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Microencapsulation of ubiquinone using complex coacervation for functional yoghurt
Abstract
Health benefits of CoQ10 and a reduction of endogenous CoQ10 synthesis due to aging have led to food fortification. Lipophylic properties and high molecular weight (863 g/mol) make CoQ10 insoluble in water, a serious problem related to food fortification. CoQ10 was microencapsulated using complex coacervation with β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) and Arabic Gum (AG) as encapsulating agents. Several combinations of β-lg and AG were tested to obtain the highest microencapsulation efficiency (ME) and payload. Microcapsules made of 2.5% (w/v) β-lg and AG and 5 mL of oil containing CoQ10 5% (w/v) obtained the highest ME value, a spherical structure, and an homogeneous particle size distribution. CoQ10 microcapsules included in yoghurt manufacturing had positive effects on physicochemical properties of yoghurt. HPLC analysis indicated that only a small amount of CoQ10 was released during the product shelf life.
... The fortification of yoghurt with coenzyme Q10 was done by [36,37] and these preparations were then compared to evaluate the differences in the bioavailability of the enriched yoghurts. Table 1, Ref. [36][37][38][39][40] delineates the methodology of fortification of yoghurts with CoQ10. ...
... The fortification of yoghurt with coenzyme Q10 was done by [36,37] and these preparations were then compared to evaluate the differences in the bioavailability of the enriched yoghurts. Table 1, Ref. [36][37][38][39][40] delineates the methodology of fortification of yoghurts with CoQ10. ...
... The microencapsulation of CoQ10 in yoghurt was reviewed based on Table 2, Ref. [36][37][38]43], and it can be observed that the fortified yoghurt has higher stability, gel firmness, pH, and increased storage time [36]. The release of the CoQ10 from the yoghurt is a significant factor in the fortification process. ...
1. Abstract Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an antioxidant, fat-soluble component present in the mitochondrial cells. It provides beneficial results in the treatment of male infertility. In the current scenario, the sedative lifestyle, diet and stress in human lead to excessive free radicals (ROS), leading to health aliments. The review is conducted to compare the effect of different fortification methods of CoQ10 in the Yogurt. The study showed that nanoparticles form of CoQ10 in yogurt showed higher bioaccesiblity rates in humans , and the microencapsulation of CoQ10 showed a low amount of Ubiquinone released during its shelf life. The functional Yogurt produced by the Monascus-fermented soybean powder (MFSP) co-fermentation has been shown to have high free radicals scavenging activity. Thus, the review observes that each fortified sample is useful in its way as CoQ10 supplements. Further studies must be done for accurate conclusions on its effect on male infertility, and other fortification media can be explored.
... The fortification of yoghurt with coenzyme Q10 was done by [36,37] and these preparations were then compared to evaluate the differences in the bioavailability of the enriched yoghurts. Table 1, Ref. [36][37][38][39][40] delineates the methodology of fortification of yoghurts with CoQ10. ...
... The fortification of yoghurt with coenzyme Q10 was done by [36,37] and these preparations were then compared to evaluate the differences in the bioavailability of the enriched yoghurts. Table 1, Ref. [36][37][38][39][40] delineates the methodology of fortification of yoghurts with CoQ10. ...
... The microencapsulation of CoQ10 in yoghurt was reviewed based on Table 2, Ref. [36][37][38]43], and it can be observed that the fortified yoghurt has higher stability, gel firmness, pH, and increased storage time [36]. The release of the CoQ10 from the yoghurt is a significant factor in the fortification process. ...
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an antioxidant, fat-soluble component present in the mitochondrial cells. It provides beneficial results in the treatment of male infertility. In the current scenario, the sedative lifestyle, diet and stress in human lead to excessive free radicals (ROS), leading to health aliments. The review is conducted to compare the effect of different fortification methods of CoQ10 in the Yogurt. The study showed that nanoparticles form of CoQ10 in yogurt showed higher bioaccesiblity rates in humans, and the microencapsulation of CoQ10 showed a low amount of Ubiquinone released during its shelf life. The functional Yogurt produced by the Monascus-fermented soybean powder (MFSP) co-fermentation has been shown to have high free radicals scavenging activity. Thus, the review observes that each fortified sample is useful in its way as CoQ10 supplements. Further studies must be done for accurate conclusions on its effect on male infertility, and other fortification media can be explored.
... The parameters of acidity, pH, and peroxide values remained unaffected by the addition of BEO, whether in its free form or as a complex coacervate (Table 3). Ahmadi, Nasirpour, Sheikhzeinodin, and Keramat (2015) also reported no significant differences in the pH of yogurt fortified with a β-lactoglobulin-Arabic gum complex coacervate compared to control samples. To mitigate the strong flavor of capsaicinoids, which may inhibit fermentation in dairy products, Kim, Nam, and Bae (2017) encapsulated chili pepper extract within gelatin-gum acacia coacervates and added it to Gouda cheese curds before molding. ...
... In other scientific studies, the commonly used wall materials in oil microencapsulation were whey protein [19,87,88], sodium caseinate [67,74], gelatin [69,89], maltodextrin [18,68,90], and gum arabic [76,91,92]. ...
Background:
Edible oils have gained the interest of several industrial sectors for the different health benefits they offer, such as the supply of bioactive compounds and essential fatty acids. Microencapsulation is one of the techniques that has been adopted by industries to minimize the degradation of oils, facilitating their processing.
Objective:
To evaluate the intellectual property related to patent documents referring to microencapsulated oils used in foods.
Methods and results:
This prospective study investigated the dynamics of patents filed in the Espacenet and National Institute of Industrial Property (INPI) databases, and it mapped technological developments in microencapsulation in comparison with scientific literature. The years 2015 and 2018 showed the greatest growth in the number of patents filed in the Espacenet and INPI databases, respectively with China leading the domains of origin, inventors, and owners of microencapsulation technology. The largest number of applications of microcapsules were observed in the food industry, and the foods containing microencapsulated oils were powdered seasonings, dairy products, rice flour, nutritional formulae, pasta, nutritional supplements, and bread. The increase in oxidative stabilities of oils was the most cited objective to microencapsulate oils. Spray drying was the most widely used microencapsulation technique, and maltodextrin, gum arabic, and modified starch were the most widely used wall materials.
Conclusion:
Microencapsulation of oils has been expanding over the years and increasing the possibilities of the use of microcapsules, but further investments and development of policies and incentive programs to boost this technology need to be made in less developed countries. For future perspectives, the microencapsulation technique is already a worldwide trend in the food industry, enabling the development of new products to facilitate their insertion in the consumer market.
... Therefore, a number of studies have successfully encapsulated and protected bioactive proteins and peptides by manipulating the pH of proteinpolysaccharides solution to be associative phase separated and eventually forming complex coacervation (Bosnea, Moschakis, & Biliaderis, 2014;Devi, Sarmah, Khatun, & Maji, 2017;Mendanha et al., 2009). For instance, the controlled release of bioactive proteins and peptides, such as β-glucuronidase, ubiquinone, and casein hydrolysate were developed using gelatin-sodium alginate, gelatin-acacia, albumin-acacia, β-lactoglobulin-arabic gum, and soybean protein isolate-pectin complex coacervation (Ahmadi, Nasirpour, Sheikhzeinodin, & Keramat, 2015;Burgess & Ponsart, 1998;Mendanha et al., 2009). However, very little information is available in the literature about the utilization of segregative phase separation derived biopolymer complexation as protein carriers. ...
The incorporation of bioactive proteins and peptides into food is associated with the loss of bioactivity due to deactivation in complex food matrices and in digestion systems. In this study, two different types of protein carriers, i.e. biopolymer complexation and complex coacervation were fabricated using whey protein isolation (WPI, 6 wt%) and beet pectin (BP, 1.25 and 1.00 wt%) at pH 5.5 and 3.5, respectively. The release of the encapsulated FITC-BSA, a model bioactive protein, in both carriers in the absence and presence of laccase was investigated at both pH 7.0 and 4.0. Release of FITC-BSA from both lyophilized WPI-beet pectin biopolymer complexation and complex coacervation were biphasic with an initial burst release followed by a slower release phase. The addition of laccase in biopolymer complexation increased the loading efficiency from 44.95% to 52.15% and slowed down the burst release of FITC-BSA but did change the biphasic release pattern. Laccase-cross linked WPI (6 wt%)-BP (1 wt%) complex coacervation had highest FITC-BSA loading efficiency (96.90%). The release of the embedded FITC-BSA in this carrier at both pH 4 and 7 was in a gradual manner and the profile can be fit to zero order kinetics over the 72 h study period suggesting enzymatically reinforced complex coacervation between the protein and the negatively charged beet pectin can restrain the burst release of FITC-BSA. These results indicate that laccase cross-linked WPI-beet pectin complex coacervation can be a good carrier system for delivering hydrophilic bioactive proteins or peptides successfully with enhanced loading parameters and sustained release profiles.
... Among foods, yogurt is the most popular dairy product with high nutritional value, which is proven as a successful matric for the production of various functional foods (Rowan et al., 2005). In recent years, many different food ingredients and bioactive compounds, such as oleuropein (Zoidou et al., 2014), ubiquinone (Ahmadi et al., 2015), green and black teas (Jaziri et al., 2009), microencapsulated omega 3 and vitamin E (Andino, 2011), have been included in yogurt formulations to improve the functional properties. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the use of different ratios of MS and MD as wall materials for microencapsulation of N. sativa seeds oil containing TQ by spray-drying. ...
The present work reports on the microencapsulation of Nigella sativa seeds oil containing thymoquinone (TQ) by spray-drying, using modified starch (MS) and maltodextrin (MD) mixture as wall materials aimed at producing functional yogurt. First, the impact of different ratios of MS/MD on microencapsulation efficiency (ME) and TQ retention was investigated. The highest ME (90.10%) was found in microcapsules prepared from emulsion with 80/20 ratio of MS/MD; however, the microcapsules prepared with 50/50 ratio was selected for considering TQ stability under storage conditions and functional yogurt production due to an acceptable ME (89.48%) and better TQ retention (61.12%). The results showed that the microcapsules stored at refrigerator temperature had the highest content of TQ after 4 weeks. Moreover, the results of chemical and sensory analysis suggest that N. sativa seeds oil microcapsules can be used for producing functional yogurt due to high stability of TQ and proper chemical and sensory properties.
... The physicochemical properties of the proteins and polysaccharides depend not only on the molecular parameters of the individual biopolymers but also on the nature of interactions between the protein and polysaccharide molecules (Goh et al., 2009). Therefore, tailor-made functionalities such as microencapsulation (Ahmadi, Nasirpour, Sheikhzeinodin, & Keramat, 2015; Jun-xia, Hai-yan, & Jian, 2011; Yang, Gao, Hu, Li, & Sun, 2015) , nanoencapsulation (Hosseini, Emam-Djomeh, Van der Meeren, & Sabatino, 2015; Ron, Zimet, Bargarum, & Livney, 2010), interfacial (emulsion and foam) stabilization (Bouyer, Mekhloufi, Rosilio, Grossiord, & Agnely, 2012; Dickinson, 2009; Liszka-Skoczylas, Ptaszek, & _ Zmudzi nski, 2014; Schmitt et al., 2005), texturizing such as fat replacing () and formation of novel electrostatic (mixed) gels (van den Berg, van Vliet, van der Linden, van Boekel, & van de Velde, 2007; Picard, Giraudier, & Larreta-Garde, 2009; Le & Turgeon, 2015) can often be introduced into a system by using non-covalent (electrostatic Abbreviations: b-lg, b-lactoglobulin; PG, Persian gum; WPG, Water-soluble fraction of Persian gum; MR, Protein to polysaccharide mixing ratio; TC, Total biopolymer concentration; GDL, Glucono-delta-lactone; OD, Optical density; ITC, isothermal titration calorimetry; pI, Isoelectric point.types of proteins, the interactions of b-lactoglobulin (b-lg) with different polysaccharides have been well studied because of its specific characteristics. This small globular protein is the main protein in the whey fraction of milk from ruminants and some nonruminants and is a member of the lipocalin protein family because of its ability to bind small hydrophobic molecules. ...
In this work, the interaction between β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) and water-soluble fraction of Persian gum (WPG) was studied under the effects of extrinsic parameters including pH, protein to polysaccharide mixing ratio (MR 8:1-1:4), total biopolymer concentration (TC 0.1-0.6% (w/w)), ion type (Na+ and Ca2+), ionic strength (0-100 mM) and temperature (25, 40 and 55 °C). Soluble complexes were formed at a pH above protein's isoelectric point (pI). MR and TC had significant effects on the values of critical pHϕ1 (formation of insoluble complexes) and pHopt (maximum optical density). A decrease in MR (at a constant TC) and in TC (at a constant MR) shifted the values toward more acidic domains; while, the critical pHc (formation of soluble complexes) remained constant. The effect of divalent ions (Ca2+) in preventing the complex coacervation was more than that of monovalent ones (Na+). Increasing the ionic strength had significant effect in decreasing the interaction. In this study, the effects of temperature on the thermodynamic parameters were obvious. Biopolymers binding enthalpy as obtained by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) was independent from the temperature in the studied range. Analysis of the temperature effect showed that electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions were involved in the complexation process.
Micronutrient deficiencies remain a global concern, necessitating innovative strategies to improve nutritional intake. Food fortification, particularly in dairy products, is a promising approach due to their widespread consumption and rich nutritional profile. While conventional fortification methods, such as direct nutrient addition, offer moderate success, advanced techniques have significantly improved nutrient stability and bioavailability. This review explores the nutritional significance of milk and dairy products, highlighting their historical evolution and role in dietary practices. Novel fortification approaches, including microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation, spray drying, freeze-drying, emulsification, and coacervation, ensure nutrient protection, controlled release, and preservation of sensory attributes. The integration of liposomal entrapment, protein-based carriers, and polymeric nanoparticles further enhances the stability and efficacy of fortified dairy products. Encapsulation technologies safeguard labile nutrients, extend shelf life, and provide sustained health benefits. By optimizing fortification techniques with a focus on industrial scalability and cost-effectiveness, this review provides insights into addressing current challenges and guiding future research to enhance the nutritional impact of dairy products in combating micronutrient deficiencies.
Nanotechnology has numerous prospects for the creation of novel food systems, such as: functional foods, nutraceuticals, bioactive compounds, pharmaceutical foods, etc. Functional foods can prevent and reduce incidence of specific diseases and can promote our health. Nonetheless, their utilization has been restricted because of their low dissolvability, dependability, bioavailability, and target particularity, and aftereffects when utilized in enormous dosages. In fact, nanoparticles can make a variety of functional components more soluble and stable, can improve their absorption, and prevent quick degradation in our body, and can extend their duration of circulation. Moreover, these nanoparticles (NPs) display high differential take-up effectiveness in the target cells (or tissues) compared with normal cells (or tissues), in this way bringing about diminished poisonousness.
Biopolymers including proteins and polysaccharides have enormous potential applications in nanoencapsulation technology. The synergistic effect present between different biopolymers makes biopolymer complexes as excellent candidates for delivery, targeting and controlled release purposes in food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the fundamentals of mixed biopolymer-based delivery systems. Therefore, an overview of the biopolymer complexation will be presented at the first part of the chapter. Then, the application of different mixed biopolymer systems to develop delivery systems in order to protect the bioactives and to enable subsequent fortification of food products will be overviewed. Finally, advantages and disadvantages associated with complexed biopolymer-based delivery systems and active research areas in this field will be highlighted.
Yogurt gels are a type of soft solid, and these networks are relatively dynamic systems that are prone to structural rearrangements. The physical properties of yogurt gels can be qualitatively explained using a model for casein interactions that emphasizes a balance between attractive (e.g., hydrophobic attractions, casein cross-links contributed by calcium phosphate nanoclusters and covalent disulfide cross-links between caseins and denatured whey proteins) and repulsive (e.g., electrostatic or charge repulsions, mostly negative at the start of fermentation) forces. Various methods are discussed to investigate the physical and structural attributes of yogurts. Various processing variables are discussed which influence the textural properties of yogurts, such as total solids content, heat treatment, and incubation temperatures. A better understanding of factors contributing to the physical and structural attributes may allow manufacturers to improve the quality of yogurt.
The effect of interactions of denatured whey proteins with casein micelles on the rheological properties of acid milk gels was investigated. Gels were made by acidification of skim milk with glucono-boundsoluble, of <20 Pa. Heating milks at 80°C for 30 min resulted in acid gels with G430 Pa. The loss tangent (tan of about 250, 270 and 310 Pa respectively. Acid gels made from milks containing SDWP that were made from ultra-low-heat SMP or FSM had G30 Pa, but gels made from low-heat SMP had G of acid gels made from heated milk. Addition of N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) to low-heat reconstituted milk, to block the of gels formed from heated milk but did not reduce G value than gels made from reconstituted low-heat SMP. It was suggested that small amounts of denatured whey proteins associated with casein micelles during low-heat SMP manufacture were probably responsible for the higher G′ of gels made from milk containing SDWP and from milk heated in the presence of 20 mM-NEM, compared with gels made from FSM.
In this study, a possible use of β-glucan hydrocolloidal composite as a fat replacer in the manufacture of non-fat yogurts was investigated. The yogurts with added β-glucan composite were compared with non-fat yogurt without addition of β-glucan composite and the samples were analysed for physical, chemical and sensory attributes after 1, 7 or 15 d of storage. Fat and protein contents of the experimental yogurts were identical, while ash content differed. Addition of β-glucan composite did not show a significant change of pH, titratable acidity, acetaldehyde, volatile fatty acids and tyrosine contents at any storage time. Titratable acidity and tyrosine content increased significantly throughout storage. Gel firmness and water-holding capacity in the yogurts were not influenced by addition of β-glucan composite, but these variables decreased with storage time. Addition of β-glucan composite and storage time caused a decrease in whey separation. Viscosity values in the yogurts increased by addition of β-glucan composite and storage time. Sensory results indicated a preference for control yogurts; however, use of low levels of β-glucan composite in the production of non-fat yogurt gave satisfactory sensory scores. Yogurts containing 0.25% or 0.50% β-glucan hydrocolloidal composite were acceptable by expert panels and had scores similar to the control yogurt.
A study of refrigerated storage (10 degrees C for 91 d) of whole and skimmed flavored set-type yogurt was made. Comparison with storage at 20 degrees C for 21 d and 30 degrees C for 3 d (accelerated) was also carried out. Refrigerated storage yogurts were assessed by a trained panel and by a consumer panel. Trained-panel scores were correlated to instrumental data, and the acceptability data for long storage were studied using consumer criteria. In all cases, after-storage pH values barely changed over storage time, indicating that the yogurt samples did not develop much acidity under any of the storage conditions studied. The profile of the instrumental texture curves obtained corresponded to a firm gel, which broke after a plunger penetrated the sample, and the firmness values of the whole yogurt were lower than for the skimmed yogurt under all the storage conditions studied. From a microbiological point of view, the viability of the yogurts was adequate at the different storage times and temperatures studied, although those stored at 10 degrees C for long periods would not comply with some countries' minimum requirements. Logistic regression of the data from a 50-consumer sensory evaluation showed that the probability of the whole yogurt being accepted after 91 d storage at 10 degrees C was around 40%, whereas for the skimmed yogurt it was only 15%, largely because the skimmed yogurt developed certain negative attributes at an earlier stage of storage than the whole yogurt.
The aim of this research was to investigate the impact of sodium caseinate and whey protein isolate (WPI) fortification on the physical properties and microstructure of corn milk yogurt. The addition of sodium caseinate and/or WPI enhanced lactic acid production and counts of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. The hardnesss, adhesiveness, gumminess, lightness, water holding capacity, consistency and whey drainage increased whereas syneresis and yellow color decreased at higher concentrations of milk proteins. The optimal milk protein addition for improving the physical properties and texture of corn milk yogurt was 4% (w/v) of sodium caseinate.
The chemical, physical and microbial characteristics, and shelf-lives of corn milk and cow milk yogurts were compared. Fat content of the corn milk yogurt was lower but protein content, hardness, consistency and counts of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus were higher than those of the cow milk yogurt. In the sensory evaluation study, the appearance, color and flavor of both yogurts were not significantly different (P>0.05) at the end of 14 days of storage at 5°C. Fatty acid esters were not found in the cow milk yogurt while they were present as the main flavor compounds in corn milk yogurt. Shelf-lives of corn milk and cow milk yogurts were 14 days at 5°C. Results obtained suggest that corn milk is a potential raw material for making a novel yogurt.
Simple and complex coacervation and the various theories of coacervation are reviewed. The Tainaka theory, which is the most broadly based of all the theories, was considered the most generally applicable. However this theory alone does not give a full explanation of the coacervation process.
Complexes of coenzyme Q10 with β-and γ-cyclodextrin were obtained by using co-precipitation method. Phase solubility profiles with both cyclodextrins employed were classified as AL type, indicating the formation of 1:1 stoichiometric complexes. Water-solubility, thermo-and photo-stability, and antioxidant activity of coenzyme Q10 were significantly increased by complexation with cyclodextrins. Water-solubility of complexes was examined under various conditions (temperature and pH), stability studies in the solid state were performed under stress conditions (T = 80 °C, λ = 254 nm), and coenzyme Q10 concentration was determined by HPLC/MS and HPLC/UV, respectively. The DPPH radicalscavenging method was used for measuring antioxidant activity.
To protect holy basil essential oil (HBEO) from volatilisation and oxidation, microencapsulation by simple coacervation of gelatin was developed. An optimal encapsulating condition obtained from response surface methodology (RSM) was a gelatin concentration of 11.75% (w/v) and an HBEO amount of 31ml, which provided the greatest yield, oil content, and encapsulation efficiency of 98.80%, 66.50%, and 95.41%, respectively. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed that the internal surface of the microcapsule was honeycomb-like networks containing nonhomogeneous distributions of HBEO. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) indicated that there was no significant interaction between the HBEO and gelatin. Under storage conditions at 60°C for 49days equivalent to 25°C for 18months, small decreases in the HBEO retention rate and the antioxidant activity were observed. Thus, the microencapsulated formulation has potential to be applied to other volatile compounds.
A novel flavour microcapsule containing vanilla oil (VO) was developed using complex coacervation approach, aimed to control release of VO and enhance its thermostability for spice application in food industry. Viscosity of chitosan (CS) and VO/CS ratio were optimised for fabrication of microcapsules. The flavour microcapsules were evaluated by scanning electron micrograph (SEM), laser confocal microscopy (LSCM), particle size analyser, infrared spectrometer (FT-IR), thermal analysis and controlled-release analysis. The microcapsules were in spherical with good dispersibility when moderate viscosity CS was used. 94.2% of encapsulation efficiency was achieved in VO/CS ratio of 2:1. The FT-IR study proved chemical cross-linking reaction occurred between genipin and chitosan, but a physical interaction between CS and VO. A core-shell structure of microcapsule was confirmed by LSCM, which was beneficial to improve the thermostability of VO in microcapsule. Moreover, VO could be remained about 60% in the microcapsules after release for 30days, which demonstrated the flavour microcapsules had good potential to serve as a high quality food spice with long residual action and high thermostability.
Health benefits associated to ω-3 fatty acids consumption together with the high susceptibility to oxidation of ω-3 containing oils have led to the development of microencapsulated oils for nutraceutical and food enrichment applications. The aim of this work is to obtain different formulations for linseed oil microencapsulation by spray-drying with high encapsulation efficiency and evaluate their resistance to oxidation through the accelerated Rancimat test. Four formulations were tested; using different combinations of gum arabic (GA), maltodextrin (MD), methyl cellulose (MC) and whey protein isolate (WPI). Microcapsules made of 100% GA and ternary mixtures of GA, MD and WPI presented the highest protection from oxidation and microencapsulation efficiencies higher than 90%. They also presented spherical structures with smooth surfaces which kept unaltered after 10-month storage. GA containing formulation was included in bread manufacturing. Fortified bread resulted similar in appearance to control bread without microcapsules, but α-linolenic acid content was reduced significantly after preparation.
An aqueous dispersion of CoQ10 nanoparticles could be prepared by using amylomaize starch or its dextrin (average DP 311). CoQ10 (100 mg dry solids) was dispersed in aqueous starch or dextrin solution (500 mg/5 mL) at 60–80 °C for 3 days, and then the solids were isolated by centrifuging in the dispersion (25,000× g, 30 min). The isolated particles consisted of CoQ10 and starch at an approximate weight ratio of 2:1. The presence of V-amylose complex with CoQ10 was confirmed under differential scanning calorimetery (DSC), but most of the CoQ10 in the particles existed as crystalline aggregates. The isolated particles, initially ranged in micrometer, could be re-dispersed in water at nano-sizes by treating with a mild ultrasonication. The aqueous dispersions of CoQ10 nanoparticles (100 mg/100 g) exhibited zeta potentials of −33.9 and −51.1 mV, respectively for starch and dextrin dispersions, and remained homogeneous for more than 3 weeks without forming precipitates during an ambient storage.
Food grade sunflower oil was microencapsulated using cold water fish gelatine (FG)–gum arabic (GA) complex coacervation in combination with a batch stirred cell or continuous pulsed flow membrane emulsification system. Oil droplets with a controllable median size of 40–240 μm and a particle span as low as 0.46 were generated using a microengineered membrane with a pore size of 10 μm and a pore spacing of 200 μm at the shear stress of 1.3–24 Pa. A biopolymer shell around the oil droplets was formed under room temperature conditions at pH 2.7–4.5 and a total biopolymer concentration lower than 4% w/w using weight ratios of FG to GA from 40:60 to 80:20. The maximum coacervate yield was achieved at pH 3.5 and a weight ratio of FG to GA of 50:50. The liquid biopolymer coating around the droplets was crosslinked with glutaraldehyde (GTA) to form a solid shell. A minimum concentration of GTA of 1.4 M was necessary to promote the crosslinking reaction between FG and GTA and the optimal GTA concentration was 24 M. The developed method allows a continuous production of complex coacervate microcapsules of controlled size, under mild shear stress conditions, using considerably less energy when compared to alternative gelatine types and production methods.
The coacervation between soybean protein isolate (SPI) and gum Arabic (GA) for sweet orange oil microencapsulation as functions of pH, ionic strength, SPI/GA ratio, core material load and micromolecules was investigated. SPI was exposed to ultrasonic to increase solubility before use and microcapsules were spray-dried before analysis. It was found that the optimum pH for SPI/GA coacervation was 4.0. High ionic strength reduced the coacervation between the two biopolymers. The highest coacervate yield was achieved in SPI/GA ratio 1:1 and the core material load for the highest microencapsulation efficiency (MEE) and microencapsulation yield (MEY) was 10%. The addition of sucrose in sucrose/SPI ratio 1:1 increased the MEY by 20%, reaching 78% compared to 65% of control. The microcapsules were spherical without holes on the surface by SEM observation and flavour components were well retained in microcapsules according to GC–MS analysis, indicating good protection for core material.
The effects of a range of heat treatments on the microstructure and appearance of acid skim milk gels were investigated using confocal scanning laser microscopy, permeability measurements and photography. Gels were made from reconstituted skim milk heated at 75, 80, 85 and 90 °C for 15 or 30 min, by acidification with glucono-δ-lactone at 30 °C, with a few samples at 40 °C. Heating milks, at temperatures ≤80 °C, resulted in a gel microstructure that appeared to have thinner but more numerous branches, and had a higher ‘apparent interconnectivity’ (in the thin optical section of the x -y plane) of aggregates compared with unheated or mildly heated milks that had tortuous, bent or irregular clusters and strands making up the gel network and much less ‘apparent interConnectivity’ of strands and clusters. There were no major differences in the microstructure of acid milk gels formed from milk heated in the range 80–90 °C. Permeability measurements, which gave information on the size and number of the largest pores in the gel matrix, indicated that heat treatment had little effect on the overall porosity of the gels. It was proposed that the aggregation of denatured whey proteins during the acidification of heated milk altered gel formation and were responsible for the modified microstructure. Heating probably reduced the thickness and altered the orientation of the strands in the network. High treatment of milk also resulted in gels having large visible cracks and a rough surface appearance, but gels made from unheated milk had a smooth, unblemished appearance. It was observed that these structural rearrangements of the network, which were responsible for the large cracks and rough appearance of gels made from heated milk, occurred just after gel formation. It was proposed that a reduction in the shear deformation at fracture of gels made from heated milk may have contributed to the greater susceptibility of these gels to localized fracture
Microencapsulation of flax oil was investigated using zein as the coating material. Central Composite Design – Face Centered was used to optimize the microencapsulation with respect to zein concentration (x1) and flax oil concentration (x2) using spray drying. Also, freeze drying was carried out at two zein:oil ratios. The quality of microcapsules was evaluated by determining encapsulation efficiency, flowing properties (Hausner ratio), and evaluating the morphology with scanning electron microscopy. The response surface model for microencapsulation efficiency showed a high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.992) and a non-significant lack of fit (p = 0.256). The maximum microencapsulation efficiencies were 93.26 ± 0.95 and 59.63 ± 0.36% for spray drying and freeze drying, respectively. However, microcapsules prepared by spray and freeze drying had very poor handling properties based on the Hausner ratio. The bulk density decreased with an increase in zein concentration at the same flax oil concentration. The morphology of the flax oil microcapsules depended on the zein:flax oil ratio and the process used for microencapsulation. Flax oil microcapsules prepared by spray drying appeared to be composed of heterogeneous spheres of various sizes at high zein:flax oil ratios. Microcapsules prepared by freeze drying resulted in agglomerated small spheres. These microcapsules might find a niche as functional food ingredients.
Fish oil (FO) was microencapsulated in gelatin (G)-acacia gum (AG) coacervates. To achieve maximum amounts of microencapsulation efficiency (ME) and oil content of microcapsules (OCM), a D-optimal mixture design was used to determine optimum mixtures of formula composition. Moreover, particles size of microcapsules in some formulas was measured. Suitable ME and OCM could be achieved when encapsulants concentration, G/AG ratio, and encapsulants/FO ratio were between 3.2% and 6.7% w/w and in the ranges of 1.50–3.03 and 0.50–1.66, respectively. The particles had a mean diameter in the range of 6.84–13.59 µm.
Encapsulation of marine omega-3 oil by complex coacervation technique has been introduced as most effective approach to delay its oxidation and extend shelf life of ω(3)-enriched food products. Therefore, to produce enriched yogurt, fish oil containing long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids was microencapsulated in complex coacervates of gelatin/acacia gum. Then, the microcapsules were dried and their surface oil was extracted. Set yogurt was prepared by enriched milk with microcapsules powder. Physicochemical and sensory properties of enriched yogurt were measured during 21 days storage. Acidity, apparent viscosity and water holding capacity of enriched samples were higher and gel strength and amount of whey separation were lower compared to the control. The enriched yogurt samples were more yellowish compared to control. The peroxide value of free and encapsulated fish oil in enriched yogurt samples, after 22 days storage, were increased to 72% and 260%, respectively. Fish oil release of microcapsules was not detected by gas chromatography in extracted oil from enriched yogurt. Sensory results showed that untrained panelists evaluated overall acceptance of enriched yogurt with treated-fish oil microcapsules by lime juice as 'neither liked nor disliked to slightly liked'.
The effects of heat treatment and gelation temperature on whey separation in acid milk gels made with glucono-δ-lactone were studied using three empirical methods, two of which were developed specifically to quantify spontaneous whey separation from set acid gels. Gels were made in volumetric flasks and petri dishes and the amount of surface whey produced by gels after 16 h was compared with the amount of supernatant expressed by low speed centrifugation (100 g X 10 min) of gels made in tubes. A central composite experiment design and response surface methodology were used. Using regression analysis a second order polynomial model satisfactorily predicted the effect of heat treatment and gelation temperature on whey separation for gels made in volumetric flasks (R2= 0.89). Whey separation was significantly increased by heat treatment (P < 0.001), gelation temperature (P < 0.01) and the quadratic term for heat treatment (P < 0.01). A significant (P < 0.01) positive correlation (r = 0.71) was observed between whey separation in volumetric flasks and petri dishes. It was suggested that high heat treatments and gelation temperatures favour more rearrangements of the network just after formation, making gels unstable and sensitive to spontaneous whey separation.
The complexes of coenzyme Q10 with β- and γ-cyclodextrin in aqueous solutions were prepared in order to improve the water
solubility, thermo- and photo-stability of coenzyme Q10. Complex formation resulted in an increase in water solubility at
room temperature and pH 6.5 by a factor at least 102. The solubility of coenzyme Q10 in the presence of cyclodextrins linearly increases with temperature and pH. The UV light
(λ=254) and temperature together have a great effect on coenzyme Q10 stability. After 120min of exposure at 80°C and UV
light about 72.3% of pure coenzyme Q10 was degraded. Thermo- and photo-stability was strongly improved by complex formation;
more than 64% of coenzyme Q10 remained unchanged. The formation of complexes was evaluated using IR spectrometry, X-ray diffractometry
and TGA/DSC analysis.
Ubiquinone-10 (CoQ10), a vitamin-like lipophilic compound mainly used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, is vulnerable to light, oxygen and temperature. Microencapsulation of this bioactive material would protect it from such degradative effects. The present study deals with selection of a proper diluent for CoQ10 and emulsion stability followed by microencapsulation using spray drying. Microencapsulation of CoQ10 was performed using different blends of gum arabic, maltodextrin and modified starches as wall materials. The microcapsules were evaluated for the content and storage stability of CoQ10 for 6 weeks. The photostability of encapsulated CoQ10 was evaluated by exposing microcapsules to UV light for 120 min. CoQ10 microcapsules prepared using pure gum arabic as wall material had an enhanced stability at 30 ± 2 °C as well as under UV light as compared to free CoQ10, as seen from the t1/2 values of the same.
The potentiality of using vegetal proteins in complex coacervation was studied through zeta potential and turbidity measurements. Two model proteins were tested and compared: a cereal protein (alpha gliadin) and a leguminous protein (pea globulin). The effect of pH and value of the protein–anionic compound ratio were mainly investigated. The morphology of the coacervate was studied under different conditions and encapsulation of oil was achieved from the two proteins. Optimum coacervation was obtained with arabic gum at pH 2.75 for pea globulins with a protein–polysaccharide ratio of 30:70, and at pH 3 for alpha gliadins with a protein–polysaccharide ratio of 50:50. In addition to their charge density profile, this study showed that the steric conformation of both macromolecules forming the complex was a key parameter determining the ability of the coacervates to encapsulate oil droplets.
Seventy food items (8 types of meat, 16 types of fish and shellfish, 21 vegetables, 7 fruits, 6 pulses, 3 potatoes, 3 dairy products and 6 others) were analyzed using a simple and reliable method that can detect the reduced form of coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinol-10) and the oxidized form of coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone-10) simultaneously. This method employed direct 2-propanol extraction and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) equipped with a reduction column and an electrochemical detector (ECD). Ubiquinol-10 was found in 63 out of 70 food items, while ubiquinone-10 was found in 66 of the 70 food items. In the food items in which ubiquinol-10 was found, its content ranged from 2.63 to 84.8 μg/g in meat, 0.38 to 23.8 μg/g in fish and shellfish, 0.17 to 5.91 μg/g in vegetables, 0.22 to 3.14 μg/g in fruits, 0.68 to 1.82 μg/g in potatoes, 0.72 to 4.3 μg/g in pulses and 0.18 to 33.3 μg/g in other food items including seeds, eggs, dairy products, soybean oil and miso (fermented soybean paste). Pork (shoulder), bovine liver, chicken heart, horse mackerel, young yellowtail and soybean oil showed a high ubiquinol-10 content of more than 20 μg/g. On the other hand, total coenzyme Q10 content ranged from 13.8 to 192 μg/g in meat, 1.25 to 130 μg/g in fish and shellfish, 0.08 to 7.47 μg/g in vegetables, 0.51 to 9.48 μg/g in fruits, 1.05 to 3.01 μg/g in potatoes, 2.31 to 6.82 μg/g in pulses and 0.26 to 53.8 μg/g in other food items. The estimated average daily intakes of ubiquinol-10 and total coenzyme Q10 calculated from our results and data on Japanese daily food consumption were 2.07 and 4.48 mg, respectively. Thus, intake of ubiquinol-10 accounted for 46% of the total coenzyme Q10 intake.
This study aimed to develop a stable solid dispersion of Coenzyme Q(10) (CoQ(10)) with high aqueous solubility and dissolution rate. Among various carriers screened, poloxamer 407 was most effective to form a superior solid dispersion of CoQ(10) having significantly enhanced solubility. Particularly, solid dispersion of CoQ(10) with poloxamer 407 in the weight ratio of 1:5 prepared by melting method enhanced the solubility of CoQ(10) to the greatest extent. However, it exhibited poor stability and hence Aerosil 200 (colloidal silicon dioxide) was incorporated into the solid dispersion as an adsorbent to inhibit the recrystallization process. The solid dispersion of CoQ(10), poloxamer 407 and Aerosil 200 in the weight ratio of 1:5:6 exhibited improved stability with no significant change in solubility during the 1-month stability test. Moreover, the solid dispersion formulation containing Aerosil 200 significantly enhanced the extent of drug release (approx. 75% release) as well as the dissolution rate of CoQ(10). In conclusion, the present study has developed the stable solid dispersion formulation of CoQ(10) with poloxamer 407 and Aerosil 200 for the enhanced solubility and dissolution of CoQ(10), which could also offer some additional advantages including ease of preparation, good flowability and cost-effectiveness.
To enhance the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble Coenzyme Q(10) (CoQ(10)), self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) composed of oil, surfactant and cosurfactant for oral administration of CoQ(10) was formulated. The solubility of CoQ(10) was determined in various oils and surfactants. The formulations were prepared using two oils (Labrafil M 1944 and Labrafil M 2125), surfactant (Labrasol) and cosurfactant (Lauroglycol FCC and Capryol 90). In all the formulations, the level of CoQ(10) was fixed at 6% (w/v) of the vehicle. These formulations were characterized by solubility of the drug in the vehicle, particle size of the dispersed emulsion, zeta potential and drug release profile. Ternary phase diagrams were used to evaluate the emulsification domain. The self-emulsification time following introduction into an aqueous medium under gentle agitation was evaluated. The optimized SEDDS formulation consist of 65% (v/v) Labrasol, 25% (v/v) Labrafil M 1944 CS and 10% (v/v) Capryol 90 of each excipient showed minimum mean droplet size (about 240 nm) and optimal drug release profile in water. The pharmacokinetic study in rats for the optimized formulation was performed and compared to powder formulation. SEDDS have significantly increased the C(max) and area under the curve (AUC) of CoQ(10) compared to powder (P<0.05). Thus, this self-micro emulsifying drug delivery system should be an effective oral dosage form for improving oral bioavailability of lipophilic drug, CoQ(10).
The tissue distribution of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) administered intravenously in an emulsion prepared with egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (PC), egg yolk sphingomyelin (SPM) or a combination of PC and a polyoxyethylene derivative of hydrogenated castor oil (HCO-60) (PC + HCO-60) was investigated. The disappearance from the plasma of CoQ10 administered in three different emulsions of lipid particle size less than 0.5 micron varied with the particular emulsifier. Its disappearance occurred most rapidly from the PC emulsion; with the addition of HCO-60, its disappearance was much slower. In the reticuloendothelial system, the concentration of CoQ10 was higher in the spleen, for both the SPM and PC + HCO-60 emulsions than for the PC emulsion. HCO-60 reduced the CoQ10 distribution in the liver from the PC emulsion. Differences in disappearance rates from the plasma are thus considered to be due to the extent of CoQ10 distribution in the liver. CoQ10 concentration in the heart, a target organ, was greatest with the PC emulsion. Its distribution was related to lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in this organ. The effects caused by HCO-60, however, could not be explained by LPL activity alone. CoQ10 distribution in the adrenal gland and kidney can be explained partly by LPL activity but in the presence of HCO-60, the distribution mechanism apparently involves other factors.
The relative bioavailability of typical commercially available forms of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) was compared with that of Q-Gel, a new solubilized form of CoQ10, in human subjects in two separate trials. In the first, standard softgel capsules containing CoQ10 suspension in oil, powder-filled hardshell capsules and powder-based tablets were tested along with Q-Gel using a daily dosage of 120 mg for three weeks. The baseline plasma CoQ10 values were all very tight (0.50-0.52 microgram/mL) and after three weeks the values were 1.37, 1.63 and 1.60 micrograms/mL for the first three products and 3.31 micrograms/mL for Q-Gel. The relative bioavailability calculated using the areas under the plasma CoQ10 curve (AUC) were (micrograms/mL x time in days) 7.16 (100%), 8.97 (125%), 9.19 (128%) and for Q-Gel 22.86 (319%). The second trial, carried out to replicate the findings in the first, employed only two groups, namely the standard softgel capsules containing the suspension and Q-Gel, and the duration was extended to four weeks. Plasma CoQ10 values were: baseline 0.40 and 0.38 and after four weeks 1.26 and 2.80; the corresponding AUCs were: 8.33 (100%) and 22.75 (273%). Thus, the data from both the trials show that Q-Gel, the new solubilized form of CoQ10, is vastly superior to typical commercially available preparations of CoQ10. This means much lower doses of Q-Gel will be required to rapidly reach and maintain adequate blood CoQ10 values than with any of the other currently available products.
The objective was to develop a microencapsulation process suitable for the controlled release of an active protein drug. beta-glucuronidase was selected as a model protein and a combination of complex coacervation (gelatin/sodium alginate, gelatin/acacia and albumin/acacia) and spray drying was investigated. Coacervates were either spray dried or glutaraldehyde crosslinked to form microcapsules. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyethylene glycol were investigated as potential coacervate enhancers and stabilizers. beta-glucuronidase/polymer mixtures were spray dried to determine any polymer protective effects on protein activity. A BUCHI 190 Spray Drier was used, beta-glucuronidase activity was determined using a Sigma Kit and microcapsule particle size was measured by Accusizer analysis (light blockage). All non-crosslinked coacervates investigated, with the exceptions of albumin/acacia and albumin/acacia/beta-glucuronidase/PVP, were unsuitable for spray drying as they rapidly phase separated and blocked the spray drier nozzle. beta-glucuronidase activity in the albumin/acacia coacervates approximated to 99% prior to and 80% following spray drying. This can be compared to activities of approximately 30% and 68% when spray dried alone and with albumin, respectively, and of 18% in albumin/acacia microcapsules crosslinked with glutaraldehyde. Microcapsule particle size was affected by coacervation pH, additives and spray drying. In vitro beta-glucuronidase release was biphasic, with an initial burst release followed by a zero order release phase and continued over the 12 day study period. In conclusion, the spray drying albumin/acacia/PVP method described is useful for the preparation and collection of controlled release microcapsules with minimal loss of beta-glucuronidase activity.
Complex coacervation in whey protein/gum arabic (WP/GA) mixtures was studied as a function of three main key parameters: pH, initial protein to polysaccharide mixing ratio (Pr:Ps)(ini), and ionic strength. Previous studies had already revealed under which conditions a coacervate phase was obtained. This study is aimed at understanding how these parameters influence the phase separation kinetics, the coacervate composition, and the internal coacervate structure. At a defined (Pr:Ps)(ini), an optimum pH of complex coacervation was found (pH(opt)), at which the strength of electrostatic interaction was maximum. For (Pr:Ps)(ini) = 2:1, the phase separation occurred the fastest and the final coacervate volume was the largest at pH(opt) = 4.0. The composition of the coacervate phase was determined after 48 h of phase separation and revealed that, at pH(opt), the coacervate phase was the most concentrated. Varying the (Pr:Ps)(ini) shifted the pH(opt) to higher values when (Pr:Ps)(ini) was increased and to lower values when (Pr:Ps)(ini) was decreased. This phenomenon was due to the level of charge compensation of the WP/GA complexes. Finally, the structure of the coacervate phase was studied with small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). SAXS data confirmed that at pH(opt) the coacervate phase was dense and structured. Model calculations revealed that the structure factor of WP induced a peak at Q = 0.7 nm(-1), illustrating that the coacervate phase was more structured, inducing the stronger correlation length of WP molecules. When the pH was changed to more acidic values, the correlation peak faded away, due to a more open structure of the coacervate. A shoulder in the scattering pattern of the coacervates was visible at small Q. This peak was attributed to the presence of residual charges on the GA. The peak intensity was reduced when the strength of interaction was increased, highlighting a greater charge compensation of the polyelectrolyte. Finally, increasing the ionic strength led to a less concentrated, a more heterogeneous, and a less structured coacervate phase, induced by the screening of the electrostatic interactions.
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is present in all cells and membranes and in addition to be a member of the mitochondrial respiratory chain it has also several other functions of great importance for the cellular metabolism. This review summarizes the findings available to day concerning CoQ distribution, biosynthesis, regulatory modifications and its participation in cellular metabolism. There are a number of indications that this lipid is not always functioning by its direct presence at the site of action but also using e.g. receptor expression modifications, signal transduction mechanisms and action through its metabolites. The biosynthesis of CoQ is studied in great detail in bacteria and yeast but only to a limited extent in animal tissues and therefore the informations available is restricted. However, it is known that the CoQ is compartmentalized in the cell with multiple sites of biosynthesis, breakdown and regulation which is the basis of functional specialization. Some regulatory mechanisms concerning amount and biosynthesis are established and nuclear transcription factors are partly identified in this process. Using appropriate ligands of nuclear receptors the biosynthetic rate can be increased in experimental system which raises the possibility of drug-induced upregulation of the lipid in deficiency. During aging and pathophysiological conditions the tissue concentration of CoQ is modified which influences cellular functions. In this case the extent of disturbances is dependent on the localization and the modified distribution of the lipid at cellular and membrane levels.
Glutaraldehyde (GA) crosslinked gelatin (G) microcapsules containing Zanthoxylum limonella oil (ZLO) were prepared by coacervation technique. The effect of various parameters such as variation of oil-loading, gelatin concentration and degree of crosslinking on release rate of oil were studied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to understand the surface characteristics of microcapsules. FTIR-results indicated the absence of any significant interaction between polymer and oil.
The gelatin/gum arabic multinuclear microcapsules encapsulating peppermint oil were prepared by coacervation. The effect of various processing parameters, including the core/wall ratio, wall material concentration, pH value, as well as stirring speed on the morphology, particle size distribution, yield and loading was investigated. When the wall material concentration or the core/wall ratio increased, the morphology of multinuclear microcapsules changed from spherical to irregular and the average particle size increased, the optimal wall material concentration and the core/wall ratio were 1% and 2:1, respectively. The multinuclear spherical microcapsules with desired mean particle size can be manufactured by modulating the pH value and stirring speed. The ideal preparation conditions were pH 3.7 at 400 rpm of stirring speed. The yield of multinuclear microcapsules encapsulating peppermint oil by coacervation was approximately 90% and the processing parameters had very slight influence on the yield. When transglutaminase was used as the cross-linker instead of formaldehyde, morphology, mean particle size, yield and loading remained the same as that hardening with formaldehyde, but the particle size distribution became narrower.
Complex coacervation: Microcapsule formation In: Macromolecular Complexes in Chemistry and Biology
- Dj Burgess
- Pl Dubin
- J Bock
- R Davis
- Dn Schulz
Effect of storage on syneresis, pH
- Ps Panesar
- C Shinde
Preparation of aqueous dispersions of coenzyme Q
- Ea Kim
- Jy Kim
- Hj Chung
- St Lim