responsible pet ownership. Overall, the findings emphasize the need for tailored interventions that account for demographic variations for promoting responsible pet ownership and animal welfare. The findings underscore the importance of improving access to veterinary health care teams, especially in rural areas, and of providing culturally appropriate education resources for both pet owners and veterinary health care teams.
... Moreover, actions that keepers consider to be aversive for dogs may not necessarily be effective and may be harmful to them. Several studies have suggested that the use of aversive actions may compromise the welfare of dogs and even cause an increase in problematic behaviors (e.g., Blackwell, Twells, Seawright, & Casey, 2008;Cooper, Cracknell, Hardiman, Wright, & Mills, 2014;Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014;Hiby et al., 2004;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004). In this study, we asked keepers which behaviors they used when trying to correct undesirable behaviors of their dogs, with some occurring in the keeper's presence and others occurring without the keeper's knowledge of them. ...
... Thus, it is helpful to explain to keepers what can be considered a correction and, more importantly, what is most appropriate for their specific dog and does not impair the dog's welfare. This is even more relevant considering that several studies have recommended that dog keepers avoid corrections to prevent undesired behaviors and foster canine welfare (e.g., Blackwell et al., 2008;Cooper, Cracknell, Hardiman, Wright, & Mills, 2014;Deldalle, & Gaunet, 2014;Hiby et al., 2004;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004). One review has suggested that the use of aversive actions can in fact compromise both the mental and physical health of dogs (Ziv, 2017), but another indicated that strong conclusions cannot be made from the limited studies examining the effects of aversive actions (Fernandes, Olsson, & de Castro, 2017). ...
Article
This study investigated how keepers report correcting their dogs' undesired behaviors by using what they consider to be aversive to them. Over 60,000 dog keepers responded to an online questionnaire addressing this issue. The questionnaire included the frequencies of delayed corrections of perceived signs of previously occurring undesired behaviors, the type of aversive actions applied (independently of correction timing), and the frequencies of specific canine behaviors that the keepers sought to correct. Based on results, correcting undesired behaviors of dogs that occurred some time ago is frequently reported, and the most common corrections are not necessarily effective in reducing these undesired behaviors. Moreover, keepers commonly use aversive actions to correct dogs' urination/defecation in inappropriate places or destruction of objects, but they do not commonly do so for excessive barking or incorrectly responding to a cue.
... Traditionally, working dog training has relied on the use of punitive methods, shown to be associated with poorer operational performance and compromised welfare. 38,39 Accordingly, modern working dog training has largely shifted away from the use of aversives. 24 The use of compulsion-based training may be a function of the dog's role, such as protection dogs trained for bite-work that are resistant to releasing their grip. ...
... 24 The use of compulsion-based training may be a function of the dog's role, such as protection dogs trained for bite-work that are resistant to releasing their grip. 39 However, Haverbeke and coworkers 40 found that training sessions that included positive dog-handler interactions led to better performance for military working dogs (MWDs), and recommend avoiding the use of aversive methods by conducting more frequent and reward-based training to improve obedience and the dog-handler relationship. For example, the authors suggested training dogs to perform behaviors more compatible with the desired outcomes, such as releasing a bite in exchange for a different "decoy" target. ...
Article
Individual differences in behavior lead to wide variability in working dog suitability, and are the primary reason for rejection or early release. Behavioral suitability of a working dog is shaped by interactions with its environment during early development and specialized training. Understanding how aspects of development and training affect a working dog's performance is critical for practitioners to effectively evaluate and treat behavioral concerns in working dogs. This article provides an overview of critical aspects of puppy development that influence future behavior, and reviews important features of training that influence a dog's ability to learn and perform its designated task.
... Studies have pointed to human influences on dogs' learning processes. Although some studies have found no effect of training method on the behavior or welfare of animals [25], some have raised evidence that the use of punitive methods in training may, for instance, affect a dog's ability to learn a new task [26], or increase their stress levels (e.g., [27,28]). A dog's ability to attend to a cue may also be influenced by the vocal information the trainer includes before the cue (e.g., saying the dog's name or an unknown word [29]); even if the dog is familiar with the cue, this vocal information may reduce the dog's performance. ...
... An alternative interpretation for these associations was that the trainers behaved more positively (i.e., using neutral or gentle tones of voice) in sessions when the dogs performed better. However, considering the fact that we also recorded reproachful speech used in tandem with good dog performance, and considering studies which have reported the effects of human behavior on their responses (e.g., [26][27][28][30][31][32]), we think this interpretation is improbable. Different emotional responses of dogs to interactions with humans have been demonstrated to be dependent on human behavior/attitude. ...
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The inclusion of life history as a possible influential factor is pivotal in studies on behavior, welfare, and cognition. Shelter dogs have usually experienced a life involving poor social interactions with humans. Thus, we aimed to investigate the behavioral responses of shelter dogs (SDs) and companion dogs (CDs) during the training of two vocal cues (“sit”, “paw”), as well as the possible associations between their responses and the behaviors of trainers. We studied 15 SDs and 15 CDs in up to eight five-minute training sessions. Dogs’ and trainers’ behaviors were recorded and analyzed (through GLM, GLMM, correlation and Mann–Whitney tests). Shelter dogs responded to more cues per session, with shorter latencies and fewer repetitions of cues. Moreover, SDs spent more time wagging their tails. Dogs’ sex and trainers’ behaviors were also associated with differences in dogs’ responses. The use of a reproachful tone of voice was associated with a greater number of cues responded to, shorter latencies, and fewer repetitions of cues. However, this type voice/discourse was also linked to a greater exhibition of non-training behaviors (e.g., exploring the room or jumping on the trainer), and to dogs spending less time next to the trainer and wagging their tails. On the other hand, the use of a neutral tone of voice and laughter, besides being linked to performance, was also associated with longer durations of tail wagging. Furthermore, the duration of the trainers’ orientation to dogs was correlated with the orientation of the dogs to the trainers. Our data suggest that, even when having experienced social deprivation from humans, SDs’ capacities to learn vocal cues were preserved, possibly due to ontogenic homeostasis processes. Shelter dogs’ greater interest in the sessions may be also credited to their socially-deprived routine. Our outcomes also point to an association between friendly interactions during training and dog performance and excitement, which suggests that such interactions may have the potential to improve SD welfare.
... The importance of a preceding acoustic cue that indicates the virtual fence has also been demonstrated in previous studies. In the absence of this warning, animals show helplessness and confusion (Lee et al., 2018), which can lead to location-based associations of the EP (Markus et al., 2014;Marini et al., 2019) or even induce misbehavior such as fear or aggression, as has been observed in dogs (Schilder and van der Borg, 2004;Blackwell et al., 2012). ...
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Virtual fencing (VF) enables livestock grazing without physical fences by conditioning animals to a virtual boundary delimited with an audio tone (AT) and an electric pulse (EP). The present study followed the adaptation process of lactating dairy cows to a VF system with changing virtual boundaries and investigated its impact on animal welfare. Twenty cows were divided into stratified groups (2× VF; 2× electric fencing, EF) of five individuals. Each group grazed half-days in a separate EF paddock of comparable size during 3 d of acclimation (P0), followed by 21, 14, 14, and 7 d of experimental treatment (P1 to P4). At the start of the trial, all cows were equipped with an IceQube pedometer (Peacock Technology Ltd, Stirling, UK) and a VF collar (Nofence AS, Batnfjordsøra, Norway). During P0, cows were accustomed to their first paddock with a deactivated virtual boundary and wearing the sensors. In P1 to P4, an active virtual boundary for the VF groups, and a second EF for the EF groups was set up parallel to an outer EF within their paddock. Throughout the trial, the sensors continuously tracked cow positions and activity behavior at 15-min intervals. From P1 onwards, the VF collars additionally recorded each AT and EP per cow with a georeferenced time stamp. During P0 to P4, daily feed intake, body weight, and milk yield were recorded in the barn. A total of 26 milk samples were collected per cow to determine milk cortisol levels. Behavioral observations were conducted for 2 h on day 23 to record agonistic behaviors, vocalizations, and excretions. The total number of stimuli per cow ranged from 37 to 225 ATs (mean ± SD: 1.9 ± 3.3 per day) and 3 to 11 EPs (mean ± SD: 0.1 ± 0.7 per day) throughout the trial. The maximum number of EPs per day was 8 for an individual cow and occurred once on D1. Mean EP/AT decreased by 55% during the first three half-days of grazing and with each paddock change from 0.2 EP/AT in week 1 to 0.03, 0.02, and 0 EP/AT in weeks 4, 6, and 8, respectively. Linear and generalized mixed effects models revealed that milk yield and cortisol, feed intake, body weight, and activity and lying behavior did not significantly differ between VF and EF groups. A higher number of agonistic behaviors were observed in the VF groups when the VF system was activated. However, due to the short observation periods only few contacts were observed in total. Overall, all cows adapted to the VF system without evidence of lasting adverse effects on animal welfare.
... As well as training chimpanzees using positive reinforcement to feed without fighting, or to come to the required place on command. With the help of positive reinforcement keeper can reach various benefits including improved welfare by fewer behavioural indicators of stress (Schilder & van der Borg 2004, Perlman et al. 2012, Deldalle & Gaunet 2014, fear and anxiety (Burrows et al. 2021). Voluntary cooperation (Crowell-Davis 2008) and improved husbandry and handling with a reduction of intra-and inter-specific aggression, including those towards keepers (Desmond & Laule 1994). ...
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What if there was a tool that would help you work with your animals, improve their husbandry, manage and coordinate them, and to learn their needs. The only point would be to understand animals‘ behaviour. This article discusses the learning process called operant conditioning, including the concept of reinforcers, and helps to understand the phenomena of animal training and its benefits. The purpose of operant conditioning is to maintain the behaviour of the subject with the use of reinforcement. Therefore, everything we do in day-to-day life as a response to animal behaviour is considered operant conditioning. The model of operant conditioning used in the zoo industry is called positive reinforcement training and there is a variety of benefits in its development. Animals in human care need to be often handled and subjected to a wide range of procedures. Therefore, it is desirable to perform these procedures in the least invasive way possible. With the use of positive reinforcement training the less invasive techniques to husbandry protocols are applied as animals are more likely to cooperate voluntarily. It also diminishes stress on the animals, reduces the use of anaesthesia, mitigates social problems, aids in introductions, reduces abnormal behaviour, provides mental stimulation, enhances enrichment programs, and increases the safety of attending personnel. Through positive reinforcement training animals learn to voluntarily participate in husbandry and medical behaviours and avoid the stress associated with capture or restraint. Implementing positive reinforcement training methods in animal care and management can dramatically affect the quality of animal‘s life.
... During the assessment, the situations when the dog most often barks (eliciting factors) should also be analyzed, as well as the acoustic parameters and unique characteristics of the barking event. In this way, humane corrective measures could be implemented to possibly avoid drastic solutions that involve negative consequences for the dog and its owner [65]. ...
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Background Barks play an important role in interspecific communication between dogs and humans, by allowing a reliable perception of the inner state of dogs for human listeners. However, there is growing concern in society regarding the nuisance that barking dogs cause to the surrounding inhabitants. We assumed that at least in part, this nuisance effect can be explained by particular communicative functions of dog barks. In this study we experimentally tested two separate hypotheses concerning how the content of dog barks could affect human listeners. According to the first hypothesis, barks that convey negative inner states, would especially cause stress in human listeners due to the process called interspecific empathy. Based on the second hypothesis, alarm-type dog barks cause particularly strong stress in the listener, by capitalizing on their specific acoustic makeup (high pitch, low tonality) that resembles to the parameters of a baby’s cry. We tested 40 healthy, young adult males in a double-blind placebo controlled experiment, where participants received either intranasal oxytocin or placebo treatment. After an incubation period, they had to evaluate the (1) perceived emotions (happiness, fear and aggression), that specifically created dog bark sequences conveyed to them; and (2) score the annoyance level these dog barks elicited in them. Results We found that oxytocin treatment had a sensitizing effect on the participants’ reactions to negative valence emotions conveyed by dog barks, as they evaluated low fundamental frequency barks with higher aggression scores than the placebo-treated participants did. On the other hand, oxytocin treatment attenuated the annoyance that noisy (atonal) barks elicited from the participants. Conclusions Based on these results, we provide first-hand evidence that dog barks provide information to humans (which may also cause stress) in a dual way: through specific attention-grabbing functions and through emotional understanding.
... The importance of a preceding acoustic cue that indicates the virtual fence has also been demonstrated in previous studies. In the absence of this warning, animals show helplessness and confusion (Lee et al., 2018), which can lead to location-based associations of the EP (Markus et al., 2014;Marini et al., 2019) or even induce misbehavior such as fear or aggression, as has been observed in dogs (Schilder and van der Borg, 2004;Blackwell et al., 2012). ...
Article
Virtual fencing (VF) enables livestock grazing without physical fences by conditioning animals to an audio tone (AT) followed by an electric pulse (EP) that is up to 25 times weaker than conventional electric fencing (EF). However, the operating principle of a virtual fencing system raises concerns about animal welfare. Therefore, the present study investigated the learning process of dairy cows in a virtual fencing environment and its effects on animal behavior and welfare. Twenty lactating cows were divided into four groups of five individuals each (2x VF; 2x EF), balanced by lactation stage (203 ± 62 days) and age (3.7 ± 1.5 lactations). All cows were accustomed to daily grazing with EF but were naïve to VF. Each group grazed in a separate paddock for 3 days of acclimation (P0) and 21, 14, 14, and 7 days of experimental treatment (P1-4). All paddocks were electrically fenced, and of similar vegetation structure and botanical composition. During P1-P4, a virtual boundary was activated within each paddock of the VF groups, and a second electric fence was set up within each paddock of the EF groups to maintain comparable paddock sizes. All cows were fitted with a VF collar (Nofence AS, Batnfjordsøra, Norway) and an IceQube pedometer (Peacock Technology Ltd, Stirling, UK). The sensors continuously tracked cow positions, the daily numbers of AT and EP, and activity behavior, respectively. Throughout P0-P4, daily milk yield, feed intake, and body weight were recorded. A total of 26 milk samples were collected per cow to determine milk cortisol concentrations. Behavioral observations were conducted for 2 h on 23 days to record agonistic behaviors, vocalizations, and excretions. During P1-P4, each cow received an average of 1.9 ± 3.3 AT and 0.1 ± 0.7 EP per day. The total number of stimuli ranged from 37 to 225 AT and 3 to 11 EP per cow throughout the experimental period, indicating individual variations in learning (P < 0.003). Within the first three days after virtual fence activation, most cows learned the concept of the VF system. The conditioning of the cows was successful at herd level after three repetitions at a new virtual boundary, reflected by a decreasing ratio of mean EP/AT from 20 to 3, 2, and 0 % with each paddock change. Milk yield and cortisol, feed intake, body weight, and cow activity did not differ between VF and EF groups. Overall, there were a mean of 11.2 vocalizations and 5.9 displacements more per cow in the VF groups (P < 0.05), but similar across P0-P4. Our results suggest that learning the virtual fencing system did not lead to lasting adverse effects on cow welfare.
... Cattle Bos taurus and sheep Ovis aries learn to avoid the electric shock from AGDs after just a few attempts to cross virtual fences (Lee et al., 2009;Marini et al., 2018), and these devices are now commercially available for use on livestock (Goliński et al., 2023). However, aversive conditioning with electric shock has been frequently debated, with some studies showing unacceptable welfare impacts on animals (China et al., 2020;Schilder and van der Borg, 2004;Ziv, 2017). Therefore, despite its effectiveness, concerns remain about the welfare impact of using such tools on animals. ...
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Animal-borne aversive geofencing devices (AGDs, or satellite-linked shock collars) are commercially available and used on livestock to restrict their movement within a virtual boundary. This technology has potential application as a human-wildlife conflict mitigation tool, where problem animals might be conditioned to avoid human-dominated habitats by associating an audio warning with a subsequent electric shock, which is delivered if the audio warning is ignored. Ensuring that high standards of animal welfare are maintained when implementing such tools is important for acquiring manager and community acceptance of such approaches. We conducted two pilot experiments with eight captive Asian elephants using mild electric shocks from a modified dogtraining collar fitted around the neck, as part of an ongoing effort to develop AGDs suitable for mitigating human-elephant conflict. As part of these experiments, we assessed elephants' behavioural and physiological stress before, during and after our experiments. During the experiments elephants wore collars up to nine consecutive days and received a small number of electric shocks on 1–3 consecutive days. Bootstrapped principal component analysis showed that daily activity budgets of individual elephants on experiment days were not different to the pre-experiment days. Generalised linear mixed-effect model (GLMM) showed that anxiety/stress behaviours increased on the first day of acclimatising to the collar and on testing days (i.e. days they received shocks) of the first experiment, but not during the second experiment relative to pre-experiment days. Analysis of faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentrations using GLMM showed that FCM concentrations were higher in samples collected ~24 hrs and ~48 hrs after testing days compared to baseline levels as expected given the lag time for excretion of cortisol metabolites. These elevated anxiety/stress behaviours and FCM concentrations returned to baseline levels shortly after the experiment. Therefore, we conclude that AGDs did not produce lasting behavioural or physiological stress effects in elephants during this short term study but recommend further studies with a larger sample of elephants to confirm the transferability of these findings.
... In the GM method, the landmarks in space and their coordinates are analyzed, and when the markers are positioned on the horse's back, neck, and head, these landmarks refer to mentioned parts of the body [13,19,22]. As GM is focused not only on certain parts of the body but on the overall position of the body in space [13,19,23,24], recent research has applied GM to measuring several angles between different body parts [13,25,26], making measurements of animals posture less subjective and more adequate [13,19,23,[27][28][29]. In this study, the effect of three basic massage techniques (dorsal, ventral, and dorso-ventral) on a dorsal line of a horse's body was compared using the GM method. ...
Article
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Since interest in equine manual therapy and rehabilitation is constantly growing, the need for quantification of the horse’s postural response to used alternative therapy has increased. This study implemented geometric morphometrics (GM) for a dorsal profile comparison between the horse groups. The dorsal profile was represented by the centroid size and the centroid shape. The horse groups were defined using four classifiers: horse’s age, height at the withers, time lap in the massage session, and technique of the massage (dorsal, ventral, and dorso–ventral). Out of a total of 900 photographs of 20 horses, 180 photos were analyzed using GM, including thirty landmarks. Variation of the principal components (PCs) representing consecutive dorsal profiles were reported for the first three PSs as 59.50% for PC1, 14.36% for PC2, and 9.01% for PC3. The dorsal profiles differed depending on the classifier ‘height’ in terms of centroid size (p < 0.0001) as well as classifier ‘time’ (p < 0.0001) and classifier ‘technique’ (p < 0.0001) in terms of centroid shape, but not depending on the classifier ‘age’ (p > 0.05). GM allows visualizing the differences in the horses’ posture resulting from the selected manual rehabilitation techniques. The quantification of the horse’s body posture in the studied protocol indicates horses’ body posture after being warmed-up and massaged using the dorso–ventral technique is the most desirable.
... Masson et al. (2018) found that empirical evidence does not exist to support the use of E-collars, rather, many reasons exist not to use them, supported by empirical evidence. E-collars can induce pain, fear, anxiety, distress (Schilder & Van Der Borg, 2004), aggression (Polsky, 2000), phobias, learned helplessness (Seligman & Maier, 1967) and a deterioration of the human-dog bond. ...
Article
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Abstract The popularity of puppies/dogs as companions/playmates/walking buddies was highlighted in Ireland with COVID-19 restrictions in March/2020, when the demand for puppies/dogs increased as people were confined to within 2/km of their homes. However, what was the rational supporting this trend, the influences/research undertaken by prospective owners? Two online-surveys were conducted, targeting veterinarians and behaviorists to establish motivation/attitude to owning dogs and behavioral issues being presented. Interviews by phone were conducted with the Dublin Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Dog’s Trust and three Italian shelters for comparison purposes, to investigate the welfare of dogs during restrictions. An Garda Síochána (the National Police Service of Ireland) were contacted, to clarify the situation, in relation to dog theft and domestic abuse, which is strongly associated with animal abuse. Many factors may have influenced/impacted the epigenetic development of the behavior and resulting welfare of puppies/dogs, during this period.
... Malgré les controverses autour du sujet, particulièrement sur leur nom d'apaisement , on constate que, dans le livre de Rugaas et al. (2009) consacré aux signaux d'apaisement, la majorité d'entre eux correspondent à des comportements de stress dans la littérature comme le bâillement, le détournement de regard ou de tête, le pourléchage de babines, le fait de lever une patte Overall, 2018;Pastore et al., 2011;Schilder & van der Borg, 2004;Tod et al., 2005). ...
Thesis
La majorité des recherches sur la médiation animale se sont concentrées sur la validation des bénéfices de cette pratique pour la santé humaine en excluant le potentiel impact négatif de ce travail pour les chiens impliqués. Au sein de plusieurs recherches abordant les caractéristiques de la médiation animale, les représentations des intervenants sur leur pratique et le bien-être de leur chien ainsi qu’une étude de terrain, nous avons étudié les facteurs de risque pour le bien-être des chiens en médiation animale. Le premier chapitre montre que la médiation animale est une pratique hétérogène en tant qu’approche interspécifique complémentaire à d’autres prises en charge, mais qu’il est possible d’en faire une première catégorisation entre une spécialisation de professionnels du soin et une profession à part entière. Le deuxième chapitre suggère une place centrale de l’intervenant dans la sélection et le bien-être de son chien. En outre, l’interrogation des intervenants souligne la nécessité d’une prise en compte du bien-être des chiens en médiation animale à travers : l’environnement de travail, les interactions avec les bénéficiaires et l’intervenant lui-même. Le troisième chapitre pointe la nécessité d’une attention particulière sur les interactions entre les chiens et les bénéficiaires mais aussi avec l’intervenant lors des séances de médiation animale. De futures études sont nécessaires pour étudier les facteurs de risque pour le bien-être des chien en médiation animale en adoptant de nouvelles méthodologies interdisciplinaires et collaboratives.
... Por su parte, en la literatura se ha revisado en profundidad el proceso de aprendizaje canino como un aspecto de interés (Tolman, 1925;Mackintosh, 1974;Dickinson, 1980); (Castro & Wasserman, 2010); (Pearce, 2013); no obstante, los dispositivos de entrenamiento como apoyo para lograr conductas deseadas han sido controvertidos, entre estos el collar electrónico Hughes, 2003); (Schalke et al., 2007), que genera estrés y conductas no deseadas (Schilder & Van der Borg, 2004); además, las características técnicas difieren según marcas y modelos, lo que hace aún más difícil el proceso de entrenamiento (Lines et al., 2013;Riepl, 2013). En contraposición, algunos autores, como Salgrili Rev. Crim. ...
Article
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El entrenamiento de los caninos de trabajo emplea diversos mecanismos de condicionamiento, los cuales permiten un rendimiento posterior superior, contrarrestando el sistema de drogas ilícitas, las organizaciones criminales, los grupos armados organizados (GAO) y residuales (GAOr), garantizando la seguridad y convivencia ciudadana en Colombia. Por lo anterior, se propone un enfoque cualitativo empleando una revisión sistemática de la literatura, con el objetivo de analizar el rol de la tecnología y aparatos para adiestrar caninos detectores, entre los años 2000 y 2020 dentro de las bases de datos Scopus, Elsevier y Scielo. Como resultados, se observa un aumento en la producción de artículos entre los años 2000 y 2019 (pasando de seis artículos a 86, respectivamente). Además, dentro de las herramientas empleadas en los estudios se encuentran las cajas; clickers; collares electrónicos y carruseles, los cuales discriminan el olor, utilizando sistemas de refuerzo, con diferencias dependiendo del tipo de estudio, el número de animales y el objetivo de entrenamiento. Como conclusión, es necesario desarrollar prototipos adecuados según las necesidades de entrenamiento en cada contexto, continuando con estudios que integren efectivamente los estímulos y los sistemas de recompensa para impactar los resultados en el rendimiento del perro de trabajo.
... Por su parte, en la literatura se ha revisado en profundidad el proceso de aprendizaje canino como un aspecto de interés (Tolman, 1925;Mackintosh, 1974;Dickinson, 1980); (Castro & Wasserman, 2010); (Pearce, 2013); no obstante, los dispositivos de entrenamiento como apoyo para lograr conductas deseadas han sido controvertidos, entre estos el collar electrónico Hughes, 2003); (Schalke et al., 2007), que genera estrés y conductas no deseadas (Schilder & Van der Borg, 2004); además, las características técnicas difieren según marcas y modelos, lo que hace aún más difícil el proceso de entrenamiento (Lines et al., 2013;Riepl, 2013). En contraposición, algunos autores, como Salgrili et al. (2012), defienden su utilidad afirmando que contribuyen significativamente a la corrección de comportamientos de forma más efectiva que otros dispositivos similares. ...
Article
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Over its fifty years of established existence beginning in 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has expounded its consolidated and integrated model in political relations, economic developments, and cultural values. However, confronted by threats to global security, ASEAN has also faced the complex impacts of transnational narcotics trafficking (TransNT). The study uses grey literature as secondary data to illustrate the current situations of TransNT in Southeast Asia by way of examining drug trafficking starting from the original countries (Myanmar) through the transit points (Vietnam) to final destination countries (Malaysia). Besides reviewing more than four decades of collaboration, the paper analyses ASEAN’s milestones in building its cooperative mechanism and assesses its institutional framework for combatting TransNT with specific initiatives. The study notes the main barriers and practical challenges that constrain the process of regional cooperation. Some brief recommendations are also suggested for further research in the near future to enhance regional cooperation in combatting transnational crimes.
... In the absence of access to water or food, the dog may search for them in inappropriate places such as toilets or garbage cans. Strengthening inappropriate feeding behaviors (including the speed of food, amount of food given, bowl positioning, etc.) can lead to stomach twists, choking, aggression, fighting for food and defending the bowl, stress, and asking for food [22,[57][58][59][60]. ...
Article
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Aggression as a behavior is not always desirable, often ends in abandonment and/or euthanasia. However, it is possible to prevent the occurrence of unwanted aggression in domestic dogs. Aggression is not a fully understood phenomenon. In recent years, many studies have focused on the influence of diet and physiology (including the endocrine system) on the emergence of behavioral disorders. In particular, the emphasis was put on nutritional additives such as fatty acids, amino acids, and probiotics. In addition, the possibility of using neurocognition in the observation of abnormal behavior in dogs has also been discussed, which may allow for a more detailed determination of the basis of aggressive behavior in dogs. In this review, the concepts related to aggression and its potential causes have been gathered. In addition, the possible influence of diet and hormones on aggression in dogs has been discussed, as well as the application of neurocognition in the possibility of its diagnosis
... Masson et al. (2018) found that empirical evidence does not exist to support the use of E-collars, rather, many reasons exist not to use them, supported by empirical evidence. E-collars can induce pain, fear, anxiety, distress (Schilder & Van Der Borg, 2004), aggression (Polsky, 2000), phobias, learned helplessness (Seligman & Maier, 1967) and a deterioration of the human-dog bond. ...
Article
Abstract Horses form an integral part of Irish culture and heritage. COVID-19 restrictions have created challenges for living generally and for those who own and care-take animals. It is envisaged that risks may arise for equine welfare and many factors may contribute to it. The “Five Freedoms” have formed the basis for animal welfare legislation however, the “Five Domains Model” has progressed to provide a robust model built on scientific research. With advances in research and knowledge, welfare may be measured both physiologically and behaviourally. This study sought to investigate the impact, if any of COVID-19, on the welfare of sport and leisure horses in Ireland. An online survey was conducted to gather data regarding the welfare of sport and leisure horses in Ireland during COVID-19 restrictions. There were several positive findings and the majority of respondents (n = 69) felt that COVID-19 restrictions did not negatively affect the welfare of their horses.
... An ethogram for aggression (biting and threatening aggressions, Netto and Planta, 1997, Table 1) and the dog's posture (Beerda et al., 1998, Table 2) were used. Only the highest level of aggression (Netto and Planta, 1997) and the dog's lowest posture (Schilder and Van der Borg, 2004) during each ST were scored. ...
... Dog behavior included number of times dogs were distracted, body posture after first appetitive and first aversive stimulus, and trainingrelated behaviors (mouth-licking, tongue out, yawning, lifting front paw, replacement behavior, jumping, opening and closing mouth) [39,56]. Body posture, defined as high, neutral, half-low, low, or very low (described by [56]) was observed for 3 seconds, and the lowest observed position was scored as an event [39,56,57]. Observations were repeated after a 20-day period, with no training occurring during that period, to evaluate reliability of observations. ...
... There are also some indications that the use of more aversive methods of training have direct impacts on the welfare of dogs. For example, German Shepherds trained with electronic ("shock") collars were shown to display more behavioural signs of fear towards their handlers than those trained with other methods 12 , and dogs showed increases in cortisol when handlers tended to use discipline during interactions as compared to engaging in more affiliative play 13 . However, there are often difficulties in interpreting behavioural and physiological indicators of welfare, particularly when single indicators are used. ...
Article
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Domestic dogs are trained using a range of different methods, broadly categorised as reward based (positive reinforcement/negative punishment) and aversive based (positive punishment/negative reinforcement). Previous research has suggested associations between use of positive punishment-based techniques and undesired behaviours, but there is little research investigating the relative welfare consequences of these different approaches. This study used a judgement bias task to compare the underlying mood state of dogs whose owners reported using two or more positive punishment/negative reinforcement based techniques, with those trained using only positive reinforcement/negative punishment in a matched pair study design. Dogs were trained to discriminate between rewarded and unrewarded locations equidistant from a start box, and mean latencies recorded. Their subsequent latency to intermediate ‘ambiguous’ locations was recorded as an indication of whether these were perceived as likely to contain food or not. Dogs trained using aversive methods were slower to all ambiguous locations. This difference was significant for latency to the middle (Wilcoxon Z = − 2.380, P = 0.017), and near positive (Wilcoxon Z = − 2.447, P = 0.014) locations, suggesting that dogs trained using coercive methods may have a more negative mood state, and hence that there are welfare implications of training dogs using such methods.
... During the training sessions, the dogs' owners were instructed about the risks of the use of punishment, confrontational methods, choke collars, and negative reinforcement. Consequently, the welfare of these dogs was less likely to be negatively affected, and similarly, the bond between owner and dog was strengthened (Blackwell et al., 2008;Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014;Grohmann et al., 2013;Herron et al., 2009;Schilder and van der Borg, 2004). The attendance at puppy socialization classes has been related to a higher retention at home (Duxbury et al., 2003) as it facilitates dog-owner coexistence. ...
Chapter
These proceedings contain oral and poster presentations from various experts on animal behaviour and animal welfare in veterinary medicine presented at the conference.
... The antagonistic ventral movement of the ear pinnae, Ears downward, as well as Ears flattener were more common in the negative condition. The Ears flattener (i.e., backwardsdirected ears) has been suggested to be associated with appeasement, submission, fear, anxiety, and stress in dogs (although empirical evidence supporting these functions is not always provided) (e.g., Beerda et al. 1998;Firnkes et al. 2017;Flint et al. 2018;Gähwiler et al. 2020;Landsberg et al. 2015;Schilder and Van Der Borg 2004;Siniscalchi et al. 2018;Tami and Gallagher 2009). Therefore, the available evidence suggests that flattened ears are frequently associated with negatively valenced states, and thus, this expression could be suitable for developing indicators of negative emotions in dogs. ...
Article
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Facial expressions potentially serve as indicators of animal emotions if they are consistently present across situations that (likely) elicit the same emotional state. In a previous study, we used the Dog Facial Action Coding System (DogFACS) to identify facial expressions in dogs associated with conditions presumably eliciting positive anticipation (expectation of a food reward) and frustration (prevention of access to the food). Our first aim here was to identify facial expressions of positive anticipation and frustration in dogs that are context-independent (and thus have potential as emotion indicators) and to distinguish them from expressions that are reward-specific (and thus might relate to a motivational state associated with the expected reward). Therefore, we tested a new sample of 28 dogs with a similar set-up designed to induce positive anticipation (positive condition) and frustration (negative condition) in two reward contexts: food and toys. The previous results were replicated: Ears adductor was associated with the positive condition and Ears flattener, Blink, Lips part, Jaw drop, and Nose lick with the negative condition. Four additional facial actions were also more common in the negative condition. All actions except the Upper lip raiser were independent of reward type. Our second aim was to assess basic measures of diagnostic accuracy for the potential emotion indicators. Ears flattener and Ears downward had relatively high sensitivity but low specificity, whereas the opposite was the case for the other negative correlates. Ears adductor had excellent specificity but low sensitivity. If the identified facial expressions were to be used individually as diagnostic indicators, none would allow consistent correct classifications of the associated emotion. Diagnostic accuracy measures are an essential feature for validity assessments of potential indicators of animal emotion.
... Incidental effects from the use of aversives have been documented in the basic research literature, such as elicited conspecific aggression (153), fear of punishment associated stimuli (154), and substantial suppression of all behavior within a punishment context (39,154,155). Growing applied literature with dogs highlights that positive reinforcement based training is effective and the use of aversives can have negative welfare side effects for the dog (156)(157)(158)(159)(160)(161). This highlights the need to further consider not only how to motivate working dog behavior (e.g., does the dog engage in the behavior to receive a reward or to avoid a correction), but also which methods produce the best performance and welfare outcomes for working dogs. ...
Article
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Dogs are trained for a variety of working roles including assistance, protection, and detection work. Many canine working roles, in their modern iterations, were developed at the turn of the 20th century and training practices have since largely been passed down from trainer to trainer. In parallel, research in psychology has advanced our understanding of animal behavior, and specifically canine learning and cognition, over the last 20 years; however, this field has had little focus or practical impact on working dog training. The aims of this narrative review are to (1) orient the reader to key advances in animal behavior that we view as having important implications for working dog training, (2) highlight where such information is already implemented, and (3) indicate areas for future collaborative research bridging the gap between research and practice. Through a selective review of research on canine learning and behavior and training of working dogs, we hope to combine advances from scientists and practitioners to lead to better, more targeted, and functional research for working dogs.
... A number of studies have also highlighted the link between aversive training methods and signs of negative emotional states in dogs. For example, dogs trained by military dog handlers had a significantly lower body posture, associated with anxiety and appeasement (Schilder and Van Der Borg, 2004), after the use of aversive methods like pulling on the lead and verbal scolding compared to following reward-based methods like physical praise (Haverbeke et al., 2008). Sound blasts, like those used as a tool for correcting unwanted behaviour, have been shown to produce physiological stress responses in dogs (Beerda et al., 1998). ...
Article
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The majority of owners use rewards (e.g. treats and praise) when training their dogs. However, many additionally use aversive methods (e.g. physical reprimands, sound/spray distractions) which can compromise the welfare of dogs. The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with owner-reported use of aversive training methods. A study was conducted using data provided by owners living in the UK or Republic of Ireland participating in a longitudinal study (‘Generation Pup’). Data from a registration questionnaire completed when puppies were ≤16 weeks of age, and a follow-up questionnaire completed when dogs were nine-months of age were analysed. Responses to questions about owners’ intended/actual use of different training methods at each time point were grouped into two categories. ‘Reward only’ training: positive reinforcement (PR; increasing behaviour through application of rewarding stimulus) and/or negative punishment (NP; decreasing behaviour through removal of rewarding stimulus), and’ reward and aversive’ training: >2 methods of positive punishment (PP; decreasing behaviour by application of aversive stimulus) and/or negative reinforcement (NR; increasing behaviour through removal of aversive stimulus). Associations between training approach (’reward only’ / ‘reward and aversive’) and potential owner-related risk factors were modelled using multivariable logistic regression. Data from 2,154 owners at registration were collected, and a follow-up questionnaire for 9-month-old dogs were completed by 976 owners. At registration, 99.7% of owners reported their intention to use PR and/or NP, and 84.1% intended to use PP and/or NR. At 9 months, 99.7% of owners reported using PR and/or NP, and 74.2% used PP and/or NR. Data were available for 161 owners at both time points, of which 80% reported the same training approach in both questionnaires. At 9 months, not attending training or puppy classes in the previous 2-months (Odds Ratio = 3.16, 95% Confidence Interval = 2.18-4.59, P < 0.001), and not having dog-related employment (Odds Ratio = 2.70, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.53-4.77, P = 0.001) were associated with increased odds of reporting a reward and aversive approach. Owners aged 55 years or more were twice as likely as those younger than 55 (Odds Ratio = 1.93, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.29-2.87, P = 0.001), and male owners were three times as likely as female owners (Odds Ratio = 3.10, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.52-6.36, P = 0.002) to use a reward and aversive training approach. Owners reporting a reward and aversive training approach was common within this cohort. Increased awareness of optimal training approaches for dogs is needed, especially for older, male owners, who have not accessed puppy training classes.
... Based on a litany of evidence in animal (and human) literature, dog training, regardless of age, should be free of fear, pain, and intimidation allowing the learner freedom to make mistakes (trial-and-error learning) without fear of retribution, which interferes with long-term learning [5,6,18,19]. Application of positive training methods, including reward-based operant conditioning, counterconditioning, desensitization, shaping, and luring, has proven effective in improving learning and compliance, lowering distress, and reducing long-term conflict between humans and animals. ...
Article
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An online survey about puppy training was sent to members of the Center for Canine Behavior Studies and posted on our social media platforms. Six hundred forty-one (641) qualifying owners provided information on 1023 dogs. About half (48%) of the dogs involved in the study attended puppy training and the balance (52%) did not. The goal of the study was to find out whether puppy training at various ages (1-3 months, 4 months, 5-6 months) helped prevent behavior problems later in life (≥1 year). Attending training at 6 months of age or younger resulted in 0.71 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53-0.97; p = 0.030), 0.64 the odds of having a compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.45-0.92; p = 0.015), 0.60 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.37-0.96; p = 0.035), 0.68 the odds of excessive barking (95% CI: 0.47-0.99; p = 0.043), and 1.56 the odds of house soiling (95% CI: 1.08-2.27; p = 0.019). Ancillary findings about the entire study population were that dogs acquired at 12 weeks of age or younger were found to have 0.65 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 0.46-0.92; p = 0.016) and 0.50 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.31-0.79; p = 0.003). In addition, male dogs were found to have 0.68 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53-0.88; p = 0.003), 0.66 the odds of developing compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.49-0.88; p = 0.006), 0.37 the odds of mounting/humping (95% CI: 0.26-0.52; p < 0.001), and 1.53 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.18-1.97; p = 0.001). Neutered dogs of either sex were found to have 3.10 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 2.05-4.72; p < 0.001), 1.97 the odds of escaping/running away (95% CI: 1.12-3.69; p = 0.025), 2.01 the odds of exhibiting coprophagia (95% CI 1.30-3.19; p = 0.002), and 1.72 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.12-2.66; p = 0.014). The odds of problematic jumping deceased by 0.84 for each 1-year increase in age (95% CI: 0.80-0.88; p < 0.001).
... Sargisson and McLean's point that China et al. (2) did not present data on dog welfare is correct, but again this does not recognize the already published work from our research group and others, which we cite in the paper [e.g., (10,16,18)], that address this issue. These report evidence of adverse behavioral responses during training, such as vocalizations and sudden body movements consistent with pain, as well as longer term changes in behavior that were consistent with anxiety or distress when returned to the training environment. ...
Article
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In their commentary, Sargisson and McLean (2021) object to our conclusion that the use of e-collars are unnecessary in dog training (China et al 2020). Their criticisms make 4 broad claims: firstly that the training approaches were not the most effective means of training with e-collars; secondly that the paper focussed on measures of efficacy and did not present data on welfare; thirdly that the study did not include long term measures of efficacy; and fourthly our statistical approaches were not appropriate. Sargisson and McLean (2021) also question whether the research should be used to inform policy decisions with regard to use of e-collars in dog training, although we were cautious not to make any specific recommendations regarding legislation in our paper. We shall deal with each of these objections in turn, placing the first three in the context of the research project as well as related published work, clarifying the statistical approaches as there appear to be misunderstandings by Sargisson and McLean (2021) and finally relating the research to policy implications.
... Corrections may also include force, such as seen in jerking the leash, hitting or kicking the dog. Particularly corrections using force may by themselves lead to stress, pain and/or fear (Schilder & Van der Borg, 2004;Haverbeke et al., 2008;Vieira de Castro et al., 2020) and thus cause welfare issues (Vieira de Castro et al., 2020). Additionally, welfare issues may arise from the dog aggressing in response to the corrections (Herron et al., 2009), resulting in higher relinquishment risk (Coe et al., 2014;Lambert et al., 2015). ...
Article
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Dogs need to adapt to a human environment to enhance their welfare and to avoid risks of undesired dog behaviour and relinquishment. Crucial to this adaptation may be how an owner interacts with the dog. Owner–dog interactions may be influenced by the human caregiving system with regard to how care, protection and resources are provided. This narrative review discusses how a consideration of the human caregiving system can benefit owner–dog interactions. Literature suggests that the human caregiving system and parenting styles could influence owner–dog interactions. Owner–dog education may improve these interactions. However, studies on owner–dog education present mixed outcomes for the dog. Also, only a few studies address owner outcomes, indicating a gap that needs filling. It is concluded that, when intervening in owner–dog interactions, more attention should be directed to aspects of human psychology. Dog-directed parenting styles can form one strategy as to improve owner–dog interactions and dog welfare.
Chapter
Animal welfare is a complex subject whose scope goes far beyond the objectives of this book. In our profession as caregivers, our main objective is to improve the quality of life of the animal and its owner in order to achieve a harmonious and good quality relationship. By defining animal welfare from Maslow’s pyramid, we are led to distinguish between farm animals and pets. The notion of a captive animal does not seem relevant for the dog, which has been domesticated for more than 30 millennia. On the other hand, the search for psychologically balanced individuals must be based on the adequacy between the developmental environment and the final environment of life. Breed selection has a significant impact on the welfare of pet dogs. The role of the practitioner should go as far as an assessment of this welfare, and we need to build recommendations for a consultation dedicated to this evaluation.
Chapter
In this chapter, we describe the psychiatric disorders related to communication problems. We present the nosography of interspecific communication disorders, which concern communication between humans and dogs, and then intraspecific communication disorders. Among interspecific disorders, we identify several possible causes: incoherent communication and violent communication. Among intraspecific disorders, we highlight lack of experience or desocialization, negative experiences, and individual predispositions. For each disorder, the clinical picture, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and follow-up are detailed, and clinical vignettes are included to enrich the text.
Chapter
This chapter highlights the importance of veterinary psychiatry in all consultations with the general practitioner veterinarian and throughout the life of the dog. Thus, preventive medicine consultations are reviewed, followed by general medicine consultations. Euthanasia, this ultimate and particularly emotional act, is also discussed. Finally, this chapter describes the particularities of behavioral assessment of dangerousness as required by the French legislation.
Article
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A complete assessment of animal welfare requires not just an understanding of negative emotional states, such as fear and anxiety, but also of positive states, such as calmness and happiness. However, few studies have identified accurate and reliable indicators of positive emotional states in dogs. This study aimed to identify parameters that may serve as indicators of short-term emotional states in dogs. Using a cross-over design, 60 dogs living at a research facility were exposed to six different 10-min scenarios expected to elicit responses varying in emotional valence and arousal. A range of behavioural and physiological parameters were collected and their relationship to anticipated emotional valence and arousal was analysed using linear and logistic mixed models. Cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone, heart rate variability, panting, whining, and body shake all demonstrated significant differences based on arousal levels, but only within negative valence scenarios. Scores from a qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) were associated with both emotional valence and arousal and were considered the best indicator of positive valence. Activity, ear temperature, and sitting were associated with positive high arousal, although this may have been influenced by differing levels of movement induced during these scenarios. Meanwhile, heart rate, secretory immunoglobulin A, standing and lying all showed similar changes associated with arousal for both positive and negative valence scenarios. This study provides a critical first step towards identifying evidence-based indicators of short-term emotional states in dogs, while highlighting considerations that should be made when employing these parameters, including the influence of coder bias, food provision, exercise, and external temperature. Overall, it is recommended future dog emotion and welfare research use a combination of parameters including indicators of both emotional valence and arousal.
Chapter
Smell is a well-developed and predominant sense in dogs and so it is unsurprising that olfaction is tightly linked to dog welfare. The extent to which a dog can use their olfactory abilities and the types of odours they smell, have been shown to affect their behaviour, memory, and wellbeing, and similarly an animal’s state of health and welfare impacts upon its olfactory ability. There are several natural scents whose effects upon dogs have been well studied. Lavender has been shown to induce calm and resting behaviour, whilst there is some evidence that peppermint, rosemary, and laurel may lead to increased activity in kennelled dogs. Several olfactory-administered products have sought to mimic these natural calming effects and have been marketed to mitigate fear and anxiety in dogs. Pet Remedy a Valerian-based product and synthetic Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) are relatively well tested. Whilst some studies present promising findings of their potential benefits, particularly of DAP in puppies, the body of research remains unconvincing regarding the efficacy of both products especially for adult dogs. With the increasing array of scent-based tasks that dogs are trained to perform, the way they are reared, housed, trained, and cared for all have the capacity to affect their welfare. There is evidence of the value of a range of aspects of housing and husbandry that can improve welfare. Research on the interface between olfaction and welfare although growing, remains in its infancy, which we see as evidence of sensory biases in human approaches to dog behaviour and welfare.
Chapter
Our relationship with dogs runs thousands of years deep. Today, we might know dogs intimately as members of our human family, but we can also know and consider dogs on their own terms, as members of Canis familiaris , with a unique evolutionary history and species‐specific characteristics and needs. This chapter is a resource for all types of dog knowers and caretakers. It relies heavily on empirical research to anchor readers in the foundations of canine behavior—such as dog behavioral development, normal dog behavior, factors influencing behavior, and relationships with people—and considers how these topics affect dogs of all ages and backgrounds who find themselves in the shelter environment.
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The objective was to study the stress level in dogs during grooming services in a pet shop. A total of 55 grooming services carried out in a pet shop in the city of Janaúba, MG, were evaluated and divided into four categories according to sex and body weight. The flowchart of the grooming process contained six steps that began with the transportation of dogs to the pet shop and finished with their return to the place of origin. Behavioral, physiological, and blood component evaluations were performed at different steps of the process. Changes in dog behavior and physiological parameters were observed primarily upon arrival at the pet shop and during drying. Employee characteristics also influenced dogs’ behaviors. However, dogs were able to thermoregulate and maintain the homeostasis of leukocytes, glucose and cortisol in the blood. animal behavior; animal welfare; cortisol; pets; physiological parameters
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During two retreats in 2017 and 2020, a group of international scientists convened to explore the Human-Animal Bond. The meetings, hosted by the Wallis Annenberg PetSpace Leadership Institute, took a broad view of the human-dog relationship and how interactions between the two may benefit us medically, psychologically or through their service as working dogs (e.g. guide dogs, explosive detection, search and rescue, cancer detection). This Frontiers’ Special Topic has collated the presentations into a broad collection of 14 theoretical and review papers summarizing the latest research and practice in the historical development of our deepening bond with dogs, the physiological and psychological changes that occur during human-dog interactions (to both humans and dogs) as well as the selection, training and welfare of companion animals and working dogs. The overarching goals of this collection are to contribute to the current standard of understanding of human-animal interaction, suggest future directions in applied research, and to consider the interdisciplinary societal implications of the findings.
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Context Accidental poisoning of domestic dogs is a potential risk when using baits to control invasive animals. We developed and trialled an electrical device attached to a non-toxic bait to assess whether we could induce a learned aversion towards baits in conservation-working dogs. Aims We tested the device on conservation-working dogs licenced to enter conservation estate as part of feral pig control, and consequently are potentially exposed to lethal baits for controlling red foxes. Methods Over 1 year (up to seven separate training sessions per dog), 27 dogs were sequentially presented with electrified and non-electrified non-toxic baits and their behavioural responses were recorded. On-farm training (Days 0, 1, 7, Months 1, 12) comprised dogs being called by their owner standing nearby the electrified bait. If the dog touched the bait and demonstrated aversive behaviour (we assume that it received an electric shock or ‘correction’), it was then presented with a non-electrified bait. If they ate either bait, they were shown another electrified bait (up to three electrified baits per session). Key results Seventeen dogs (17/27) touched the bait and received a correction. Eleven dogs required only a single correction and did not touch another bait, three dogs needed two corrections, and two dogs needed three or four corrections. These 17 dogs showed increasing avoidance to the bait over successive training sessions (χ²12 = 67.96, P < 0.001), including avoiding looking at the bait, refusing to come within 5–10 m of the bait and their owner, or leaving the training vicinity. All these dogs (17/17) avoided baits encountered in a working environment (1/17 touched but did not consume a bait) and bait-aversion was still detected up to 1-year post-initial training. Nine dogs (9/27) did not appear to receive a correction or show any change in bait-aversion behaviour. One dog (1/27) showed no aversion to the stimulus and continued to eat baits. Conclusions Here we present a proof of concept for a deterrent device and associated experimental protocol to produce learned aversion behaviour in conservation-working dogs. Implications We demonstrated that it is possible to induce a learned aversion to baits in conservation-working dogs, thereby reducing the risk of accidental poisoning.
Article
In some guide dog organisations, future guide dogs for blind individuals are required to undergo separation from their foster family from Monday to Friday as part of their training. These separations and the constantly changing environment may induce stress, thus impacting the welfare of these dogs and their performance. The aim of this study was therefore to evaluate this stress through physiological and behavioural measures. The results showed a significant increase in salivary cortisol levels at the time of separation (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 10.31; p < 0.0001). Additionally, the dogs were more passive on Friday than on other days (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 7.53; p = 0.0090), and “head movements” were expressed less frequently on Fridays (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 5.12; p = 0.0141). Performance increased across weeks, despite a lower “focused” score on Mondays (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 4.39; p = 0.0243). These results showed both adaptation to life in the kennel and that the dogs need to readapt to the situation each week. The increase in serotonin levels during the 3 weeks of testing (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 4.87; p = 0.0224) may also indicate that the dogs can adapt to the kennel environment. Therefore, this study questions the relevance of noncontinuous training programmes. In future research, it would be interesting to compare these results with those of a group of dogs staying at school on weekends.
Article
Repellents that contain capsaicin are used as one of the measures against feeding damage due to deer ; however, their concentrations differ among deer animals. In this study, we investigated the effect of capsaicin concentration on the behavior of deer feeding. Four adult bred female deer were tested, and 8mL of habanero extract (control, 0% ; 0.062% ; 0.62% ; 6.2%) with different concentrations was sprayed on 300g of solid feed using the Latin square method, and the feeding behavior of deer was investigated. The results showed that the concentrations in the 0.62% and 6.2% treatments were significantly lower than those in the control and 0.062% treatment (P<0.05). It also, the difference was the same until the 3rd day after the start of the experiment, but on the 4th day, no significant difference was observed between the control, 0.062%, and 0.62% treatments. The tongue licking behavior was highest in the 6.2% treatments compared to the other treatment groups (P<0.05). Therefore, it was clarified that the habanero extract used in this study suppresses the feeding behavior of deer at a concentration of 0.62% or more, but when presented for 4 days or more, the effect may become accustomed.
Chapter
Meeting the physical and emotional needs of a therapy animal requires knowledge of species-typical behaviors. Though to ensure optimal welfare, an awareness of perceptive abilities and signs of stress and fear is necessary to avoid negative emotional states. This information can help those utilizing AAI to select appropriate species for patients and with the implementation of management practices to ensure the welfare of therapy animals. In order to provide a biological perspective on behavior, a review of emotional processing and memory is provided. The intention was to serve as a reminder that every experience shapes perception and for therapy animals every AAI should be perceived as positive. Lastly, training of therapy animals and reinforcement of appropriate and desired behaviors should be positive as it is more effective and humane than punitive methods, such as positive punishment. Learning the behavioral and social needs of a species will undoubtedly provide useful information to safeguard the welfare of therapy animals.
Article
We investigated the inhibitory effect of capsaicin fertilizer on feeding in deer. We tested four captive adult female deer. In Experiment 1, in addition to the treatment (intact) containing only a solid feed (HC), we mixed the fertilizer not containing capsaicin (F) or the capsaicin fertilizer (CF) in the solid feed. In addition, the solid feed was put on a wire net that capsaicin fertilizer was placed 5 cm below (SCF). We investigated their feeding behavior response. In Experiment 2, we changed the amount of substance (fertilizer and capsaicin fertilizer) mixed in the HC. We mixed different amounts (0, 50, 100, and 200 g) of the treatments other than the intact with HC and presented them to the deer, and investigated their feeding behavior response. In Experiment 1, intake in the F and CF decreased (p < .05). In Experiment 2, HC intake was significantly lower in the 100 and 200 g CF (p < .05). However, HC intake relatively increased by the last day in the CF 200 g too. The capsaicin fertilizer decreased the feeding behavior of deer by directly touching the mucous membranes of the deer nose and lips. However, the effects were decreased over time.
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In Exp I, retrospective data of 92 cases on dangerously aggressive companion dogs demonstrated the avoidance nature of the aggressive response and its intractability to established counterconditioning treatments. In Exp II, safety training, a modified avoidance-learning procedure, resulted in complete and permanent elimination of aggression in all 36 dogs tested. In addition, it produced extinction-resistant prosocial avoidance responses, significant increases in the dogs' emotional stability, an avoidance-learning and safety acquisition response set, and improvements in measures of the dog's "carriage." Exp III (18 Ss) showed how effective safety training is when compared with other behavior modification techniques that, in theory, should have an impact on avoidance-motivated aggression. Exp IV (16 Ss) demonstrated the importance of using the conditioned safety cue as a positive reinforcement. The relationship of avoidance-motivated aggression to other forms of aggression is discussed, the theoretical concepts of behavioral balance and an avoidance-learning set are presented, and suggestions to improve the effectiveness of counterconditioning for human avoidance-motivated pathologies are offered. (90 ref)
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This paper discusses the characteristics of the acquisition of traumatic avoidance learning in dogs. The subjects used in this study were 30 mongrel dogs of medium size. Their range in weight was approximately from 9 to 13 kg. The data in this study were obtained while the dogs were apparently healthy. Each dog was pretested in order to reveal the presence of a previously acquired tendency to jump the barrier. The commutator motor was running, providing a low background noise. The dog was observed during a 10-min. pretrial "acclimation period." Then, at the end of this period, the first pretest trial was conducted. In avoidance learning it is very difficult to point out logically where the acquisition phase ends and extinction begins. This is so because the delivery of the unconditioned stimulus (shock) to the subject is contingent upon the subject's aversive movements. An experiment in traumatic avoidance learning is reported in which dogs were trained to avoid a just-subtetanizing shock by responding to a signal which preceded the shock by a period of 10 seconds. A shuttle-box jumping response was reinforced as the instrumental avoidance reaction. The results were discussed within the framework of a two-process theory of learning. Several inadequacies in current learning theories were revealed in trying 10 explain our findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Six weeks of social and spatial restriction were used as a model to induce chronic stress in Beagles. Behavioral and physiological measurements were performed during a period of enriched spacious outdoor housing in groups (GH) and during a subsequent period of solitary housing in small indoor kennels (IH). Behavioral parameters that may indicate chronic stress in dogs are reported. During IH, the dogs showed significantly (comparison-wise error rate <0.05) lower postures than during GH. IH induced enduring increments in frequencies of autogrooming, paw lifting, and vocalizing, and was associated with incidents of coprophagy and repetitive behavior. So far, we interpret the behavioral changes as signs of chronic stress. Relatively low levels of walking, digging, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and increments in circling are conceived as obvious adaptations to the specific features of the IH system. By challenging the dogs outside their home kennel we tested whether the dogs’ coping abilities were affected by IH. Dogs that were challenged were introduced into a novel environment, given the opportunity to escape from their home kennel, restrained, walked down an unfamiliar corridor, presented a novel object, exposed to loud noise, given food, or confronted with a conspecific. During IH, challenged dogs exhibited higher postures, showed more tail wagging, nosing, circling, urinating, and defecating, and changed more often from one state of locomotion (or posture) to another than during GH. These behavioral changes were observed across the different types of challenges, with the exception of the noise administration test. In the presence of conspecifics, the socially and spatially restricted male dogs behaved more dominantly and aggressive than during the time that they were kept in groups. Such behavior manifested as increased performances of raised hairs, growling, paw laying, and standing over. Both sexes showed increases in paw lifting, body shaking, ambivalent postures, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and trembling in any of the challenges, excluding the walking down the corridor test. In short, during a variety of challenges, socially and spatially restricted dogs exhibited a heightened state of aggression, excitement, and uncertainty. Behavioral differences between dogs that had experienced pleasant and bad weather conditions during GH, suggested that “pleasant-weather individuals” had experienced early stress during the control period, and, as a result, responded to the subsequent period of IH differently. Regardless of the housing conditions, challenged bitches showed stronger indications of acute stress than male dogs. Gender did not affect the chronic stress responses to social and spatial restriction. A low posture and increased autogrooming, paw lifting, vocalizing, repetitive behavior, and coprophagy may indicate chronic stress in dogs, and as such, can help to identify poor welfare. When challenged, chronically stressed dogs may show increased excitement, aggression, and uncertainty, but the nonspecificity of such emotional behavior will complicate its practical use with regard to the assessment of stress.
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Four groups of dogs, which had been subjected to housing conditions of varying quality for years, were assumed to experience different levels of stress. The groups were compared for behavioural and hormonal parameters in order to identify measures that indicate chronic stress in the dog and which may help to identify poor welfare in this species. As a standard for comparison, one of the four groups was composed of privately owned dogs; we assumed that chronic stress levels were relatively low in this group (GI). The three remaining groups of dogs (GII, GIII and GIV) were kept under conditions of low to relatively high austerity, and had basal urinary ratios of cortisol to creatinine, adrenaline to creatinine and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline to creatinine, that varied from low to high, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in cortisol to creatinine ratios when comparing GI to GII, GIII and GIV and when GII was compared to GIV. Statistical analyses indicated that the mean adrenaline to creatinine ratio in GI differed from that in the remaining groups and that the ratio in GII differed from that in GIII. Noradrenaline to creatinine ratios differed significantly only between GI and GIII. Dopamine to creatinine ratios and noradrenaline to adrenaline ratios did not differ significantly between groups. When dogs were not disturbed, those that were kept under the most austere conditions typically had high levels of locomotor activity, nosing, urinating and paw lifting. After mild disturbance by a slamming door or in the presence of a researcher these animals reacted actively, with increased locomotor activity, circling and nosing, and they showed high levels of behaviours that have previously been associated with acute stress: body shaking, yawning, ambivalent postures and displacement behaviours. Chronic stress in dogs may be identified by increased paw lifting when animals are not disturbed and by ample behavioural expressions of arousal when they are mildly stimulated. Since some behaviours may occur in contexts not related to stress, behavioural data are easily misinterpreted with regard to chronic stress. Interpretation will only be meaningful when physiological measures such as urinary adrenaline to creatinine ratios and, especially, urinary cortisol to creatinine ratios are also determined.
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In 6 curarized dogs, the magnitudes of both the cardiac acceleration during shock stimulation and deceleration after stimulation were found to be monotonic increasing functions of intensity (2, 4, 6, and 8 ma.), and inverted U shaped functions of duration (.1, .5, 2.5, 5, and 10 sec.) of electric shock. Utilizing 32 curarized dogs with a discriminative classical conditioning procedure, it was found that: (1) the presence of a warning signal did not affect the magnitude of the unconditioned cardiac response, and (2) previous experience with shocks of lower intensity did reduce the magnitude of the unconditioned cardiac response to subsequent high-intensity shock.
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Plasmacortisol levels were examined to assess the stress of dogs in a county animal shelter. Groups of dogs confined in the shelter for their 1st, 2nd, or 3rd day had higher cortisol levels than did a group maintained in the shelter for more than 9 days. Dogs in the shelter for an intermediate period (Day 4-9) had intermediate levels of cortisol. The cortisol concentrations of dogs during their first day in the shelter were greater than either those of the same dogs on Day 4/5 in the shelter or those of a group of pet dogs sampled in their own homes. There was no overall effect of 20 min of social interaction with a human (e.g., petting) on the plasma cortisol levels of dogs in the shelter on Day 1-3. However, the gender of the petter did affect cortisol levels. Those dogs interacting with a female had lower cortisol concentrations at the end of the session than did dogs interacting with a male. The results suggest that confinement in a public animal shelter produces a prolonged activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Further, it appears that some subtle aspect of interaction with a human may be capable of moderating this response. Possible implications for the welfare of confined dogs, and for the development of behavior problems in dogs obtained from shelters, are discussed.
Article
The effect of canine and/or human gender on the response of the domestic dog towards humans has been little studied. This study investigated the reactions of male and female dogs housed in an animal rescue shelter towards the presence of men and women to determine how a dog's response towards a person was influenced by canine and human gender. The response of 30 dogs housed in the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) to each of six people (three men and three women), who stood individually for a period of 2 min at the front of the dog's cage, was observed. The amount of time that the dog spent at the front of the cage, barking, looking towards the human, wagging its tail, and engaged in activities of sitting, standing, moving, resting, was recorded. Canine gender exerted an influence on the amount of time that dogs spent looking towards the humans. Female dogs showed a greater decrease in the amount of time they spent looking towards the humans over the course of the testing than male dogs. Human gender had an effect on both dog barking, and eye orientation. Dogs showed a stronger decrease in their barking and their tendency to look towards the human whenever the subject was a woman than a man, suggesting that dogs may be more defensively-aggressive towards men than women. There was no interaction between canine and human gender on the dog's response towards the persons. This study indicated that both canine and human gender influence certain elements of a dog's response towards the presence of a human. The findings may have practical implications for the re-housing of dogs from rescue shelters.
Article
The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the behavioral responses of dogs to routine handling during the preoperative period after being given a placebo or a commonly used anesthetic premedicant.Junior veterinary surgery students working in teams of three were provided with written descriptions of 13 dog behaviors (struggling, rigid, shivering, wide-eyed facial expression, vocalization, biting, limb withdrawal, orienting, breath holding, panting, hiding, salivating and activity requiring muzzling) and asked to scale the behaviors from 0 (absent) to 4 (present to a great extent) during the preoperative period. The students were asked to record behaviors at three different times: placing the dog on the table (Period 1); clipping and surgical preparation (clipping/prepping) of a cephalic limb (Period 2); intravenous (iv) catheterization (Period 3). Each team had three or four experiences. Each dog was given a saline placebo (P dogs) (0.05 ml kg−1 intramuscular (IM)), acepromazine (A dogs) (0.05 mg kg−1 IM), or oxymorphone (X dogs) (0.05 mg kg−1 IM) as an anesthetic premedicant. The premedicants were made isovolumetric and similarly tinted in color.Scaled behaviours occurring more than 10% of the time and demonstrating significant differences (P<0.05) among treatments were as follows: (1) rigidity, wide-eyed facial expression and panting for Period 1; (2) rigidity, hiding, salivating and panting during Period 2; (3) wide-eyed facial expression, panting and salivating during Period 3. A dogs were less rigid than P dogs and less wide-eyed than X dogs during Period 1, less rigid and engaged in less hiding behavior than P dogs during Period 2, and were less wide-eyed than P dogs during Period 3. X dogs panted and salivated more than A or P dogs during all three periods, and engaged in less hiding behavior than P dogs during Period 2. Acepromazine appears to be more effective than oxymorphone or placebo in decreasing anxiety behaviors in dogs.Non-parametric analysis of presence/absence data of behaviors occurring more than 10% of the time, demonstrated the same significant differences (P<0.05) among treatments as the analysis of scaled behaviors. Additionally, wide-eyed facial expression and vocalization were found to be significant (P<0.05) during Period 2, and rigidity and vocalization were found to be significant (P<0.05) during Period 3.If 100% agreement among observers was required for inclusion in the non-parametric analysis, the behaviors found to be significant (P<0.05) were as follows: (1) orienting, panting and salivating during Period 2; (2) panting and salivating during Period 3.Qualitative and quantitative measures of catheter placement ease were not affected by the drug.
Article
The behaviour of 50 puppies of traditionally docked breeds was recorded during and after the procedure of tail docking at the University of Queensland Companion Animal Veterinary Hospital. The behaviours were recorded at the time of the procedure and then in 5 second intervals for the first minute followed by 10 second intervals until the pup settled to sleep. All puppies vocalised intensely (“shrieking”) at the time of amputation of the tail, averaging 24 shrieks (range of 5 to 33). The average number of minor vocalisations (“whimpers”) made during docking was 18 (range of 2 to 46). There were no shrieks recorded during the recovery period. The average number of whimpers made during the first 30 s after completion of the amputation was 3 (range of 0 to 18). There was a significant (p ≤ 0.001) reduction in the number of shrieks and whimpers emitted by pups in the 30 second period following docking. On average, the pups ceased vocalising 138 s after docking (range of 5 to 840 s). Significant correlation coefficients were found between the time taken to stop vocalising and the number of whimpers during docking (r = 0.409) and total vocalisations during docking (r = 0.393). That is, the more vocalisations made during docking, the longer the pup took to settle in the recovery period. The pups varied in the time taken to settle to sleep with a mean settling time of 3 min (range of 35 s to 14 min). Although it is difficult to objectively quantify the stress experienced by puppies undergoing tail docking, observations recorded during this study suggest that the animals do experience pain. The pain appears to be short-lived (with all puppies quiescent by a maximum of 15 min). Further research into the issue of pain in pups undergoing tail docking is recommended to determine whether the procedure should continue.
Article
multifactorial aspect of the distribution of behavior / aspects of social differentiation / dominance was regarded as the basic principle of social organization / concept has come to be questioned / doubts also arose concerning the explanatory value of the concept / dominance as an explanatory principle / intervening variable (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
A simple procedure for multiple tests of significance based on individual p-values is derived. This simple procedure is sharper than Holm's (1979) sequentially rejective procedure. Both procedures contrast the ordered p- values with the same set of critical values. Holm's procedure rejects an hypothesis only if its p-value and each of the smaller p-values are less than their corresponding critical-values. The new procedure rejects all hypotheses with smaller or equal p-values to that of any one found less than its critical value.
Article
Stress parameters that can be measured noninvasively may help to identify poor welfare in dogs that live in private homes and institutions. Behavioural parameters are potentially useful to identify stress, but require further investigation to establish which behaviours are appropriate. In the present study, behaviours were recorded and analysed for signs of acute stress in dogs. Simultaneously, saliva cortisol and heart rate were measured to support the interpretation of the behavioural data with regard to stress. Ten dogs of either sex, different ages and various breeds were each subjected to six different stimuli: sound blasts, short electric shocks, a falling bag, an opening umbrella and two forms of restraint. Each type of stimulus had been selected for its assumed aversive properties and was administered intermittently for 1 min. The stimuli that could not be anticipated by the dogs, sound blasts, shocks and a falling bag, tended to induce saliva cortisol responses and a very low posture. The remainder of the stimuli, which were administered by the experimenter visibly to the dog, did not change the cortisol levels but did induce restlessness, a moderate lowering of the posture, body shaking, oral behaviours, and to a lesser extent, yawning and open mouth. Pronounced increases in the heart rate were nonspecifically induced by each type of stimulus. Heart rate levels normalized within 8 min after stressor administration had stopped. Saliva cortisol levels decreased to normal within the hour. Correlations between behavioural and physiological stress parameters were not significant. From the present results, we conclude that in dogs a very low posture may indicate intense acute stress since dogs show a very low posture concomitant with saliva cortisol responses. Dogs may typically show increased restlessness, oral behaviours, yawning, open mouth and a moderate lowering of the posture when they experienced moderate stress in a social setting. The nonspecific character of canine heart rate responses complicates its interpretation with regard to acute stress.
Article
Aggressive behavior can be elicited by aversive stimuli as an unconditioned reflex. Electric shock, heat, physical blows, and intra-cranial stimulation are among the stimuli which will elicit fighting. Various characteristics of the stimulus—such as frequency of presentation, intensity, and duration, in the case of shock—and of the environment in general, influence the rate at which pain-elicited fighting occurs. Characteristics of the animals—such as sex, age, sensory impairment, species, and social experience— also influence the occurrence of respondent aggression. Aggression can be conditioned according to both the operant and the respondent paradigms. Since both operant and respondent aggression can occur concurrently, interesting interactions result. Depending upon a number of variables, respondent aggression exerts a disruptive influence on social behavior controlled by aversive stimuli. The interference of aggression with behavior maintained by aversive stimuli may cause us to revise our opinion of the efficiency of aversive stimuli in social situations. Although pain is probably a source of human aggression, further research with infra-human animals, as well as actual research with humans, should elucidate the relationship between aversive stimuli and aggression in man.
Article
In Exp I, retrospective data of 92 cases on dangerously aggressive companion dogs demonstrated the avoidance nature of the aggressive response and its intractability to established counterconditioning treatments. In Exp II, safety training, a modified avoidance-learning procedure, resulted in complete and permanent elimination of aggression in all 36 dogs tested. In addition, it produced extinction-resistant prosocial avoidance responses, significant increases in the dogs' emotional stability, an avoidance-learning and safety acquisition response set, and improvements in measures of the dog's "carriage." Exp III (18 Ss) showed how effective safety training is when compared with other behavior modification techniques that, in theory, should have an impact on avoidance-motivated aggression. Exp IV (16 Ss) demonstrated the importance of using the conditioned safety cue as a positive reinforcement. The relationship of avoidance-motivated aggression to other forms of aggression is discussed, the theoretical concepts of behavioral balance and an avoidance-learning set are presented, and suggestions to improve the effectiveness of counterconditioning for human avoidance-motivated pathologies are offered. (90 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
To determine the association between subjective and objective variables commonly used to evaluate severity of postoperative pain in dogs. Prospective double-blind study. 36 dogs with unilateral rupture of the cranial cruciate ligament that underwent surgery to stabilize the stifle. Each dog was assessed to determine severity of pain before and after surgery, using various subjective and objective criteria. Subjective measures of pain (scores for visual analogue and numerical rating scales) correlated poorly or were not correlated with heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and results of a pain threshold test. Scores for visual analogue and numerical rating scales correlated with each other and with the amount of vocalization at most time periods. We detected a weak association between commonly employed subjective and objective measures of pain. This indicated that some of these measurement techniques do not predictably reflect severity of postoperative pain in dogs. Therefore, clinicians should not rely too heavily on these variables when assessing severity of postoperative pain in dogs.
Shock collars and aggression in dogs
  • R H Polski
Polski, R.H., 1998. Shock collars and aggression in dogs. Anim. Behav. Consultant Newslett, April 1998.
Elektrogeräte: Grundlagen, Wirkungen und mögliche Gefahren im Hinblick auf die Anwendung in der Hundeausbildung
  • Klein
Klein, D., 2000. Elektrogeräte: Grundlagen, Wirkungen und mögliche Gefahren im Hinblick auf die Anwendung in der Hundeausbildung. Der Gebrauchshund 1, 38-48.
Elektrogeräte: Ihr Einsatz bei der
  • D U Feddersen-Petersen
Feddersen-Petersen, D.U., 1999. Elektrogeräte: Ihr Einsatz bei der Ausbildung ist tierschutzrelevant. Kleintier 1, 16-17.
Understanding your dog
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Fox, M.W., 1974. Understanding your dog. Blond & Briggs, London.
Understanding electronic dog training, Part I. Canine Pract
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Tortora, D.F., 1982. Understanding electronic dog training, Part I. Canine Pract. 9, 17-22.
Understanding electronic dog training, Part I
  • Tortora
Elektrogeräte: Ihr Einsatz bei der Ausbildung ist tierschutzrelevant
  • Feddersen-Petersen
Electronic shock collars: are they worth the risks?
  • R H Polski