Effectiveness of quality physical education in improving students' manipulative skill competency

Abstract

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the extent to which the quality physical education teaching (QPET) practices contributed to improving 4th- and 5th-grade students' manipulative skill competency.
Methods: Participants were 9 elementary physical education (PE) teachers and their 4th- and 5th-grade students (n = 2709–3420). The students' skill competency was assessed with 3 manipulative skills using PE metrics assessment rubrics. The PE teachers' levels of QPET were assessed by coding 63 videotaped lessons using the assessing quality teaching rubrics (AQTR), which consisted of 4 essential dimensions including task design, task presentation, class management, and instructional guidance. Codes were confirmed through inter-rater reliability (82.4%, 84.5%, and 94%). Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, multiple R2 regression models, and independent sample t tests.
Results: This study indicated that the 4 essential dimensions of QPET were all significant contributors to students' manipulative skill competency. These predictors were significantly higher for boys than for girls in soccer and striking skills, while they were significantly higher for girls than for boys in throwing skill competency. Of the 4 essential dimensions of QPET, task presentation played the most significant role in contributing to all 3 skill competencies for both boys and girls. Further, students who experienced high QPET were significantly more skillfully competent than those students who did not have this experience.
Conclusion: It was concluded that the QPET practices played a significantly critical role in contributing to students' manipulative skill competency.

Full text

Effectiveness of quality physical education in improving students’
manipulative skill competency
Weiyun Chen a,*, Weimo Zhu b, Steve Mason a, Austin Hammond-Bennett a,
Andrew Colombo-Dougovito c
aSchool of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48168-2013, USA
bKinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois, Urban-Champaign, IL 61820, USA
cDepartment of Kinesiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
Received 21 November 2014; revised 29 January 2015; accepted 21 April 2015
Available online
Abstract
Objectives: This study examined the extent to which the quality physical education (PE) teaching practices (QPET) contributed to improving
fourth- and fifth-grade students’ manipulative skill competency.
Methods: Participants were nine elementary PE teachers and their fourth- and fifth-grade students (n=2709–3420). The students’ skill compe-
tency was assessed with three manipulative skills using PE Metrics assessment rubrics. The PE teachers’ levels of QPET were assessed by coding
63 videotaped lessons using the assessing quality teaching rubrics (AQTR), which consisted of four essential dimensions including task design,
task presentation, class management, and instructional guidance. Codes were confirmed through inter-rater reliability (82.4%, 84.5%, and 94%).
Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, multiple R2regression models, and independent sample ttests.
Results: This study indicated that the four essential dimensions of QPET were all significant contributors to students’ manipulative skill
competency. These predictors were significantly higher for boys than for girls in soccer and striking skills, while they were significantly higher for
girls than for boys in throwing skill competency. Of the four essential dimensions of QPET, task presentation played the most significant role in
contributing to all three skill competencies for both boys and girls. Further, students who experienced high QPET were significantly more skillfully
competent than those students who did not have this experience.
Conclusion: It was concluded that the QPET practices played a significantly critical role in contributing to students’ manipulative skill
competency.
© 2015 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Shanghai University of Sport.
Keywords: Assessment of quality teaching; Essential dimensions of teaching; Manipulative skill competency; Skill assessment
1. Introduction
Demonstrating competency in a variety of motor skills and
movement patterns is a desired learning outcome that U.S.
National Standard 1 describes for all students to be able to
achieve as a result of participating in quality physical education
(PE) program.1Motor skill competency is one of the three
Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP)
facilitators underlying PA.2Supporting this theoretical postula-
tion, empirical studies show that motor skill competency is an
enabling factor that provides physical foundations necessary for
enjoyable and successful physical activity (PA) engagement in
youth.3–7 Children with adequate motor skill competency spend
significantly more time in moderate-to-vigorous PA than chil-
dren with insufficient motor skill competency.3–7 As a result,
childhood manipulative skill proficiency is significantly associ-
ated with adolescents’ participation in a variety of PAs and
organized sports.3,4
However, children’s motor skill competency is not developed
naturally as a result of physical growth. Development of motor
skill competency is based on the dynamic interaction among the
task, the learner, and the environment.8Motor skill development
must be learned and practiced within a sequentially structured
learning environment based on children’s sequence of motor
development.8–10 How well students are able to demonstrate
motor skill competency depends largely on whether or not PE
teachers provide students with quality PE program.1
Quality physical education (QPE) serves as the heart of the
CSPAP for promoting physically active behaviors.11–13 QPE is a
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chenwy@umich.edu (W. Chen).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
2095-2546/© 2015 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Shanghai University of Sport.
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improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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primary vehicle for equipping students with knowledge, skills,
fitness, and positive attitudes to become skillful movers and
competent performers necessary to participate in a variety of
PAs.11–14 QPE offers a wide array of PAs that are developmen-
tally appropriate and meaningful for students. It uses appropri-
ate instructional practices to provide students with maximum
learning experiences and create productive learning environ-
ments for students.11–14 Implementation of QPE in practices
consists of four essential dimensions including task design, task
presentation, class management, and instructional guidance.14
How well the teacher enacts the four essential dimensions in a
lesson collectively contributes to the quality of instructional
practices.15–18
Task design, one essential dimension, refers to types and
natures of learning tasks the teachersdesign and organize for
their students to engage in.17,18 To help students accomplish
intended learning objectives, the teacher should provide stu-
dents with learning tasks that are developmentally appropriate,
and maximally and actively engaging.1,18 Learning tasks that are
developmentally appropriate are critical to ensure students to
have successful learning experiences. Learning tasks that are
maximally and actively engaging provide students with ample
learning opportunities and participation.15–18
Task presentation, another essential dimension, refers to how
the teacher delivers learning tasks to students.17,18 Key teaching
components of task presentation include that (a) the teacher
precisely and accurately presents the learning task while using
appropriate examples or metaphors to help students make a
sense of the information; (b) the teacher demonstrates key
features of a learning task while presenting learning cues
related to the nature of the task; and (c) the teacher uses con-
textual scenarios to explain why the information should be
learned to help students find new information relevant and
meaningful.15–18
Class management, the third essential dimension, implies
how the teacher organizes the students, equipment, space, and
learning resources for the task enactment.17,18 Researchers
contend that the quality of class management depends on how
efficiently and effectively the teacher groups students, distrib-
utes physical learning materials/equipment, arranges physical
layouts, locates students into working areas, and reinforces
class norms and rules.15–18
Instructional guidance, the fourth essential dimension, is
defined as how the teacher responds to students’ ongoing task
engagement.17,18 Critical components of instructional guidance
include that during the students’ task engagement, the teacher
closely observes and analyzes students’ task performance,
timely adjusts the complexities of the task, steers students’
focus on task, and provides tailored instructional guidance.15–18
The four essential dimensions provide a core framework for
assessing the quality of physical education teaching (QPET) in
situated classrooms.15–18
According to the expectations for students in grades 3–5 of
the National Content Standard 1,1students should demonstrate
mature forms of fundamental movements and basic specialized
skills, be able to combine one skill with another, and apply
the skills in dynamic situations. However, due to a lack of
performance-based assessment tools in previous studies, motor
skill competency was evaluated either using product-oriented
criteria with a combined product score or merely process-
oriented criteria with “yes” or “no” rating scale.3,4,6 To fill these
gaps in the assessment of motor skill competency, after 4 years
of extensive testing with 4000 students at 90 schools across the
nation, the National Association for Sport and Physical Educa-
tion (NASPE)19 published PE Metrics: Assessing the National
Standard 1: Elementary. PE Metrics19 includes a series of
performance-based assessment rubrics that are specifically
designed to assess levels of students’ competency in motor
skills and movement patterns using both process- and product-
oriented criteria based on grade level expectations.
To date, no such study was found in the literature review
that was conducted to examine the progress of fourth- and
fifth-grade students’ demonstration of motor skill competency
assessed with the PE Metrics assessment rubrics19 in school
settings. In addition, there has been a lack of empirical studies
that investigate to what degree QPET contributes to students’
demonstration of motor skill competency in manipulative skills
(object-control skills). Therefore, the purpose of this study
was to examine the extent to which the QPET contributed to
improving fourth- and fifth-grade students’ manipulative skill
competency that was assessed with selected PE Metrics assess-
ment rubrics.19 This investigation was guided by two research
questions including: (a) To what degree did the four essential
dimensions of QPET contribute to students’ manipulative skill
competency; and (b) How did the impact of essential dimen-
sions of QPET in improving manipulative skill competency
differ for boys and girls? The significance of this study lies in
providing empirical evidence for how QPET impacts students’
achieving desired learning outcomes in relation to the NASPE
content standard 1.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and research settings
Participants in this study were nine elementary PE teachers
and fourth- and fifth-grade students (n=2709–3420) who were
enrolled in nine elementary schools in the United States. All
nine teachers (5 male and 4 female) were Caucasian. Their ages
ranged from 33 to 55 years old and their teaching experience
varied from 6 to 26 years. All nine PE teachers participated in
the 2-year study, indicating 100% retention rate. The students’
retention rate was 91%. The student population was dominantly
White, non-Hispanic (91.2%; 48% girls and 52% boys). The
fourth- and fifth-grade students had one 60-min PE class each
week for 36 weeks throughout an academic school year. The PE
class size ranged from 18 to 28 students.
The university institutional review board for human subject
research and the school district granted the permission for con-
ducting this study. All nine PE teachers signed the consent form
to indicate their willingness to participate in this study. The
parents/guardians of the fourth- and fifth-grade students also
signed the consent form to grant permission for their children to
participate in this study. An assent form was also distributed
to the students allowing them to decide if they wanted to
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
2W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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participate in this study or not, even though their parents/
guardians approved their participation.
2.2. Motor skill assessments
The fourth- and fifth-grade students’ manipulative skill
competency was assessed with three PE Metrics Assessment
rubrics including soccer dribbling, passing, and receiving skill
assessment rubric, overhand throwing skill assessment rubric,
and striking skill with a racket assessment rubric.19 Based on
the unique nature of a skill, each PE Metrics Assessment rubric
has its own essential dimensions, performance indicators on
each of the 0–4 rating scales, and the number of trial for testing.
Table 1 presents each of the three PE Metrics Assessments.19
For the soccer dribbling, passing, and receiving skills assess-
ment, the students’ performance levels were assessed on the
three essential dimensions: dribbling, passing, and receiving
with a 0–4 rating scale. Criteria for competence (level 3) in
dribbling is “dribble with control while moving at a slow, con-
sistent jog,” in passing is “sends a receiving lead pass to a
partner so it can be caught outside the passing lane without a
break in the receiver’s stride on at least three passes,” and in
receiving is “moves forward and outside the passing lane to
meet the ball and receiving at least three receivable passes”.19
One thousand three hundred and forty six students in year 1 and
1377 students in year 2 completed the soccer dribbling, passing,
and receiving skills assessment.
In the overhand throwing skill assessment, students were
assessed on their performance levels of form and accuracy to
target using a 0–4 rating scale. Criteria for competence (Level
3) in form are: “throws with selected essential elements: (a)
throwing elbow shoulder-high, hand back and side orientation
in preparation for the throw, (b) trunk rotation, with elbow
lagging behind hip, (c) weight transfer to non-throwing forward
foot.” For accuracy to target is: “hits target area on wall”.19 One
thousand nine hundred and twenty six students in year 1 and
1496 students in year 2 completed the overhand throwing skill
assessment.
For the striking with a paddle assessment, the students’
performance levels were assessed on the two essential dimen-
sions: form and continuous strikes using a 0–4 rating scale.
Criteria for competence (Level 3) in form are: “usually uses a
side orientation” and in continuous strikes are: “strikes the ball
continuously against the wall five times from 10 feet with added
strokes that may be in front of the 10-foot striking line”.19 PE
Metrics19 provides more detailed information about assessment
rubric criteria, performance indicators, assessment tasks, and
assessment protocols for each skill assessment. One thousand
three hundred and forty eight students in year 1 and 1361
students in year 2 completed the striking with a paddle
assessment.
In this study, the Cronbach’s αreliability coefficients of
soccer skills, throwing skill, and striking skill assessments were
0.92, 0.81, and 0.88, respectively. The results showed that three
manipulative skill assessments had satisfactory internal consis-
tency reliability.20
2.3. Assessment of QPET
2.3.1. Video-recording lessons
We video-recorded 63 PE lessons taught by nine PE teachers
to their students throughout four academic semesters. Prior to
the video-recording in the beginning of each semester, we asked
the teachers to choose their preferred date and lesson content to
be video-recorded on the doodle meeting calendar in order to
follow the teachers’ regular PE schedule. During each of the
first three semesters, we video-taped each teacher’s teaching
two lessons to their students. During the fourth semester, we
videotaped each teacher’s teaching one lesson to their students.
To video-record a lesson, a camcorder was placed in an
unobtrusive corner of the gymnasium to avoid interfering with
the teaching. The teacher wore a wireless microphone through-
out the lesson. The voice transmitter was attached to the digital
camcorder in order to capture the teacher’s and the students’
voices. The camcorder’s angles were constantly adjusted and
zoomed in and out to make sure the teacher and their students
were in view. The lesson was digitally recorded when the
teacher started his/her teaching and the recording was stopped
when the teacher dismissed the class.
2.3.2. Coding the video-recorded lessons
To assess levels of the teachers’ QPET, 63 video-recorded
lessons were coded with the assessing quality teaching rubrics
(AQTR).16 The AQTR was designed as an observational rubric
to assess teachers’ QPET in a live PE lesson or a digitally
recorded PE lesson. It consists of four essential dimensions
including task design, task presentation, class management, and
instructional guidance with 13 subsumed teaching components.
The task design is composed of two components: developmen-
tal appropriateness and maximum participation. Task presenta-
tion includes three components: clarity and accuracy,
demonstration, and learning cues. Class management is com-
prised of gaining attention, equipment distribution, grouping
students, and transition. Instructional guidance contains four
components: monitoring, adjusting the task, general feedback,
and specific feedback. The performance indicator of each
Tab le 1
A score range for each essential dimension and the total score of the three physical education metrics assessments.
Skill assessment Essential dimensions Total score
Soccer skill (one trial) Dribbling, passing, receiving (0–4) 0–12 (9 =competent)
Baseball overhand throwing (three trials) Form (0–4), 1st 2nd 3rd
Accuracy to target (0–4), 1st 2nd 3rd
0–24 (18 =competent)
Tennis striking skill (one trial) Form (0–4)
Continuous strikes (0–4)
0–8 (6 =competent)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
3W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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teaching component is defined on a 3-point rating scale to
identify a gradation of the quality of teaching practices. For
example, a rating of “3” indicates that the teacher fully dem-
onstrated the criteria of quality teaching practices in each teach-
ing component. A rating of “2” indicates the teacher in some
degree demonstrated the criteria of quality teaching practices. A
rating of “1” indicates that the teacher did not demonstrate the
criteria of quality teaching practices. Also an “n/a” indicates
that the specific teaching component was not applicable to a
given teaching episode.
To help an evaluator objectively assess the teacher’s QPET
in a live lesson or a video-recorded lesson, Chen et al.16
designed the AQTR assessment sheet. The teaching compo-
nents of the four essential teaching dimensions on the AQTR
assessment sheet are organized task by task. In other words,
each task cycle, starting from the nature of the task, the presen-
tation of the task, organization of the class for the task, and
instructional response to the students’ task engagement, is iden-
tified as one teaching episode. The AQTR Assessment Sheet
allows an evaluator to focus on assessing the teacher’s instruc-
tional practices of each teaching component within each task
cycle. Accordingly, within each task cycle, the teacher receives
a score on each teaching component, a total score on each
essential dimension (a composite score on each teaching com-
ponent within the essential dimension), and a total score for
each teaching episode; within an entire lesson, the teacher
receives an overall teaching score (a composite score of each
teaching episode score), and an overall score of each teaching
dimension (a composite score of each essential dimension).
Prior to officially coding the 63 video-recorded lessons, four
investigators spent a minimum of 15 h studying the AQTR and
its coding protocols,16 and practicing observing and coding four
video-recorded lessons which were randomly selected from the
pool of the videotaped lessons. Then, four investigators who
were paired-up began to code the other three randomly selected
video-recorded lessons. While watching each recorded lesson
together, each pair independently coded each video-recorded
lesson with the AQTR assessment sheet to check the inter-rater
reliability (IR). The IR of the coded lessons was examined
by checking each investigator’s coding results using the
formula: % IR =(numbers of agreement ÷(numbers of agree-
ment +numbers of disagreement)) ×100 (van der Mars, 1989).
According to the formula, the IR of the three coded lessons was
82.4%, 84.5%, and 94%. Subsequently, four investigators
began to officially code the 63 video-recorded lessons with the
AQTR assessment sheet using the coding protocols.16 The two
investigators watched each recorded lesson together, but each
pair independently coded each recorded lesson.
2.4. Data analysis
Descriptive statistics and percentages were computed to
determine levels and proportions of the students’ demonstration
of competency in each skill assessment. The composite score of
each teaching component score was computed as the overall
QPET score. To determine to what degree the four essential
dimensions of QPET contributed to students’ manipulative skill
competency, multiple R2linear regression analyses were per-
formed. Subsequently, standardized multiple regression coeffi-
cients were analyzed to assess the relative importance of each
essential dimension in predicting students’ manipulative skill
competency. A mean score of overall QPET was calculated and
used as a cut-off point to divide teaching practices into two
levels of quality teaching. An independent sample ttest was
conducted to examine a significant difference of each skill
assessment score between the two levels of overall QPET. All
statistical analyses were conducted by using IBM SPSS statis-
tics 22 (version 22, IBM Cooperation, Armonk, NY, USA).
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive statistics of motor skill assessments
For soccer skills assessment, a total score of nine indicated
the overall competent level. Among 2723 students who com-
pleted the soccer skill assessment, 2031 (74.6%) demonstrated
the competent level or above (9.48 ±1.90, mean ±SD).
Regarding the overhand throwing skill assessment, a total score
of 18 indicated an overall competent level. Of 3420 students
who completed the assessment, 2445 (71.5%) demonstrated the
competent level or above (19.48 ±3.47). For striking skill
assessment, a total score of 6 indicated the overall competent
level. Of 2709 students who completed the skill assessment,
1623 (59.9%) demonstrated the competent level or above
(5.96 ±1.57).
3.2. Prediction of QPET to motor skill competency
To examine the extent to which the four essential dimensions
of QPET contributed to students’ soccer skill competency, the
multiple R2linear regression model was conducted with speci-
fying task design, task presentation, class management, and
instructional response as independent variables and the overall
competent score of soccer skills as dependent variable while
using Weighted Least Squares Regression-Weighted by school
method. Table 2 presents the results of the regression model.
The results revealed that the four dimensions of QPET signifi-
cantly predicted soccer skill competency for the total sample
(F=96.54, p<0.01), for boys (F=67.41, p<0.01), and for
girls (F=45.48, p<0.01). The four dimensions of QPET
explained 12.4% of the total variance in soccer skill compe-
tency for the total sample, 15.7% for boys, and 12.5% for girls.
Subsequently, for boys, the results of standardized regression
coefficients indicated that task presentation (β=0.29), task
design (β=0.20), class management (β=0.18), and instruc-
tional guidance (β=0.10) were significant contributors to
soccer skill competency. In contrast, for girls, management and
task presentation displayed significant βweight (β=0.27,
β=0.26) at a significant level of p<0.01, but task design and
instructional guidance did not display significant βweights.
To determine the extent to which the four essential dimen-
sions of QPET contributed to students’ throwing skill compe-
tency, the multiple R2linear regression model was conducted
with specifying the four teaching dimensions as independent
variables and the overall competent score of throwing skill
as dependent variable with using Weighted Least Squares
Regression-Weighted by school method. Tab le 3 presents the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
4W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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results of the regression model. The results indicated that the
four essential dimensions of QPET significantly predicted
throwing skill competency for the total sample (F=201.38,
p<0.01), for boys (F=75.82, p<0.01), and for girls
(F=130.73, p<0.01). The four teaching dimensions
accounted for 19.1% of the total variance in throwing skill
competency for the total sample, 14.2% for boys, and 24.9% for
girls. Furthermore, for boys, the results of standardized regres-
sion coefficients (β) indicated that task presentation (β=0.49,
p<0.01), task design (β=0.12, p<0.05), and class manage-
ment (β=0.06, p<0.05) were significant contributors to
predict throwing skill competency, but not instructional guid-
ance. In contrast, for girls, task presentation (β=0.48) and
class management (β=0.23) were significant contributors to
predict the daily PA in school at p<0.01 level, but task design
and instructional guidance were not.
To test the extent to which the four essential dimensions of
QPET predicted students’ striking skill competency, the mul-
tiple R2linear regression model was performed with specifying
the four teaching dimensions as independent variables and the
overall competent score of striking skill as dependent variable
with the use of Weighted Least Squares Regression-Weighted
by school method. Tab le 4 shows the results of the regression
model. The results revealed that the four teaching dimensions
significantly predicted striking skill competency for the total
sample (F=67.75, p<0.01), for boys (F=46.89, p<0.01),
and for girls (F=24.97, p<0.01). The four teaching dimen-
sions explained 9.1% of the total variance in striking skill
competency for the total sample, 11.5% for boys, and 7.4% for
girls. Subsequently, the results of standardized regression coef-
ficients indicated that task presentation (β=0.29) and class
management (β=0.08) were significant contributors to boys’
Tab le 2
Results of regression model using overall quality physical education predicting soccer skill competency.
RR
2F Sig. p βt Sig. p
Total sample
Model 0.353 0.124 96.54 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.12 2.75 0.006 <0.01
Task presentation 0.26 8.72 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.21 9.02 0.000 <0.01
Guidance 0.04 1.17 0.240 >0.05
Boy
Model 0.397 0.157 67.41 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.20 3.46 0.001 <0.01
Task presentation 0.29 7.19 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.18 5.93 0.000 <0.01
Guidance 0.10 2.05 0.040 <0.05
Girl
Model 0.354 0.125 45.48 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.04 0.62 0.533 >0.05
Task presentation 0.26 5.90 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.27 7.70 0.000 <0.01
Guidance 0.03 0.48 0.629 >0.05
Tab le 3
Results of regression model using overall quality physical education predicting throwing skill competency.
RR
2F Sig. p βt Sig. p
Total sample
Model 0.437 0.191 201.38 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.06 2.15 0.031 <0.05
Task presentation 0.48 25.73 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.12 5.24 0.000 <0.01
Guidance 0.02 .70 0.49 >0.05
Boy
Model 0.377 0.142 75.82 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.12 2.26 0.024 <0.05
Task presentation 0.49 13.33 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.06 2.03 0.043 <0.05
Guidance 0.04 0.91 0.364 >0.05
Girl
Model 0.499 0.249 130.73 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.01 0.09 0.928 >0.05
Task presentation 0.48 13.04 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.23 7.69 0.000 <0.01
Guidance 0.02 0.38 0.706 >0.05
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
5W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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striking skill competency. In contrast, only task presentation
was a significant contributor to girls’ striking skill competency
(β=0.25).
3.3. Differences of manipulative skill competency between
two QPET groups
The mean score (2.66) of overall QPET was computed and
was used to classify 63 videotaped lessons into two groups:
above and below average QPET group. Table 5 presents
descriptive statistics of each skill assessment between the two
QPET groups. To determine if there was a significant mean
score difference in each of the three manipulative skill assess-
ments between the two QPET groups, an independent sample t
test was conducted separately. The results of ttests revealed that
the students in the above average QPET group significantly
outperformed their counterparts in the below average QPET
group in soccer skill (t=6.53, df =2456.9, p<0.01), throwing
skill (t=10.72, df =3348.35, p<0.01), and striking skill
(t=13.55, df =2493.68, p<0.01).
4. Discussion
According to NASPE appropriate instructional practice
guidelines,21 the essence of QPE encompasses maximal learn-
ing opportunities, meaningful learning content, and appropriate
instructions. In line with the key features of QPE,1,2,11 this study
provided empirical evidence that the four essential dimensions
of QPET including task design, task presentation, class
management, and instructional guidance were all significant
contributors to students’ three manipulative skill competency.
Interestingly, the four essential dimensions of QPET collec-
tively accounted for a relatively high percentage of total vari-
ance in throwing skill competency (19.1%), soccer skills
competency (12.4%), and striking skill competency (9.1%).
While the limitation of this study was a lack of baseline assess-
ment of the students’ competency in three skills, the students
who had experienced high quality of QPET were significantly
more competent in all three manipulative skills than those stu-
dents who did not have this experience. This study confirmed
that a high quality of instructional practices in PE lessons did
contribute to students’ demonstration of manipulative skill
competency.
Corroborating the results of previous studies,15–18 this study
empirically confirmed that providing developmentally appro-
priate and maximally engaging learning tasks; presenting
learning tasks accurately and precisely, accompanied with high
quality of demonstration and relevant learning cues; organizing
students, space, formation, equipment, and transition effi-
ciently; providing timely, specific, and tailored instructional
guidance, and adjusting learning tasks flexibly based on stu-
dents’ ongoing leaning responses, all collectively played
significant roles in building students’ manipulative skill com-
petency. In other words, to better equip students with manipu-
lative skill competency, PE teachers should enact high quality
of all four essential dimensions in a PE lesson.
Furthermore, the results of this study indicated that the sig-
nificant contribution of the four essential dimensions of QPET
to students’ manipulative skill competency was gender-specific.
The results of regression models showed that the four essential
dimensions of QPET explained the amount of total variance in
soccer skill competency and striking skill competency was
higher for boys than for girls. In contrast, the four essential
dimensions of QPET accounted for much higher percentage of
total variance in throwing skill competency for girls, compared
to boys. This study indicated QPET played more significant role
Tab le 4
Results of regression model using overall quality physical education predicting striking skill competency.
RR
2F Sig. p βt Sig. p
Total sample
Model 0.302 0.091 67.75 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.11 3.25 0.001 <0.01
Task presentation 0.23 10.03 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.07 2.47 0.014 <0.05
Guidance 0.06 2.03 0.043 <0.05
Boys
Model 0.339 0.115 46.89 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.08 1.25 0.203 >0.05
Task presentation 0.29 6.69 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.08 2.59 0.010 <0.01
Guidance 0.07 1.27 0.204 >0.05
Girls
Model 0.272 0.074 24.97 0.000 <0.01
Task design 0.01 0.11 0.911 >0.05
Task presentation 0.25 5.28 0.000 <0.01
Management 0.01 0.23 0.817 >0.05
Guidance 0.04 0.74 0.460 >0.05
Tab le 5
Descriptive statistics of manipulative skill competencies between two qualities
of physical education teaching levels.
Above average group Below average group
nMean ±SD nMean ±SD
Soccer skill 1286 9.73 ±2.09 1437 9.26 ±1.68
Throwing skill 1604 20.14 ±3.45 1816 18.89 ±3.38
Striking skill 1223 6.39 ±1.61 1486 5.60 ±1.45
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
6W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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in developing boys’ soccer skills and striking skill competency,
compared to girls. Conversely, the development of girls’ throw-
ing skill competency depended largely on the teachers’ provid-
ing QPET in PE lessons.
Of the four essential dimensions of the QPET, task presen-
tation and task design were most significant contributors to
boys’ soccer and throwing skill competencies, followed by class
management which was a much less significant contributor to
the two skill competencies. Task presentation and class man-
agement were significant contributors to boys’ striking skill
competencies, although class management contributed much
less. On the contrary, task presentation and class management
were significant contributors to girls’ soccer and throwing skill
competencies. However, task presentation alone was a signifi-
cant contributor to girls’ striking skill competency. The results
indicated that task design and task presentation played a more
significant role in contributing to soccer and throwing skill
competency for boys. Task presentation and class management
played more significant contributing roles in the development
of manipulative skill competency for girls.
Although the significant contribution of the four essential
dimensions to manipulative skill competency was gender spe-
cific, Task presentation played the most significant role in con-
tributing to all three manipulative skill competencies regardless
of gender. This study indicated that to effectively help students
demonstrate manipulative skill competency, it is critical for PE
teachers to use high quality features of task presentation. When
presenting a learning task, PE teachers should precisely and
explicitly explain what it is about. To help students see how to
perform a skill and/or a task clearly, PE teachers should dem-
onstrate each key feature of a skill/task one at a time and
demonstrate each phase of a skill/task performance in a sequen-
tial order. During the demonstration, PE teachers should
present related learning cues that accurately capture the key
features of the skill/task and are relevant to the focus of a
skill/task. Likewise, researchers have noted that the teachers’
use of partial and/or full demonstration accompanied with pre-
senting learning cues was effective in helping the students
understand the correct form of a skill.15–18 This study suggests
that without knowing how to perform a skill/task correctly, even
though the students have maximally participated in the task that
is developmentally appropriate, the task itself will not help
students gain a better understanding of the proper skill forms.
Providing ample learning opportunities alone will not help stu-
dents demonstrate proper forms of a skill/task. If students do
not know the accurate learning cues of a skill/task prior to their
task engagement, even though the teacher provides specific
feedback related to their skill/task performance, students will
not make any sense of what the specific feedback means to
them. Therefore, high quality of task presentation is a key
contributor to students’ demonstration of manipulative skill
competency.
It is important to note that in this study the highest number
of students (74.5%) who demonstrated a competent level or
above the competent level is soccer dribbling, passing, and
receiving skills, followed by overhand throwing skill (71.5%).
However, the lowest number of students (60%) demonstrating a
competent level is the striking skill. Striking skill is a basic
specialized manipulative skill used in tennis, pickle ball, and
badminton which are life-time sports. Mastery of striking skill
in childhood lays a foundation for adolescents to effectively
learn and master striking-related skills and to successfully play
these life-time sports. Barnett et al.3found that manipulative
skill proficiency developed in childhood rather than locomotor
skill proficiency seemed to be a significant determinant for
adolescents to engage in moderate-to-vigorous activity and
organized activity. Given the important role of motor skill com-
petency in participation in organized sports and PA, this study
suggests that PE teachers should focus more on helping
elementary school students learn striking-related skills through
providing high quality features of task design, task presenta-
tion. PE teachers need to help students use striking-type skills
in game-like and modified-game situations to reinforce their
skill acquisition and improve their skill competency.
In conclusion, the four essential dimensions of QPET played
a significant role in contributing to students’ manipulative skill
competency. QPET accounted for a relatively high percentage
of the total variance in all three manipulative skills. The stu-
dents in the high level of QPET group were more significantly
likely to be skillfully competent than their counterparts in the
low level of QPET group. Although the significant contribution
of the four essential dimensions of QPET to manipulative skill
competency was gender-specific, task presentation played the
most significant contributing role in increasing manipulative
skill competency regardless of gender.
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Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
7W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article in press as: Weiyun Chen, Weimo Zhu, Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Andrew Colombo-Dougovito, Effectiveness of quality physical education in
improving students’ manipulative skill competency, Journal of Sport and Health Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.04.005
8W. Chen et al./ Journal of Sport and Health Science ■■ (2015) ■■–■■
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