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PMS as a culture-bound syndrome

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... Using the word "symptom" and naming the clustering of "symptoms" as a "syndrome" is problematic. These terms prime girls to associate these experiences with illness (Chrisler 1996). The assertion that these "symptoms" do not indicate illness or disease contradicts common usage of these terms and is confusing. ...
... To replace the notion that PMS with its cluster of negative symptomatology is inevitable, we advocate following Chrisler's (1996) suggestion that potential menstrual-related experiences be articulated as changes instead of symptoms to avoid embedding menstruation within the context of illness. Positive premenstrual changes, which have been noted (King and Ussher 2012), can also be mentioned. ...
... Advertisements are not the only form of public discourse about menstruation. Attitudes are also conveyed through books, magazines and newspaper articles, jokes, and other cultural artifacts, such as "humorous" products like greeting cards and refrigerator magnets (Chrisler 2007(Chrisler , 2008. Most of the attitudes these media convey are negative, and together they have constructed a stereotype of menstruating women, especially premenstrual women, as violent, irrational, emotionally labile, out-of-control, and physically or mentally ill. ...
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In this theoretical paper, we argue that menstruation is a source of social stigma for women. The word stigma refers to any stain or mark that renders the individual’s body or character defective. This stigma is transmitted through powerful socialization agents in popular culture such as advertisements and educational materials. We demonstrate, in our review of the psychological literature concerning attitudes and experiences of predominantly American girls and women, that the stigmatized status of menstruation has important consequences for their health, sexuality, and well-being. We argue that the stigma of menstruation both reflects and contributes to women’s lower social status and conclude with suggestions for ways to resist the stigma.
... These terms pathologize women's "premenstrual" experiences with the PMS label and also place negative menstrual experiences in the context of disease. Such usage of terms has been found problematic and been challenged in the literature, especially considering that while many women do have negative menstrual experiences, it is not universal and "It's Not All Bad" (Chrisler, 1996;King & Ussher, 2012). As such, the term "negative menstrual experiences" has been suggested as a less-stigmatizing alternative to PMS and hence is adopted in this paper. ...
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On average, women menstruate for approximately half of their lives. Little is known about whether and how health-related quality of life (HRQOL) differs across users of different types of menstrual products. To answer this question, this study collected data from 1,245 female university students in Taiwan through an anonymous online survey and compared users of different types of menstrual products in four HRQOL domains. Multivariate linear regression analysis revealed significant differences in all four domains. For instance, regarding physical health, tampon users reported better HRQOL (β = .054) than pad users; regarding social health, tampon (β = .059) and menstrual cup (β = .071) users both reported better HRQOL than pad users. Furthermore, factors influencing HRQOL also differed between pad and tampon users. For example, having many premenstrual symptoms affected both pad (β = -.115) and tampon (β = -.172) users’ physical HRQOL; while pad users with many premenstrual symptoms also had worse psychological (β = -.085), social (β = -.100), and environment (β = -.104) HRQOL, their tampon-using counterparts were not significantly affected. Bisexual tampon-using college women reported worse social HRQOL (β = -.149) than their heterosexual peers. In addition, relationship status and varsity team membership had differential significant associations with the four domains. Future menstrual health education could focus more on introducing the different features of various menstrual products. Our empirical findings can help empower women to make informed decisions about which menstrual products could best suit their needs and improve their HRQOL.
... Unfortunately, in many menstrual education materials, PMS is described as a cluster of negative symptoms along with the implication that these are to be expected (Stubbs, 2020), and such is the case in this game. These kinds of descriptions place menstrual-related changes in a disease model (see Chrisler, 1996), as does having to go to the Nurse's Office if players don't have appropriate protection (although I admit that this is a major way girls get supplies while in school). Further, positive premenstrual changes that have been documented by researchers (e.g., King & Ussher, 2012) are not part of the game. ...
... Feminist social constructionists have provided insight into the role of cultural discourse in the pathologization of the premenstrual woman (Chrisler, 2004), as outlined above. However, social constructionism has been criticized for ignoring the "real" (Speer, 2000), and marginalizing experience outside of the realm of language, in particular embodiment (Sims-Schouten, Riley, & Willig, 2007). ...
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The body is central to women’s construction of premenstrual change as premenstrual syndrome (PMS), and to experiences of premenstrual distress. Embodied change, such as bloating or breast tenderness, can act as a marker of PMS. Within biomedical models, PMS is located within the body. Women’s dissatisfaction with their bodies is also reported to be higher in the premenstrual phase of the cycle. What is absent from this analysis is the meaning and experience of embodied change, in the context of broader constructions of femininity and embodiment. In this paper, we adopt a feminist material-discursive theoretical framework to examine the role of premenstrual embodiment in women’s premenstrual distress, drawing on open-ended survey responses and interviews with 83 women who self-diagnose as “PMS sufferers”. We theorize premenstrual body hatred as subjectification, wherein women take up cultural discourse associated with idealized femininity and the stigmatization of the fat body, resulting in self-objectification, distress and dehumanization. However, women can resist negative cultural constructions of premenstrual embodiment. We describe the impact of psychological therapy which increases awareness of emotional and embodied change, resulting in greater acceptance of the premenstrual body and self-care, serving to reduce premenstrual distress and self-objectification.
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McHugh introduces the term ‘menstrual moaning,’ to refer to women’s negative communication about menstruation. Women’s talk about menstruation is often negative through its focus on pain, discomfort, and moodiness. McHugh ties menstrual moaning to the stigma associated with menstruation. Cultural attitudes that require girls and women to maintain secrecy and silence regarding menstruation contribute to the experience of menstrual shame. Breaking the taboos against menstrual talk may be a form of resistance. Brown argues that breaking the silence and secrecy taboo may help women to develop shame resilience. However, McHugh suggests that menstrual moaning, by reiterating negative cultural constructions of women’s bodies as flawed, deficient, and diseased, may have a deleterious impact on women’s menstrual attitudes, and perpetuate menstrual shame. Women could develop shame resistance and build community through more positive talk about menstruation, but positive menstrual conversations are rarely documented. McHugh recommends further research and activism on menstrual shame, resistance, and resilience.
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The lives of women are characterized by honor and numerous responsibilities, including navigating biological complexities and cultural dynamics. Adjusting daily routines to accommodate menstruation is crucial. This study examines premenstrual syndrome (PMS), menstrual attitude (MA), and quality of life (QoL) for women, aiming to understand their experiences and perspectives on the menstrual cycle. Conducted with 124 female participants aged 18 to 35 in Dehradun, it highlights the significant challenges posed by PMS and MA, particularly for working women and college students, compared to men. Addressing these challenges empowers women and enhances their community. The research underscores the importance of socioeconomic background, revealing greater difficulties faced by women of lower economic status during menstruation. Overall, the study contributes valuable insights into the multidimensional impact of PMS on women's lives and emphasizes the need for supportive attitudes and behaviors towards menstruation.
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Social shame and stigma surround menstruation, which may compromise women’s health and rights in various contexts. Men’s attitudes are particularly important because men often hold positions of power that influence women’s experience. This study examined factors associated with menstrual attitudes, including heteronormative attitudes, sexism, and family influences. A cross-sectional Qualtrics panel survey (n = 802; aged 18–44; 50.8% female) was performed. We tested a revised menstrual attitudes scale based on items drawn from previously validated measures. Data were analyzed using a structural equation modeling framework. Factor analysis identified and confirmed a 5-factor model for menstrual attitudes. Men endorsed more negative attitudes toward menstruation than women; however, this difference was largely explained by factors other than gender in the structural equation model. After controlling for family and demographic characteristics, attitudes toward openness and secrecy surrounding menstruation were most strongly associated with gender role expectations and hostile sexism. Benevolent sexism was associated with finding menstruation debilitating, denying menstrual symptoms, and endorsing avoidance of activities during menstruation. Heteronormative and sexist attitudes were associated with more negative menstrual attitudes, while increased menstrual knowledge was associated with more positive menstrual attitudes. The difference in menstrual attitudes between males and females was explained largely by heteronormative attitudes and sexism. This suggests that attitudes toward menstruation are closely linked to social ideals about men and women.
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In this article, we draw from a body of research in the last 20 years, our own included, to suggest a framework for thinking about how attitudes toward and experience with menstruation contribute to girls' and women's notions of what it means to be female, to be a woman. Building on the current relational framing of psychotherapy, that a cli-ent's conception of herself is tied to her efforts to connect with others, we argue that negative attitudes toward menstruation can cause females to be "disconnected" from one another. Taking a life span perspective, we discuss how adolescent girls receive mixed messages about menstruation , how college women reflect negative attitudes about menstruation, Margaret L. Stubbss is an independent scholar who is currently Research Associate at the University of Pittsburgh School of Nursing. She is studying the impact of acupuncture on hot flashes with Dr. Susan Cohen. Daryl Costos, a personality psychologist , is a lecturer in the Department of Psychology at Boston University where she teaches courses in psychology of women and research methods.
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The female reproductive body is positioned as abject, as other, as site of deficiency and disease, the epitome of the 'monstrous feminine.' Premenstrual change in emotion, behavior or embodied sensation is positioned as a sign of madness within, necessitating restraint and control on the part of the women experiencing it (Ussher 2006). Breakdown in this control through manifestation of 'symptoms' is diagnosed as PMS (Premenstrual Syndrome) or PMDD (Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder), a pathology deserving of 'treatment.' In this chapter, we adopt a feminist material-discursive theoretical framework to examine the role of premenstrual embodiment in relation to women's adoption of the subject position of monstrous feminine, drawing on interviews we have conducted with women who self-diagnose as 'PMS sufferers.' We theorize women's self-positioning as subjectification, wherein women take up cultural discourse associated with idealized femininity and the reproductive body, resulting in self-objectification, distress, and self-condemnation. However, women can resist negative cultural constructions of premenstrual embodiment and the subsequent self-policing. We describe the impact of women-centered psychological therapy which increases awareness of embodied change, and leads to greater acceptance of the premenstrual body and greater self-care, which serves to reduce premenstrual distress. © The Author(s) 2020 C. Bobel et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies, https://doi.
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