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Friend support of dating relationships: Comparing relationship type, friend and partner perspectives: The role of friends in dating relationships
Abstract
This study assessed the role of friends in dating relationships, comparing on-off and noncyclical relationships. Participants (N = 460) reported on the friend most familiar with their current or recent dating relationship. We examined friend support of and influence on the dating relationship and the influence of the dating relationship on the friendship. Participants' friends (N = 98) completed a similar survey to compare participants' and friends' perceptions. On-off partners reported less support for the dating relationship than did noncyclical partners. On-off partners also reported greater openness, whereas friends reported greater frequency, of communicating about the dating relationship. Friends also felt the relationship changed the friendship more; friends of on-off partners in particular reported more positive change to their friendship.
... However, research suggests this is unlikely (e.g., Knobloch & Carpenter-Theune, 2004;Knobloch & Solomon, 2002b). Instead, they turn to friends for information (Dailey, Brody, & Knapp, 2015;Jensen & Rauer, 2014;Korobov & Thorne, 2007) even though friends are third-parties to the romantic relationship (i.e., they are not a member of the romantic relationship). Friendships are an integral part of college-aged individuals' lives. ...
... The relationally uncertain individual requesting information is an information-seeker, and the individual sharing information in response to the perceived request is the information-provider. Information is any "stimuli from a person's environment that contribute to his or her knowledge or beliefs" ( Brashers et al., 2002, p. 259). This might include opinions, recommendations, advice, or understanding (e.g., Dailey et al., 2015;Jensen & Rauer, 2014;Korobov & Thorne, 2007). Although a variety of types of information may be provided, college-aged information-providers report struggling deciding what and how to provide information in response to friends' requests (McDaniel, 2017). ...
College-aged individuals report having difficulty deciding what and how much information to provide to friends, yet they often turn to one another for information when experiencing relational uncertainty in a romantic relationship. Given the central role friendships have in college-aged individuals’ lives, identifying ways to decrease the difficulty of providing information is necessary. By framing friends’ relational uncertainty conversations as an information management process, the information-provider’s cognitions and emotions are highlighted as factors likely influencing the information provided to friends requesting it to manage their relational uncertainty. In an online survey (N = 367), participants recalled their most recent conversation in which a friend requested information to help manage a romantic relational uncertainty. Results showed participants provided a greater amount, more accurate, and more positively valenced information to friends when participants had positive expected outcomes and greater efficacy assessments. However, anxiety had a small negative effect on expected outcomes, efficacy assessments, and the information provided. In addition to the theoretical contributions, results suggest that helping college-aged individuals focus on the positive outcomes of relational uncertainty conversations and improving their efficacy could help them be better information-providers to friends.
... On the other hand, means are low for social network RMBs and tangible and network support. Together, these results suggest that partners may be performing private relational work to rekindle a romantic flame before making it official for fear of raising the social network's wrath (Dailey, Brody, & Knapp, 2015). Transition out FWBRs might represent a wide variety of relationships, depending on when and how the romantic part of the relationship ended and partners' interaction since that event. ...
... Such a pattern suggests that partners are communicatively attempting to balance sex and a close nonromantic friendship, but doing so privately. Partners may be concerned with losing the substantial time and emotion invested if a romantic transition goes awry or if partners' network(s) object (Dailey et al., 2015;Guerrero et al., 1993;Guerrero & Mongeau, 2008). ...
The considerable diversity in friends with benefits relationships (FWBR) is largely unexplored. Therefore, this investigation focuses on differences in the communication of relationship maintenance and social support across FWBR types. Given that communication influences relationship initiation, maintenance, and termination, the frequency of maintenance and support behaviors should differ dramatically across FWBR types. Large differences appeared across five of seven relational maintenance, and all five social support, dimensions, which further validate differences among FWBR types and place communication at the heart of these differences. To overcome limitations of FWBR types, a two-dimensional model of FWBRs (closeness and romantic desire) is introduced to more simply explicate diversity. Finally, we discuss practical and theoretical implications of both the results and the dimensional perspective.
... Single individuals use more personal media to interact than coupled partners (Hall, 2020). Close friends of couples in on-again, off-again (on-off) relationships (as compared to friends of couples in NON-CYCLICAL PARTNERS) reported more positive change for their relationship (Dailey et al., 2015). Coupled versus single individuals demonstrate differences in the dependency, consistency, and support from their network ties. ...
Virtual Relationship Memory (VRM) is a conceptual model to explore the way people remember and socially construct their romantic relationships, with a focus on the breakup process and memories after a relationship has ended. The model is situated within the research exploring relationships, technology, and memory. We articulate three components—objects, networks, and stories—which independently and concurrently represent how communication technology affects relational and memory-making processes. We first review research into memory, relational dissolution, and mediated communication to situate the VRM at the nexus of those three domains of study. We define and describe features of the VRM (objects, stories, and networks) and build towards a comprehensive conceptual model. To conclude, we present several potential future research directions—management strategies, curation of emotion, and dualistic functions of memory—with implications for building, extending, and stretching the boundaries of VRM.
... friends' experiences with online dating) in the decision to access online dating. This suggests that online dating may be a behavior subject to social norms and support (see also Dailey, Brody, & Knapp, 2015), for example: The influence of role models, friend's success stories and their support of online dating (Wright & et al. 2012). Future research may wish to examine how these influence the propensity for individuals to use online dating in addition to or as a sole means to find romantic partners. ...
Computer-mediated communication offers a range of potentially appealing features, including selective self-presentation, social presence control, and simultaneous as well as asynchronous interaction tools. The study examines the influence of personality (introversion and extroversion) and personal variables (social anxiety and public self-consciousness) on online dating preferences from two competing perspectives: the “social compensation” (SC) hypothesis and the “rich-get-richer” (RGR) hypothesis. Survey results (N = 162) revealed that the SC and RGR hypotheses do not hold true within the context of online dating. The findings suggest a stronger role of social influence (e.g., peers) in the decision to online date. The SC and RGR hypotheses may be limited in terms of the extent to which these frameworks adequately explain this online behavior. This may also be due to the increasing popularity of online dating sites, which may make personality and personal traits less informative of whether individuals will opt to use such services.
Building on the extant research, the current work outlines a comprehensive model of post-dissolution distress (CMPDD). The model integrates the previous research and includes both distal (static; e.g., controllability of breakup, relational anxiety) and proximal (dynamic; e.g., desiring reconciliation, coping, quality of alternatives) factors in predicting both initial distress and change in distress over time. Potential mediating mechanisms are also proposed. We conclude with a discussion of several ways the model could be potentially refined with empirical research to generate a more specific and parsimonious theory of PDD. Ultimately, testing and refining the model will provide insights on identifying those who will be more distressed following a breakup and highlight the factors that could be altered (e.g., contact with the partners, coping strategies) to best alleviate distress.
Cambridge Core - Social Psychology - On-Again, Off-Again Relationships - by René M. Dailey
Social networks influence romantic relationships through friends' support or lack of support of the union. However, the consequences of friends repeatedly telling other friends their relationship was going to end but failing to actually terminate the relationship are unclear. Guided by the false alarm effect (FAE), and data from both student (N = 273) and noncollege (N = 226) samples, it was found that breakup false alarms were associated with increases in both positive and negative responses. In addition, when participants were friends with both partners, breakup false alarms were associated with “feeling caught” between the friends. Findings generally support the FAE and paint a complex picture of how social network members react to their close friends' tumultuous relationships.
Computer-mediated communication offers a range of potentially appealing features, including selective self-presentation, social presence control, and simultaneous as well as asynchronous interaction tools. The study examines the influence of personality (introversion and extraversion) and personal variables (social anxiety and public self-consciousness) on online dating preferences from two competing perspectives: the “social compensation” (SC) hypothesis and the “rich-get-richer” (RGR) hypothesis. Survey results (N = 162) revealed that the SC and RGR hypotheses do not hold true within the context of online dating. The findings suggest a stronger role of social influence (e.g., peers) in the decision to online date. The SC and RGR hypotheses may be limited in terms of the extent to which these frameworks adequately explain this online behavior. This may also be due to the increasing popularity of online dating sites, which may make personality and personal traits less informative of whether individuals will opt to use such services.
Although stressful life events have consistently been linked to the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD), most research has not distinguished 1st episodes from recurrences. In a large epidemiologic sample of older adolescents (N = 1,470) assessed at 2 time points, the risk conferred by a recent romantic break-up was examined as a predictor of 1st onset versus recurrence of MDD. Results indicated a heightened likelihood of 1st onset of MDD during adolescence if a recent break-up had been reported; in contrast, a recent break-up did not predict recurrence of depression. These results held for both genders and remained significant after controlling for gender. Additional analyses to determine the discriminant validity and specificity of these findings strongly supported the recent break-up as a significant risk factor for a 1st episode of MDD during adolescence. Implications of these findings and subsequent research directions are discussed.
Given previous research on the risks associated with cycling in young adult dating
relationships, the present study examines the frequency with which cyclical dating
relationships (relationships that end and renew) persist into cohabitation and marriage,
the characteristics of these relationships, and the constraints associated with cycling
during these stages using a nationally representative sample of cohabiting (n = 323) and
married (n = 752) couples. Using retrospective accounts, results suggest that over one-third
of cohabiters and one-fifth of spouses have experienced a breakup and renewal in
their current relationship. Additionally, partners who have experienced cycling are at
greater risk for further cycling and experiencing greater constraints to permanently
ending the relationship, greater uncertainty in their relationship’s future, and lower
satisfaction.
We build on the emerging adulthood and marital reconciliation literatures to examine two forms of relationship instability: reconciliations and sex with an ex. Analyzing recent data on young adult daters and cohabitors (n = 792), we find that nearly half report a reconciliation (breakup followed by reunion) and over half of those who break up continue a sexual relationship (sex with an ex). In this young adult sample, cohabitors experience greater relationship churning than daters. We describe individual demographic, social psychological, and relationship factors associated with reconciliations and sex with an ex. These findings showcase that young adult relationships are characterized by considerable volatility and add to our theoretical and empirical understanding of stability in intimate relationships in emerging adulthood.
Although relational research predominantly conceptualizes romantic relationships as either together or apart, some relationships break up and renew (i.e., on-again/off-again relationships). Partners’ accounts of on-again/off-again relational experiences were qualitatively analyzed to explore both reasons for breakups and reasons for renewals. Themes were interpreted within an interdependence framework to explain why partners dissolved as well as renewed their relationships. The themes in combination suggest renewals occurred due to dissatisfying experiences with alternative relationship partners and an increase in outcomes (i.e., rewards minus costs) after breakups. Partners’ post-dissolution contact and their uncertainty about relational status may have further facilitated renewals. More generally, the themes suggest, for on-again/ off-again partners, breakups did not indicate the end of interdependence but rather a redefinition of the relationship.
Social networks have a relatively large and multifaceted effect on the stability of intimate relationships, based on proportional
hazard analysis involving 290 individuals. Perceptions of approval from a respondent's friends and approval from a partners
family increase relationship stability. On the other hand, perceived approval from a respondent's family, overall encouragement
to date, and closeness to a best friend decrease stability in the multivariate model Perceptions of social approval are better
at predicting stability than actual approval. The effects of social networks occur even after controlling for the significant
effects of dyadic variables such as the perceived existence of alternatives, closeness to the partner, and arguing. Findings
confirm the positive and negative roles of social ties and support the argument that friendships can compete with romantic
relationships for companionship.
To study the connections binding close relationships and networks of kin and friends, measures of social participation were developed from daily reports of social activity provided by 89 undergraduates involved in dating relationships. These measures included size of the network and the frequency and length of time spent interacting with network members. As hypothesized, all network measures were inversely related to the stage of courtship under scrutiny. Ss in the later stages of courtship, relative to those in the early stages of courtship, interacted with fewer people, less often, and for shorter periods. However, based on longitudinal analyses, frequency and duration were more robust indicators than size of changes in social participation with network members concurrent with an advancing or deteriorating close relationship. Findings are discussed in light of the advantages of longitudinal over cross-sectional designs. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the connections between variant paths to marital commitment and the degree of joint activity between partners by interviewing 30 newlywed couples (mean age 22.8 yrs) to obtain graphs of changes in commitment to marriage throughout courtship. Data on the performance of affectional, instrumental, and leisure activities with the partner and others also were gathered for different premarital stages of involvement and for marriage. On the basis of diversity in the graphs, 4 courtship groups were identified through cluster analyses: Accelerated, Accelerated-Arrested, Intermediate, and Prolonged. Stage comparisons showed that partners became more active with each other but less with social others as courtships progressed. This pattern held for the 2 accelerated types, although partners in the Accelerated-Arrested type withdrew more and sooner from network activities. Couples in the Prolonged group reported increased companionship to a lesser extent and remained more active with the network. The Intermediate type was marked by more network activity and less companionship during courtship and marriage. The implication that increasing interdependence plays a differential role in the evolution of the types to marriage is discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It is proposed that satisfaction is associated with idealistic, rather than realistic, perceptions of one's partner. To provide baselines for assessing relationship illusions, both members of married and dating heterosexual couples were asked to rate themselves and their partners on a variety of interpersonal attributes. Participants also rated the typical and ideal partner on these attributes. Path analyses revealed that individuals' impressions of their partners were more a mirror of their self-images and ideals than a reflection of their partners' self-reported attributes. Overall, intimates saw their partners in a more positive light than their partners saw themselves. Furthermore, these idealized constructions predicted greater satisfaction. Individuals were happier in their relationships when they idealized their partners and their partners idealized them. Taken together, these results suggest that a certain degree of idealization or illusion may be a critical feature of satisfying dating and even marital relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies evaluated the reliability and validity of the Investment Model Scale, an instrument designed to measure four constructs, including commitment level and three bases of dependence–satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. In all three studies, reliability analyses revealed good internal consistency among items designed to measure each construct. Also, principal components analyses performed on scale items revealed evidence of four factors, with items designed to measure each construct loading on independent factors. Studies 2 and 3 examined associations of model variables with instruments measuring diverse qualities of relationships and assorted personal dispositions. As anticipated, Investment Model variables were moderately associated with other measures reflecting superior couple functioning (e.g., dyadic adjustment, trust level, inclusion of other in the self), and were essentially unrelated to measures assessing personal dispositions (e.g., need for cognition, self-esteem). In addition, Study 3 demonstrated that earlier measures of Investment Model variables predicted later levels of dyadic adjustment and later relationship status (persisted vs. ended). It is hoped that the existence of a reliable and valid Investment Model Scale will promote further research regarding commitment and interdependence in ongoing close relationships.
Although stressful life events have consistently been linked to the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD), most research has not distinguished 1st episodes from recurrences. In a large epidemiologic sample of older adolescents (N = 1,470) assessed at 2 time points, the risk conferred by a recent romantic break-up was examined as a predictor of 1st onset versus recurrence of MDD. Results indicated a heightened likelihood of 1st onset of MDD during adolescence if a recent break-up had been reported; in contrast, a recent break-up did not predict recurrence of depression. These results held for both genders and remained significant after controlling for gender. Additional analyses to determine the discriminant validity and specificity of these findings strongly supported the recent break-up as a significant risk factor for a 1st episode of MDD during adolescence. Implications of these findings and subsequent research directions are discussed.
This research focused on perceptions held by heterosexual couples' friendship network concerning the couple's relationship. In a three-wave longitudinal study, we examined (a) whether these perceptions were similar to the couple's views of the relationship, (b) whether they predicted current relationship state and future fate, and (c) how they compared with the couple's perceptions in predicting fate. Consistent with within-dyad idealization, results from a North American sample indicated that network perceptions of relationship state were significantly more negative than those held by a couple. Although both the couples' and the total networks' perceptions predicted fate, friends of the female couple member were particularly successful at predicting relationship dissolution. An examination of possible mechanisms whereby friends may come to possess particularly predictive perceptions supported the role of couple-disclosure in this process.
Associations between gender, age, emotional involvement, and attachment style and reactions to romantic relationship dissolution were studied in a survey of more than 5,000 Internet respondents. It was hypothesized that individual reactions to breakups would be congruent with characteristic attachment behaviors and affect-regulation strategies generally associated with attachment style. Attachment-related anxiety was associated with greater preoccupation with the lost partner, greater perseveration over the loss, more extreme physical and emotional distress, exaggerated attempts to reestablish the relationship, partner-related sexual motivation, angry and vengeful behavior, interference with exploratory activities, dysfunctional coping strategies, and disordered resolution. Attachment-related avoidance was weakly and negatively associated with most distress/proximity-seeking reactions to breakups and strongly and positively associated with avoidant and self-reliant coping strategies. Security (low scores on the anxiety and avoidance dimensions) was associated with social coping strategies (e.g., using friends and family as "safe havens"). Attachment insecurity, particularly anxiety, was associated with using drugs and alcohol to cope with loss.
This review covers four major topics. First, the authors discuss previous studies on social support that document the content of supportive communications. Next, the discussion turns to the development and validation of the Interactive Coping Behavior Coding System and its converse, the Support Activation Behavior Coding System. A third focus is research stemming from sensitive interaction systems theory, which makes predictions, based on numerous variables, concerning whether an interaction will be ameliorative or harmful. The final section presents findings on the effects of interactive coping variables on relationship maintenance.
Changes in the structure of friendship networks are thought to complement change in a couple's level of involvement in a close relationship. As a pair become close, their network of mutual friends should increase in size, and with declining involvement a concurrent reduction in the number of mutual friends should occur. A measure of network overlap was derived from daily reports of social activity provided by participants. The hypothesized variations of stage and overlap are consistently supported in both cross-sectional and logitudinal tests. Network overlap covaries with stage of relationship, and this covariation cannot be accounted for by a couple's familiarity or length of dating. Underlying variations in overlap are compositional changes in the stability of the network membership, involving either the reclassification of friends or actual changes in network membership. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of considering the social context of developing relationships, since that context can serve both facilitative and disruptive functions.
In this study we examined how support from parents and friends for the romantic relationships of young adults affects the quality of their relationships and the likelihood that their relationships break up over time. Data were gathered over 2 years from a group of romantic couples. Support was found for the positive effect of network support on the quality of the relationship in both cross-sectional and panel analyses. Hazard analyses showed that the female partner's perceived network support increased the stability of the relationships. No evidence was found for the Romeo and Juliet effect.
Slater's (1963) functionalist theory of social anxiety is recast in terms of social psychological processes. As individuals become increasingly involved in an intimate relationship they withdraw from their respective social networks, producing reactions of social anxiety among network members and attempts to interfere with the relationship. Measures of network interference and relationship stage (casual dating to marriage) are derived from questionnaires administered to a random sample of university students (N = 750). Findings indicate that, with reference to parents, siblings, other relatives, and friends, the proportion of network members perceived as interfering changes across stages in a curvilinear fashion. Other issues are discussed concerning the causal linkage of social withdrawal and interference, the conditions that influence the degree of interference, and the interrelations of perceptions of interference and actual attempts at interference.
The role of social networks has been largely overlooked in research on dyadic involvement. Hypotheses linking network involvement and romantic involvement were developed from an analysis of the interpersonal processes undelying structural transitivity. Data were gathered on 193 premarital romantic relationships. Results showed that romantic involvement was positively associated with perceived support from the subject's own network of family and friends, perceived support from the partner's network, attraction to the partner's network, communication with the partner's network, and the number of people met in the partner's network. Further analysis indicated that the network factors were tightly interrelated. Differences in support received from various network sectors were small, but significant. The "Romeo and Juliet" effect only occurred in one sector of the network and then for only some levels of some variables. The predominant relationship between social support and romantic involvement was positive and linear.
What information do young adults convey to their parents about their dating partners and their dating relationships? How, in turn, do parents behave toward their children on the basis of such information? Further, how do parents' actions affect the subsequent course of those relationships? These questions were addressed in a four-month longitudinal study of 159 college students. During the fall, information was obtained from respondents on their feelings of closeness to their parents, their stage of relationship involvement with their dating partner, and the extent and nature of their own and their parents' attempts to influence each others' thinking about their dating relationships. Approximately four months later, participants were again contacted to determine their level of involvement in their dating relationships. Results indicate that young adults monitor the information they provide their parents about their dating relationships and that the more committed the young adult is to the relationship, the more likely he or she is to inform the parents of the relationship and to try to influence their opinion of it. Parents, in turn, are more likely to support relationships in which their offspring are highly involved. However, the amount of support provided by parents did not predict change in the stage of premarital relationship involvement. These findings are discussed from a systems perspective that suggests the importance of viewing young adults' relationship development not only within a context of interpersonal influence but also in light of the young adults' socialization history.
A number of theorists have argued that increased romantic involvement of a couple with each other necessarily leads to decreased involvement with other members of their social network. A critical analysis of those arguments suggests that the withdrawal process is socially defined rather than existentially necessary, and selective rather than universal. Data are presented on network structure for a sample of 419 university students involved in relationships ranging from occasional dating through marriage. The results indicate that as couples become more romantically involved, their friendship networks shrink and they become less involved with those friends who remain in the network. Kin networks do not shrink, although the variance in number of kin listed increases dramatically at engagement and again at marriage. Results are discussed in terms of the interpersonal construction of definitions of relationships and the networks in which they are embedded.
Previous research on the dissolution of long-term romantic relationships has mostly focused on determinants that reflect either the characteristics of the individual partners or the characteristics of the relationship itself. The role of the social context in which couples are embedded has received less attention. This study assesses the association between three characteristics of the social context and the dissolution of long-term romantic relationships simultaneously: the prevalence of divorce in the network of the couple, the extent to which the networks of partners overlap each other, and the amount of social capital in the network of the couple. Using nationally representative panel data from the first and second waves of the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study, partial support was found for the link between the prevalence of divorce and network overlap on the one hand, and the likelihood to dissolve long-term romantic relationships on the other hand, among a sample of 3406 married and 648 unmarried cohabiting respondents. The association with social capital was found to differ between married and unmarried cohabiting respondents, as well as to depend upon the type of relationship the social capital is based in. These findings were interpreted to reflect differences in the symbolic meanings of marital and cohabiting relationships, and differences in types of social capital to which a person has access: relationship-specific versus non-relationship-specific social capital, with the former potentially impeding dissolution, and the latter potentially acting as an alternative to the relationship, thereby encouraging dissolution.
This is an exploratory, descriptive study of relationship redefinition. Using symbolic interaction theory, this paper examines the contours of post-dating relationships, asking the following questions: 1) how do people orient themselves to one another after a dating reltaionship ends?; and, 2) what is the power dynamic between one's social network and his or her post-dating relationship? Using a snowball sample (N = 30), interview data are analyzed as narratives about the respondents' construction of post-dating relationships. Until recently, research has focused on postdivorce relationships and has characterized these as maladaptive (Weiss 1975; Spanier and Casto 1979; Berman 1985). This study joins recent research which suggests that relationships between former spouses or lovers may satisfy legitimate needs such as friendship, shared history, and extended social networks (Metts, Cupach and Bejlovec 1989; Aydintug 1995).
Young adults' romantic relationships are often unstable, commonly including breakup-reconcile patterns. From the developmental perspective of emerging adulthood exploration, such relationship "churning" is expected; however, minor conflicts are more common in churning relationships. Using TARS data (N = 792), we test whether relationship churning is associated with more serious conflict: physical violence and verbal abuse. Those who are stably broken up (breakup only - no reconciliation) are similar to those who are stably together in their conflict experiences. In contrast, churners (i.e., those involved in on-off relationships) are twice as likely as those who are stably together or stably broken up to report physical violence and half again as likely to report the presence of verbal abuse in their relationships; this association between churning and conflict holds net of a host of demographic, personal, and relationship characteristics. These findings have implications for better understanding unhealthy relationship behaviors.
Using phase-oriented interviews (N = 65), this study explored how partners in on-again/off-again relationships negotiated the turning points of breakups and renewals in their relationships. The qualitative analysis revealed themes reflecting transition initiation (i.e., the communication or behavior instigating the transitions) as well as themes reflecting how partners enacted and managed the transitions (e.g., viewing transitions as provisional, resolving past problems and planning for new issues, and using external factors to maintain the transition). Navigating the relational transitions created a struggle for some partners, but the negotiation process elicited feelings of a fresh start for others. Collectively, the themes highlight factors related to communication as well as partners' subjective interpretations, which may be useful in further understanding how partners negotiate relational transitions.
This study is placed within a dialectic framework, illustrating the contradictory needs that exist for relationship openness and closedness. It explores one type of closedness in close relationships - the `taboo topic'. Ninety ethnographic interviews solicited informant accounts of topics which were `off limits' in the context of an opposite-sex relationship in which they were involved. Results indicated that there were six primary types of `taboo topics': the state of the relationship, extra-relationship activity, relationship norms, prior relationships with opposite-sex parties, conflict-inducing topics, and negatively-valenced self-disclosures. Of these topic categories, the state of the relationship was the most pervasive as a `taboo'. In an analysis of the reasons why topics were `taboo', it was apparent that the informants held a negative vision of relationship talk as destructive, inefficient, futile and risky. Extra-relationship activity, relationship norms, prior relationships, and conflict-inducing topics were avoided largely because of the negative relational metacommunication implicit in those topic categories. The findings are discussed in terms of metacommunication and uncertainty reduction.
This study examined actor and partner effects of relationship characteristics on people's appraisals of irritations. Dating partners (N = 135 dyads) reported on characteristics of their relationship once per week for 6 weeks. Results of the longitudinal study indicated that the severity of irritations was positively associated with one's own perceptions of relational uncertainty and interference from partners. In addition, a partner's relational uncertainty, severity of irritations, and directness of communication about irritations were positively associated with the severity of an actor's irritations after controlling for the actor's own perceptions of relationship characteristics. Our findings highlight the complex interdependence that exists between partners involved in courtship.
In two longitudinal studies, university students, their roommates, and parents assessed the quality and forecast the longevity of the students’ dating relationships. The longitudinal nature of this research allowed assessment of the relative accuracy of predictions offered by students and observers. Students assessed their relationships more positively, focusing primarily on the strengths of their relationships, and made more optimistic predictions than did parents and roommates. Although students were more confident in their predictions, their explicit forecasts tended to be less accurate than those of the two observer groups. Students, however, possessed information that could have yielded more accurate forecasts: In comparison to parents’ and roommates’ evaluations of relationship quality, students’ assessments of relationship quality were more predictive of stability at 1 year. Implications of these findings for understanding biases and accuracy in prediction are discussed.
A meta-analysis of predictors of nonmarital romantic relationship dissolution was conducted, including data collected from 37,761 participants and 137 studies over 33 years. Individual, relationship, and external variables were investigated, and results suggest that commitment, love, inclusion of other in the self, and dependence were among the strongest predictors of dissolution. Other relational variables such as satisfaction, perceptions of alternatives, and investments were modest predictors of breakup, and the external factor of social network support was also a robust predictor. Personality measures were found to have limited predictive utility, with small effects found for dimensions relational in nature (e.g., adult attachment orientations). Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed within the context of future research on nonmarital relationship dissolution.
Because on-again/off-again (on-off) relationships typically maintain their relationships in some form even after relational dissolution, a communication process that may be particularly relevant to understanding these relationships is relational maintenance. Using cross-sectional data, the current study assessed relational maintenance, uncertainty, and commitment to further understand how on-off relationships differ from relationships that do not have a history of renewals (i.e., noncyclical relationships). The sample of 487 participants completed a survey on either their current dating relationship or a postdissolution relationship. As predicted, on-off partners used less maintenance behaviors than noncyclical partners in current relationships, but, contrary to predictions, on-off partners did not use more maintenance behaviors in their postdissolution relationships than partners without a history of renewing. Path models assessing the interrelationships among maintenance, relationship uncertainty, and commitment also suggest relational maintenance operates somewhat differently in on-off and noncyclical relationships. Implications for on-off as well as dating relationships in general are discussed.
Past research indicates that social network support is linked to relationship development and continuation. This study fills a gap in the literature by examining social network influence from the perspective of network members. University students completed a survey about a relationship in their network of which they had a strong reaction, either positive or negative. Participants' social reactions to the targeted relationship were associated with the likelihood that they engaged in behaviors to try to influence the relationship. About two thirds of the participants believed that their behaviors had an influence on the outcome of the relationship, and those who reported more influence attempts also reported that they had a greater effect on the relationship. The findings help paint a picture of social network reactions, perceptions, and influence directed toward relationships, from the perspective of the social network.
We seek to understand how the climate of courtship predicts people’s appraisals of the behavior of close friends and family members. To that end, we employ the relational turbulence model to examine the associations among intimacy, relational uncertainty, interference and facilitation from partners, and perceived network involvement. We conducted a cross-sectional study in which 260 participants reported their perceptions of how much network members help and hinder their courtships. As we hypothesized, people perceived the least helpfulness and the most hindrance from network members at moderate levels of intimacy. Relationship uncertainty mediated the concave curvilinear association between intimacy and perceived helpfulness from network members, but interference from partners mediated the convex curvilinear association between intimacy and perceived hindrance from network members. We discuss how our findings (a) contribute to the literature on perceived network involvement, (b) illuminate nuances in perceived hindrance from network members, (c) extend the relational turbulence model, and (d) suggest the utility of educating people about how the climate of courtship may color their views of network members.
Data from five waves of a longitudinal study of romantic couples were analyzed to examine how the partners’perceptions of social network attributes (i.e., network approval for the relationship, network overlap, liking for partner's network) change with the passage of time and relationship transitions. The results indicated that perceptions of network approval, especially from the male partner's friends, tended to increase over time for the participants whose relationship remained intact throughout the longitudinal study. Furthermore, the transitions to engagement and to marriage were also associated with an increase in network approval from the male's friends. Individuals who experienced a breakup during the study reported more network approval than disapproval for the breakup. Finally, the likelihood of a breakup was significantly lower the more approval women reported from their friends and the more women expressed liking for their partner's family at Time 1 (these same associations were nonsignificant for men). These findings provide support for various social network perspectives, including social reactance (Lewis, 1973).
This article explores the understudied yet prevalent phenomenon of on-again/off-again (on-off) dating relationships. Study 1 (N= 445 U.S. college students) showed that almost two thirds of participants had experienced an on-off relationship. Analyses of open-ended responses about relationship experiences showed on-off partners were less likely to report positives (e.g., love and understanding from partners) and more likely to report negatives (e.g., communication problems, uncertainty) than partners who had not broken up and renewed. Study 2 (N= 236), employing quantitative measures, substantiated these findings and further showed a greater number of renewals was associated with greater negatives and fewer positives. Results highlight the need for further investigation regarding on-off relationships, and theories potentially useful in explaining these relationships are discussed.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) proposes that individuals have a need to reduce uncertainty and that elevated levels of uncertainty are associated with relational dissatisfaction. Research on cross-sex friendships suggests that these relationships may be characterized by elevated levels of uncertainty and topic avoidance. This investigation addresses the role of uncertainty as a theoretical construct that may be useful for explaining behavior in cross-sex friendships. Specifically, we address the relationship between uncertainty and topic avoidance, and compare cross-sex friendships and dating relationships on these variables. The results significantly extend past research on cross-sex friendships and suggest that uncertainty may often be tolerated in cases where the expected information is undesirable.
Using a social exchange framework, this study examined the influence of resources, satisfaction with resources, and barriers on friendship quality between former dating partners. Three hundred and eighty-six college students were surveyed regarding their current relationship with their most recent former romantic partner. Results indicated that participants who received more resources reported higher levels of friendship quality with their former partner. Satisfaction with resources moderated the relationship between receipt of resources and friendship quality. Lack of family or friends’ support, involvement in a new romantic relationship, and the use of neglect as a disengagement strategy were all found to be barriers to friendship quality.
The current study examined social network influence processes on romantic relationship outcomes by obtaining the reported opinions of social referents as well as romantic relationship members’ perceptions of social network members’ opinions. Participants were 254 (151 women) college students from the United States involved in romantic relationships along with a male and female friend who all completed surveys regarding the participants’ romantic relationship. This work demonstrated that perceived normative beliefs of social network members significantly mediated the effects of reported social network approval on relationship commitment. Participants’ reports of relationship commitment were found to mediate the effect of subjective norms on relationship persistence. Along with network members’ relationship approval, participants’ satisfaction was found to predict participants’ normative beliefs.
Two recent studies (C. R. Agnew, T. J. Loving, & S. M. Drigotas, 2001; T. K. MacDonald & M. Ross, 1999) investigated the relative ability of outsiders’ (network members) and daters’ perceptions of the daters’ romance to predict relationship fate. Careful analysis of these studies suggests that the types of network members asked and what is asked significantly impact the prognostic ability of outsiders’ perceptions. The current research replicates and extends this literature and highlights the challenges posed when collecting outsiders’ perspectives of their friends’ relationships. Daters and 2 friends (1 female, 1 male) were asked to provide their perceptions of the dating relationship on 2 indexes: a direct prediction of the likelihood that the relationship would last 6 months and an overall qualitative assessment of the dater’s commitment. Results highlight the need for researchers to carefully attend to the instruments and samples employed when obtaining multiple perspectives of the same dating relationship.
This paper examined the emotional sequelae of nonmarital relationship dissolution among 58 young adults. Participants were recruited while in a serious dating relationship, and when it ended, were signaled randomly with beepers for 28 days to complete an emotions diary. Compared to participants in intact dating relationships, dissolution participants reported more emotional volatility, especially immediately following the breakup. Multilevel growth modeling showed a linear decline in love and curvilinear patterns for sadness, anger, and relief. Contact with a former partner slowed the decline for love and sadness, and attachment style and the impact of the breakup predicted the emotional start-points and rate(s) of change over time. The results are discussed in terms of the functional role of postrelationship emotions as well as the importance of understanding patterns of intraindividual variability and differential predictors of emotional change.
Multiple perspectives on interaction: Participants, peers, and observers
- C A Surra
- C A Ridley
Surra, C. A., & Ridley, C. A. (1991). Multiple perspectives
on interaction: Participants, peers, and observers. In
B. M. Montgomery & S. Duck (Eds.), Studying interpersonal interaction (pp. 35-55). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Platonic couple love: How couples view their close couple friends
- G L Greif
- K H Deal
Greif, G. L., & Deal, K. H. (2012). Platonic couple
love: How couples view their close couple friends. In
M. Paludi (Ed.), The psychology of love: The many
forms and rewards (Vol. 1, pp. 19-34). Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC-Clio.