Puppy parties and beyond: the role of early age socialization practices on adult dog behavior

Abstract

The most common role of a domestic dog in the developed world currently is that of companion. Puppy socialization practices play a large role in the development of well-adjusted adult dogs that display few undesirable behaviors, and which can establish a positive, lifelong relationship with their owner. Age-appropriate socialization practices should begin within a few days of birth, and should extend well into adulthood. These practices should aim to provide exposure to many of the types of experiences, people, and objects that the dog is likely to encounter over the course of its life, in a controlled and pleasant way. Dogs that are appropriately socialized as puppies are less likely to exhibit behavioral problems as adults, including aggression and fearfulness. They are more likely to engage in positive social behaviors with humans, and can learn how to play games with humans better than dogs without proper socialization. However, the evidence in support of puppy socialization classes is less clear. There is some evidence that puppy classes positively impact adult behavior, but other studies show no clear benefit. Since socialization should begin early in a puppy’s life, it is the responsibility of the breeder and the owner. Breeders can ensure that puppies are exposed to age-appropriate experiences while in the litter, and owners must ensure that the dog continues to have varied experiences throughout its life. Veterinarians are also an important part of this process, and are heavily relied upon by owners to provide information about health and behavior. Since veterinarians often see puppies during vaccinations, owners can be educated about proper socialization practices at those visits. Future research should aim to determine the minimum amounts of socialization required for a puppy, and whether there is a maximum amount, beyond which there is no benefit, or even a disadvantage.

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Puppy parties and beyond: the role of early age
socialization practices on adult dog behavior
Tiffani J Howell
Tammie King
Pauleen C Bennett
Sch ool of Psychology and Pu bli c
Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo,
VIC, Australia
Correspondence: Tiffani J Howell
School of Psychology and Public Health,
La Trobe University, Box 199,
Bendigo, VIC 3552, Australia
Tel +61 3 5444 7460
Fax +61 3 5444 7850
Email t.howell@latrobe.edu.au
Abstract: The most common role of a domestic dog in the developed world currently is that of
companion. Puppy socialization practices play a large role in the development of well-adjusted
adult dogs that display few undesirable behaviors, and which can establish a positive, lifelong
relationship with their owner. Age-appropriate socialization practices should begin within a few
days of birth, and should extend well into adulthood. These practices should aim to provide expo-
sure to many of the types of experiences, people, and objects that the dog is likely to encounter
over the course of its life, in a controlled and pleasant way. Dogs that are appropriately socialized
as puppies are less likely to exhibit behavioral problems as adults, including aggression and
fearfulness. They are more likely to engage in positive social behaviors with humans, and can
learn how to play games with humans better than dogs without proper socialization. However,
the evidence in support of puppy socialization classes is less clear. There is some evidence that
puppy classes positively impact adult behavior, but other studies show no clear benefit. Since
socialization should begin early in a puppy’s life, it is the responsibility of the breeder and the
owner. Breeders can ensure that puppies are exposed to age-appropriate experiences while in
the litter, and owners must ensure that the dog continues to have varied experiences throughout
its life. Veterinarians are also an important part of this process, and are heavily relied upon by
owners to provide information about health and behavior. Since veterinarians often see puppies
during vaccinations, owners can be educated about proper socialization practices at those visits.
Future research should aim to determine the minimum amounts of socialization required for
a puppy, and whether there is a maximum amount, beyond which there is no benefit, or even
a disadvantage.
Keywords: puppy class, aggression, dog, shelter, breeder
Introduction
Domestic dogs appear to be unique in their ability to communicate effectively with
humans.1 Since they are often more attuned to human communicative cues than
wolves,2 albeit with some exceptions,3 this ability likely developed during the process
of domestication4 and may therefore be encoded genetically. This is important because
effective communication has enabled dogs to live closely among humans for centuries,5
serving a variety of functions to benefit their owners, such as hunting, alerting to the
presence of intruders, and livestock guarding and herding.5
In contemporary western societies, dogs often “work” solely to provide compan-
ionship to their owners.6 Dogs are very good at this role and have performed it well
for many years, but evidence suggests that a genetic predisposition to communicate
effectively with humans is not sufficient for them to be successful. The role is heavily
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Howell et al
dependent on the development of a successful dog–owner
relationship; a failure to develop this relationship, or its
subsequent breakdown, may lead to relinquishment of the
dog to a shelter, a process that is distressing to owners7 and
may be fatal to dogs.8 Appropriate preparation for the role
of companion, in the form of early socialization, is widely
considered to have long-lasting psychological benefits.9–12
Therefore, it is an important component of developing a
thriving dog–owner bond.
In companion dogs, socialization typically refers to the
process of desensitization, ie, gradually exposing a puppy
to new experiences, animals, and objects that it is likely to
encounter over the course of its life, while ensuring that the
puppy finds this exposure pleasant. This process should also
include exposure to numerous sounds and textures, animal
species that it will likely encounter in its life, as well as
humans of varying ages, sexes, and races.10 The process must
begin early in the dog’s life, because dogs experience a sensi-
tive (or critical) period of socialization during this time.9 This
was confirmed in a 1961 study showing that puppies that were
not exposed to humans before 14 weeks of age were never
able to develop normal bonds with humans later on.9
Early periods of a dog’s life
A puppy experiences three key periods in its social develop-
ment, ie, the primary period, the socialization period, and the
enrichment10 or juvenile12 period. Although the name of the
second period is the “socialization” period, all three periods
are relevant to the process of socialization in the commonly
used sense of the word.
The primary period, which is a combination of the
neonatal and transition periods,12 lasts from birth until the
puppy is approximately 3 weeks of age.10 During this time,
their sensory capabilities are not yet fully developed, so they
are wholly reliant on their mother’s care. They gradually
become more aware of their surroundings over the course of
the period, as their eyes and ears become functional, but, for
much of the time, they rely largely on their sense of touch to
navigate the world.10,12 Not surprisingly, therefore, there is
evidence to suggest that various tactile experiences during
this time can affect later behavior. For instance, in one study,
puppies that were handled gently every day early in their lives
behaved more calmly at 8 weeks of age than puppies that
were not handled.13 In addition to handling, this study also
compared dogs raised in home settings or in a professional
breeding kennel. They concluded that while all puppies may
benefit from gentle handling early in life, this process is par-
ticularly helpful for puppies living in an environment with
limited enrichment, such as professional breeding kennels.13
Despite limitations in their ability to see and hear, it is clear
that puppies at this age receive long-term benefits from
appropriate handling encounters with humans.
Early stimulation methods that produce mild stress
through handling of puppies during the first 10 days of
their life have also been shown to have positive results.10
According to one study, puppies exposed to early stimulation
were more resilient to stress as adults, experiencing physi-
ological benefits such as improved cardiovascular, adrenal,
and immune function, when compared with puppies that were
not gently handled during this early period of their lives.10
Toward the end of the primary period, the mother gradually
stops providing constant care to the puppies, and the puppies
begin to focus more on developing social relationships with
their littermates.12 This leads into the socialization period
of development, which occurs from approximately 3 until
12 weeks of age,12,14 and certainly no later than 14 weeks of
age.9 This period includes the beginning of play between lit-
termates, following each other and running in groups.10,12 This
has important implications, especially for puppies that are born
without littermates and suggests particular care is required
when raising lone puppies. Fear responses also develop during
this period; Scott and Fuller reported that puppies at 5 weeks
of age show a strong fear response toward all loud noises
and unfamiliar environments, but over time they learn which
stimuli represent danger and which are harmless.12,15,16
Puppies show fear toward humans early in this period, but
this rapidly disappears with regular positive human contact.12
Among puppies that do not have exposure to humans, the fear
response can become permanent; puppies without exposure
to humans before the age of 14 weeks are unable to form
normal relationships with humans.9,16 During the course of
the socialization period, puppies become less fearful of unfa-
miliar environments15 and demonstrate increased approach
behaviors toward humans and other objects, provided that
they have been exposed to humans and new experiences
beginning early in this period.12
The socialization period is crucial for the development
and maintenance of long-term relationships with humans;
however, the process of socialization should not end at
12 or 14 weeks of age. The third period of development, the
enrichment or juvenile period, is often considered to last
until sexual maturity, although, in dogs, this is not the same
time as behavioral maturity occurs.14 It has not been studied
as heavily as the socialization period,14 but it is an important
period for exposing a dog to many of the experiences that it
will likely encounter over the rest of its life.10
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Early socialization practices and adult dog behavior
By the juvenile period, puppies in developed countries
will usually have received sufficient vaccinations to be able
to go virtually anywhere their owner goes without risking
their health through exposure to the most common commu-
nicable diseases.17 They will have also started to develop an
understanding of the difference between safe and dangerous
stimuli, so they do not show the strong indiscriminate fear
responses that characterize the early socialization period.12
Provided that they have received appropriate, positive social-
ization experiences during the previous periods, they are
presumably less stressed by unfamiliar stimuli, and can cope
with exposure to novel situations and experiences. Indeed,
new encounters during this period may have long-term ben-
eficial effects on behavior, including increased interactions
with humans and calm behavior.18,19
Dog welfare20 and breeding21 organizations recommend
engaging in socialization practices with puppies; this includes
exposure to objects, people, animals, and places outside the
home during both the socialization period and early in the juve-
nile period. This is consistent with the limited evidence avail-
able, which confirms that the process of socialization does not
end when the socialization period officially ends, but continues
well into the juvenile period and into adulthood.
Socialization effects
on adult dog behavior
The current literature and common consensus among dog
behavior experts is that lack of appropriate socialization dur-
ing the sensitive period, along with lack of appropriate ongo-
ing socialization during the dog’s life, plays a large role in
whether or not the dog develops behavioral problems.11,14,22,23
Lack of appropriate early socialization to a range of people
and other animals, as well as different environments, can
result in adult dogs that exhibit problematic behaviors, such
as undesirable aggression and fearfulness.10,11,24 Lack of
exposure to animals that will be forming part of the puppy’s
social group as an adult, which may include other dogs, dif-
ferent animal species, and people and children, can result
in an individual that is unable to form strong social bonds
with these groups.12
In one study, social and environmental exposure admin-
istered to puppies was found to be positively correlated
with measures of sociability, and negatively correlated with
measures of fear and aggression.25 Socialization with other
animal species was negatively associated with inappropriate
predatory behavior, and dogs that attended puppy preschool
were found to be less fearful, less aggressive, and more
social.25 Another study, however, highlights the importance
of appropriate types of socialization: adult dogs with a fear
of noises, such as thunder and fireworks, were more likely
to have experienced thunder when they were younger than
4 months of age.26 This evidence indicates that early experi-
ences play an important part in shaping behavior. If done in
an appropriate manner, these experiences will help to reduce
the likelihood of problematic behavior occurring in future.
However, if this process is not well controlled, it could result
in an increased likelihood of undesirable adult behavior.
A 1999 study examined the effects of socialization on
the ability to play search games with humans, an important
element of search and rescue dog training.27 Dogs that had
not been exposed to humans before they were 1 year of age
could never learn how to play a searching game, while pet
dogs with human exposure were able to learn how to play.
However, one of the human-deprived dogs had lived with
humans until it was 4 months old before being removed
from the human environment, and it performed better than
the other human-deprived dogs in this study.27 While the
performance of a single dog should not lead to generaliza-
tions, this study demonstrates the positive long-term effects
of early socialization to humans, possibly even if a dog is
later removed from human environments for an extended
period of time.
A study conducted by Appleby et al investigated whether
there was a relationship between the display of aggressive
and avoidance behavior and dogs’ experiences during the
first 6 months of their life.24 Their results indicated signifi-
cant differences in aggression toward unfamiliar people and
avoidance behavior between dogs who were raised in kennels,
a barn, or a shed, compared with a domestic setting (ie, in the
breeder’s home). This result points to the importance of
environment in the socialization process. Breeders who raise
a litter of puppies in a kennel, barn, or shed should be able
to provide adequate socialization to the puppies; however,
they may have to make a special effort to ensure that these
experiences occur.
The relationship between socialization practice and
the prevalence of undesirable behaviors in adult dogs is
important not just because these behaviors are annoying to
owners. Undesirable behaviors may also signal the presence
of other underlying issues that may impact negatively on
the welfare of the dog. They may result from an underlying
physical health problem, for example, or confusion about
what behaviors are expected by the owner, and/or poor mental
health in the dog.28 This can become a vicious cycle; a poorly
socialized dog does not understand what its owner expects
and may receive conflicting or confusing messages from the
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Howell et al
owner, which causes it to become stressed, resulting in more
undesirable behavior. If the owner does not then make his/her
expectations for the dog known in a very clear way or lower
these expectations in accordance with the dog’s ability to meet
them, then this stress continues, causing even further undesir-
able behavior.28 It is important that owners and veterinarians
take behavioral problems seriously; regardless of whether
or not they escalate to the point where the owner considers
relinquishing the dog to a shelter, the dog’s welfare may be
compromised if it is displaying problematic behaviors.
There are breed differences in the development of stimu-
lus response, according to Scott and Fuller’s seminal work in
the 1960s.12 For example, a larger percentage of Fox terriers
and Beagles had developed a startle response at 3 weeks of
age than Cocker spaniels and Shetland Sheepdogs. However,
by 4 weeks, all dogs of all breeds studied had developed the
startle response. Furthermore, Coppinger and Coppinger
state that different socialization experiences will have vary-
ing effects on certain dog breeds.29 They exposed a Labrador
retriever puppy to livestock, in order to determine whether it
would be possible to turn her into a livestock guarding dog.
Unlike a dog that is bred specifically for that purpose, the
Labrador never showed intense protective behaviors toward
the livestock.29 Therefore, it is likely that breeding specifically
for certain traits does influence ideal socialization practices
and amounts.
Perhaps there are sex differences in socialization practice
needs, based on adult behavioral outcomes. Male dogs are
more likely to be rated by authorities as expressing dominant
and aggressive behaviors, and female dogs are more likely
to be perceived as more obedient, easier to housetrain, and
more demanding of affection.30 However, to our knowledge,
sex differences in socialization have not been examined, even
though Scott and Fuller did explain that, at any given moment
in a dog’s development, males are likely to be physically
larger than females, and size does affect behavior.12,31 They
also state, however, that growth curve differences between
the sexes do not necessarily correlate with differences in the
rate of learning, so it is possible that there is no discernible
sex difference in socialization needs.
The results of available studies provide strong evidence
of a link between inadequate socialization during puppy-
hood and undesirable adult dog behaviors. What they do
not explain, however, is how much socialization is optimal.
Having no socialization has very clear negative impacts, so
there must be a minimum amount required, but how much
this actually consists of is not known. Also unknown is
whether there is a maximum amount of socialization required,
beyond which any extra socialization is unnecessary or even
detrimental.
These studies also do not explain why there is a link
between puppy socialization and adult behavior. One possible
reason is that the socialization periods during puppyhood are
like biological windows that open and close at certain times,
and an animal that does not have necessary experiences dur-
ing those windows misses the opportunity forever.12,16,29 More
likely is that there are periods where a puppy is developmen-
tally more sensitive/receptive to certain experiences, and that
learning plays a critical role in this process. Animals can only
learn about things to which they are introduced, and they may
do so more readily during a sensitive period. Therefore, a lack
of exposure to a particular object or type of animal at the cor-
rect developmental time necessarily means that dogs do not
have the chance to learn, or take longer to learn, whether that
object or animal is harmless or dangerous.14 In addition, since
mild stress seems to be an integral part of the socialization and
exposure process,10,13 a lack of mild desensitization-related
stress early in life may have negative neurological effects
on the dog and make it incapable of handling any amount of
stress later in life.32 Most likely, a combination of learning
via desensitization and stress inoculation acts to prevent the
behavioral problems noted in adult dogs without adequate
socialization experiences.
Do puppy classes make a difference?
The jury is still out
Despite the general agreement that puppy socialization
practices are crucial in the development of normal social
relationships and psychological health in adult dogs,
the evidence is less clear on the benefit of puppy classes
specifically. Many studies about the effects of puppy classes
on adult dog behavior have been epidemiological in nature,
meaning that they correlate the behavior of adult dogs with
various demographic, owner, and environmental factors. This
method is useful in establishing which factors have a stronger
predictive value on the outcome, but there is some debate as
to whether they can truly determine causal relationships.33
This can limit their utility in evaluating whether a single
factor, such as attendance at a puppy class, has a clear effect
on adult dog behavior. Nonetheless, because controlled
experimental studies on specific populations of puppies are
rare, epidemiological studies are probably the best available
alternative in understanding whether there is any relationship
between puppy classes and adult dog behavior.
In one such study, Duxbury et al found that puppies who
were handled frequently and attended socialization classes,
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Early socialization practices and adult dog behavior
were less likely to be surrendered to a shelter as adults.34
However, some of the other factors that predicted retention
in the home were having a female owner, sleeping near the
owner’s bed, responsiveness to commands, and having no
young children in the home. Therefore, it is possible that
puppy socialization classes are one aspect of a suite of owner
factors that reduce the likelihood of relinquishment.
Another study showed that attendance at puppy classes
reduced the risk of aggression toward unfamiliar people.35
As with the study by Duxbury et al, there were many other
factors predicting less aggressive behavior, including being
a desexed female, having a female owner, attending ring-
craft classes, and positive reinforcement training methods.35
A further study showed a similar result: attendance at puppy
socialization classes was associated with improved positive
social behaviors, and fewer behavioral problems, as adults.25
Other factors that predicted these outcomes were being a male
dog, a higher level of environmental and social interactions
overall, and remaining in the litter longer.
Taken together, the results of these studies suggest that
socialization classes are one piece of the puzzle in develop-
ing adult dog behavior. Since these studies sometimes show
contradictory results (eg, male dogs showed fewer behavioral
problems in one study25 and desexed females showed less
aggression in another35), it is possible that the samples, or
unaccounted for variables, have affected the results of these
epidemiological studies.
Indeed, one study that examined the effectiveness of
puppy socialization programs suggested that exposure to
regular handling procedures and novel stimuli did not sig-
nificantly improve responses compared to puppies which did
not have these types of experiences.36 However, puppies that
received training performed better when given obedience
commands compared with groups that did not.36 The authors
suggest that, for puppies living in typical human homes,
the stimuli and experiences to which they are exposed on a
daily basis in the home may be enough to provide them with
adequate socialization. Therefore, an additional class may not
impart a clear benefit. This was supported by the results of
another study, which showed that training and/or socializa-
tion classes provided in addition to the typical training that
puppies in the guide dog program receive do not affect guide
dog success rates.37
Another reason why puppy socialization classes do not
always appear to singularly affect adult dog behavior could
relate to the ways in which some classes are run. In most
countries, there are no accreditation procedures in place
and puppy classes may be run by people who lack the skills
or experience necessary for this purpose. Perhaps many
puppies simply find the experience too stressful to receive a
noticeable benefit. Although mild stress is a component of
socialization, it is important not to stress puppies too much,
or else the benefits will not be conferred.10,13
This level of stress would most likely be impacted by how
the classes are delivered, who is teaching them, and what the
class curriculum involves. A poorly run class, which delivers
suboptimal advice to dog owners, is not going to be benefi-
cial in enhancing the human–canine bond and may result in
behavioral problems during puppy development. A study on
puppy class trainer “dogmanship”, ie, a trainer’s ability to
effectively read and respond to dog communicative cues,38
would be useful in determining the extent to which trainer
quality impacts the levels of stress experienced by puppies
in class and/or socialization class outcomes.
There was some evidence of the role of stress on puppy
class outcomes in a study that examined the effect of dog-
appeasing pheromone (DAP) on puppy behaviors before,
during, and after puppy class.39 In this randomized, double-
blind, controlled clinical trial, puppies attended an 8-week
puppy class with either a DAP collar or a placebo collar.
The results showed that, compared with dogs wearing a
placebo collar, dogs with a DAP collar were less fearful, and
engaged in longer and more positive interactions with other
puppies during class. Based on owner reports 12 months
after the classes ended, they were also better socialized and
more adaptable to unfamiliar situations.39 This study was not
epidemiological in nature, ie, looking retrospectively to find
trends, but was a randomized, controlled experimental trial
which may suggest a causal relationship between DAP collars
and desirable behaviors. Therefore, these results should be
taken into serious consideration during puppy socialization
course design. It is possible that use of a DAP collar medi-
ates the way that the puppy classes are run, and would permit
novice dog trainers to help socialize puppies adequately in
this way. Further research examining the benefits of DAP
collars, as well as the effectiveness of individual trainers in
puppy classes, should be undertaken.
In sum, the results of these studies do not provide strong
evidence for the benefit, or lack thereof, of puppy classes on
adult dog behavior. More research is needed to determine
whether puppies need a socialization class on top of the
typical socialization practices that they are receiving from
their owners. These results do, however, raise interesting
questions. Perhaps more socialization is not better, or even
necessary. It is possible that there is a tipping point at which
a puppy has been adequately socialized, and any additional
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Howell et al
socialization practices simply do not make any difference.
Future studies should aim to understand whether such a
tipping point exists, or whether there are several tipping
points in different developmental periods of a dog’s life.
Dog behavior experts often recommend an ongoing process
of socialization and enrichment.22,23 This recommendation is
likely sensible, but at present it is based on practical experi-
ence rather than empirical evidence, since there is no clear
evidence to speak of regarding the amount and length of time
that is necessary to adequately socialize a dog.
Most likely due to ethical issues in scientific research,
there appears to be a considerable lack of current scientific
studies that have evaluated in detail the effects of social
deprivation on puppies during their periods of development.40
Current studies often examine normal levels compared with
enriched levels of socialization.36,37 Furthermore, the studies
that have examined this effect in dogs and other animal spe-
cies are often conducted within a laboratory environment.18,19
Most dogs in western societies are kept as companions and
live closely with humans.41 Therefore, there are limitations to
take into account when evaluating socialization practices and
attempting to infer which levels administered in puppyhood
are detrimental or advantageous to future adult behavior.
Adjusting owner expectations
for dogs in the modern world
There has been one study showing a negative correlation
between puppy socialization classes and relinquishment to
a shelter, along with other factors such as having a female
owner and responsiveness to commands.34 Otherwise, there
does not appear to be any direct connection between puppy
socialization practice and retention in the home, most likely
because it has not been thoroughly tested. This is surprising
since inadequate puppy socialization relates to undesirable
adult dog behavior, which is a common reason for relinquish-
ment to a shelter.8,42,43 Therefore, it is possible that there is a
strong, indirect connection between socialization and reten-
tion, even if studies demonstrating this effect are lacking.
Indeed, engaging in appropriate socialization and training
practices may be even more critical in the modern era than
previously. Caring for a dog can be challenging, especially
when they exhibit unacceptable behaviors, and our expecta-
tions regarding appropriate dog behavior sometimes appear
unrealistic.44 For example, it is now common for many com-
panion dogs to be left alone for extended periods, expected to
behave calmly and quietly, with little social contact.45 Owners
are the ultimate determinants of whether their dog’s behavior
is problematic or acceptable. What would constitute a normal
level of barking by one owner may be perceived as excessive
by another. Some owners may have poor knowledge of
which dog behaviors are species-appropriate and which are
excessive and/or indicative of a possible health problem;
they may not provide adequate socialization practices and
may lack understanding of the basic principles of behavior
modification. These owners are often unable to train their
dogs effectively or provide their dogs with adequate mental
and physical stimulation, and they are more likely to have
dogs with behavioral problems.28
Dogs that behave in a manner considered to be unac-
ceptable can be a source of resentment and unpleasantness,
not only to their owners, but also to the general community,
as evidenced by legal regulations aimed at controlling dog
behavior.46,47 Barking, destruction of property, causing traffic
hazards by roaming on roads, and posing threats to livestock,
wildlife, and humans all impact on community wellbeing
and draw heavily on public resources. Undesirable behav-
iors may result in the relinquishment of a dog to an animal
shelter,8,43,48 and approximately 30% of dogs who enter shel-
ters are euthanized,7 with kill rates as high as 68% reported
in some shelters.49 This is a welfare concern and highlights
the importance of establishing why there is a high prevalence
of relinquishment of dogs, and determining ways in which
owners can maintain positive bonds with their dogs for the
lifetime of the animals.
It is important to educate breeders and owners, as well as
those providing advice on dog behavior, to ensure the most up
to date information is being disseminated and implemented.
Dog owners may lack appropriate knowledge regarding dog
socialization practices and canine behavior, as well as what
constitute a dog’s basic needs. Additionally, owners may
lack sufficient skills and knowledge relating to canine social
communication, psychological learning theory, and appropri-
ate behavior modification techniques. It is unclear exactly
where owners seek information regarding dog behavior; they
may be obtaining suitable information and not implementing
it, or acquiring substandard information from a variety of
unreliable sources.
Roles of veterinarian, breeder, and
owner in providing early and lifelong
socialization opportunities
Puppies are generally acquired by their new owners when
aged 8–12 weeks. Up until this age, it is the responsibility of
the breeder to ensure puppies in their care have undergone
early stimulation practices10 and have been adequately socia-
lized for the environment in which they will be spending
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Early socialization practices and adult dog behavior
most of their lives, as well as being conditioned for the main
role they will be undertaking. Considering that most dogs
are kept as pets,41 it is important that these dogs are raised
in a manner that ensures they adapt easily to this particular
lifestyle. This means that the breeder has a responsibility
to select breeding stock capable of producing companion
dogs, as well as a responsibility to evaluate puppies and
match owners with appropriate puppies. Puppy tempera-
ment tests have produced mixed results.50 For example,
one study showed no significant relationship between
puppy behavior and successful completion of a service dog
program.51 Another study, however, showed that fearfulness
in 8-week-old puppies predicted fearfulness as adults, and
this predictive capability continued to improve with age.52
In the same study, willingness to play with a ball as a puppy
negatively correlated with adult fearfulness. While puppy
tests may not always provide an accurate measure of adult
dog behavior, they do illustrate that temperament traits
vary between individuals from puppyhood, and these may
sometimes provide a “best guess” regarding future behavior.
Breeders can use this knowledge to ensure that owners and
puppies are appropriately matched.
Once puppies leave the breeder, it is the responsibility
of the owner to ensure the dog becomes a well-socialized
individual. The owner is therefore required to spend consid-
erable time socializing their dog appropriately, but dogs do
not always receive the necessary socialization and training
protocols, and as a result behavioral problems may develop.11
Similarly, owners may have unrealistic expectations of dog
behavior. A survey of the Australian public indicated that the
majority of people consider an “ideal” dog to be one that is
friendly, fully housetrained, safe with children, affectionate,
obedient, and does not escape the property.53 Interestingly,
respondents rated “fully housetrained” and “obedient” highly
but did not rate “trainable” as an equally desirable charac-
teristic, suggesting a lack of knowledge regarding animal
behavior and unrealistic expectations that dogs should be
readily obedient regardless of their trainability. Adequate
socialization practices, whereby dogs are exposed in a posi-
tive manner to a range of sights, sounds, smells, textures,
places, people, and animals, is likely to produce well-adjusted
individuals that can handle future exposure to novelty and
have strong positive social relationships.
A recent UK workshop conducted by experts on compan-
ion dog welfare recommended that inappropriate husbandry,
lack of owner knowledge, undesirable behaviors, and inap-
propriate socialization are welfare problems of strategic
priority for resource investment to improve companion dog
welfare.54 The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals and local government sectors actively promote
responsible pet ownership and education relating to acquisi-
tion of dogs, socialization, and pet dog training in Australia.20
However, somehow the information is failing to reach
many owners or they are not implementing it. This is made
apparent by the large number of dogs that are relinquished
to shelters due to behavioral problems.8,42,43,48 It is possible
that these behavioral problems developed in spite of adequate
socialization practices during puppyhood in some cases.
Given the strong relationship between socialization and adult
behavior, it is likely that inadequate puppy socialization was
at least somewhat responsible for these behavioral problems
in most cases.
The role of the breeder is not only to raise healthy and
sociable puppies, but also to appropriately select and educate
potential owners about the importance of appropriate ongo-
ing socialization and training for companion dogs. Similarly,
the role of veterinary professionals is of vital importance in
providing accurate information regarding dog socialization
and behavior.40 Often veterinarians and veterinary nurses
are the first point of contact for a client after acquisition of
a puppy for general advice, health checks, and vaccinations.
Furthermore, many veterinarians are regularly meeting own-
ers with puppies at the development periods where good
socialization practices need to occur.17 These practices are
critical in shaping future behavior, and it is necessary that they
are conducted in an appropriate manner.55 A recent survey
indicated that approximately 75% of dog owners consider
veterinarians to be a valuable source of information on pet-
related issues. Furthermore, over half of all owners indicated
that veterinarians are the best source of information.56
This last result is important, but it is also of some con-
cern, since theoretical and practical knowledge relating to
dog behavior and welfare are not core components of many
veterinary science57 or animal science curricula.58 Given that
behavioral problems are a leading cause for pet relinquish-
ment, the veterinary profession needs to be able to provide
appropriate advice relating to behavior and socialization, as
well as preventive health care. Many veterinarians undoubt-
edly have an intuitive understanding of best management
practice for dog behavior and socialization based on their
experience in veterinary practice, and can therefore provide
their clients with sound advice. Others choose to become
experts in behavior by undertaking additional study. However,
behavior management courses should be included in all
veterinary science curricula in order to better standardize
the advice provided by veterinarians to clients who need
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Howell et al
their help. This will improve the likelihood that owners who
attend virtually any veterinary clinic will receive appropriate
information about behavior, based on the current state of the
science. Otherwise, the profession may need to acknowledge
this lack of behavioral education and implement policies to
refer owners who have behavioral concerns about their dogs
to suitably qualified trainers and/or veterinary behaviorists.
A clinic with a veterinary behaviorist would be able to
provide a “one stop shop” for dog owners who are experienc-
ing concerns about their dog’s behavior. The veterinarians
could ensure that there is no underlying physical problem,
and refer the owner to the veterinary behaviorist for tailored
advice on solving the behavioral problem. Many veterinar-
ians are undoubtedly qualified to provide advice on most
behavioral problems. However, for the more uncommon
problems, or problems that are particularly difficult to resolve
using typical techniques, a veterinary behaviorist may prove
a valuable resource.
The prevalence of dog behavior problems, coupled with
irresponsible or poorly informed dog breeder practices, the
sourcing of potentially unreliable information, and lack of
owner knowledge, contribute to poor companion dog welfare.
Indeed, according to the results of one recent survey, many
dog owners believe that their dogs are cognitively capable of
more than what has been demonstrated in empirical research
studies.59 This may affect the dog–owner relationship if own-
ers believe that a dog is being “dominant” or “knows better”,
when the dog exhibits an undesirable behavior because it does
not understand the owner’s expectations.
New research is needed in order to build on existing
scientific findings, which will help determine best breeding
and handling practices, factors underlying owner knowledge,
and where such information is sourced. This information will
allow groups such as welfare organizations and local govern-
ment to develop and target their educational campaigns, to
ensure that the community is equipped with the best infor-
mation to optimize companion dog welfare. Best practice
protocols regarding puppy handling and socialization can be
implemented by breeders. If owners are sourcing information
predominantly from veterinarians and veterinary nurses, it
is necessary to establish whether this is credible advice and
ensure these professionals are up to date with best-practice
methods in dog behavior, training, and socialization.
Recommendations for future
research and practice
To conclude, the existing scientific evidence suggests that
socialization is a key component of producing an adult dog
which behaves in an appropriate manner and is well-suited
to living with humans in modern day society. Puppies
should ideally be exposed to very mild stressors during the
neonatal period, and must receive regular human contact,
of an appropriate kind, during the socialization period. This
information is particularly important for breeders, given that
puppies are generally still in the litter during these periods.
From the socialization period and throughout the juvenile or
enrichment period, owners should take care to expose pup-
pies safely to a wide variety of different experiences, objects,
animals, and people, while ensuring that the puppy enjoys
these experiences and is not overly frightened by them. All
of these practices will help improve the likelihood of raising
a temperamentally sound dog.
The benefits of puppy socialization classes are less clear
than the beneficial effects of socialization in general. It is
possible that most pet dogs are raised in enriching environ-
ments that provide adequate socialization without the need for
special classes. Since the results of these studies have been
mixed, future research should aim to determine whether there
is a clear benefit to attending puppy classes. This could be
included in research studies aiming to establish best practice
models for early handling and socialization from puppyhood
into adulthood.
Studies examining the benefits of appropriately run puppy
socialization classes held in veterinary clinics would be useful
in helping researchers understand whether this process effec-
tively socializes puppies to the clinic. These classes poten-
tially reduce fearful responses created in animals which only
ever come to the clinic when they are hurt and scared. Puppy
classes may also be useful in terms of building a relation-
ship with future clients and educating new owners, thereby
encouraging retention of clients who regularly bring their dog
into the clinic for health and behavioral advice. Therefore,
veterinary clinic puppy socialization classes might be helpful
for reasons beyond socialization itself.
While there is general agreement about the importance
of socialization, it is unclear just how much socialization
is actually necessary. Perhaps the minimum required var-
ies from individual to individual, or maybe there are breed
differences. Is there a maximum amount? If so, is more still
better, or is it worse, or does it make no difference at all?
Perhaps there are interaction effects as well, so that a puppy
with extensive socialization to humans but little experience
with other animals will have different behavioral outcomes
as an adult than a puppy with equal, but moderate, levels
of experience with humans and other animals. Despite the
extensive work undertaken by canine scientists to evaluate the
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151
Early socialization practices and adult dog behavior
effects of socialization, there is still much to be done before
researchers can develop a comprehensive understanding of
the process.
Research should also attempt to understand the level of
breeder knowledge about dog behavior and socialization.
It is fair to assume that a breeder who is educated about the
importance of socialization would make every effort to ensure
that their puppies are well socialized. However, the current
level of breeder knowledge is not known; it is possible that
a more knowledgeable breeder will produce puppies with
solid temperaments, but this should be explored in depth.
If it is indeed the case, then breeders should be encouraged
to attend seminars and workshops designed to increase
their knowledge about the role of socialization in adult dog
behavior. Much relevant information is already provided on
purebred club websites, such as the American Kennel Club
and the United Kingdom Kennel Club.60,61
Just as breeder understanding of socialization is unknown,
research has not established owner knowledge of dog behav-
ior, training, socialization, behavior modification, and learn-
ing theory. As with breeders, it is possible that owners who
are educated on these topics will raise well-adjusted dogs
that exhibit few undesirable behaviors. Researchers should
aim to determine whether this is in fact the case. It is also
possible that owners who are educated about dog behavior
will be less likely to interpret normal dog51 behavior as
abnormal or excessive, but this has not been confirmed in
scientific studies.
Finally, since many veterinary science programs do not
require the completion of dog behavior courses, it is important
to understand the level of knowledge of veterinary profession-
als regarding dog behavior and behavior modification. This
will help identify gaps in that knowledge, which can be recti-
fied by including dog behavior components in future degree
programs, and by offering professional development programs
on socialization for current veterinarians. Since the veterinarian
is often the first port of call for new owners, or owners who are
concerned about their dog’s behavior, this knowledge could
potentially impact the lives of thousands of animals.
It is clear that both dogs and owners benefit from a strong
dog–owner bond. Socialization is a crucial element in the
development of a positive relationship between dog and
owner. This process, which begins early in a dog’s life, has
long-term and wide-ranging effects on the adult behavior
of the dog. A well-socialized dog will likely display fewer
undesirable behaviors as an adult, which is a common
reason why the dog–owner bond breaks down and dogs
are relinquished to shelters. It is unclear just how much
socialization is necessary to produce a well-adjusted adult
dog, but appropriate socialization practice as a puppy pro-
vides the dog with a strong foundation for a long, healthy
life with a devoted owner.
Disclosure
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.
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