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Essential oil profiles
... [31] D-limonene, a major constituent of most CEOs has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-carcinogenic activities. [32,33] Despite the toxic reports about d-limonene, it has demonstrated anti-carcinogenic properties in lung cancer cells. [34] For example, Benzopentaphene-induced cancer mice given d-limonene subcutaneously had delayed onset of lung tumor and therefore prolonged survival. ...
... Predominantly, CEOs are reported to be nontoxic, non-carcinogenic, and non-mutagenic but few works revealed mild toxicity which was mainly phototoxic effects of some CEOs. [33] Bergamot, lime, and bitter orange essential oils have been reported to have caused low to moderate phototoxicity and skin irritation or sensitizing in rabbits and mice. [194] Bergapten and furocoumarins present in some CEOs are the main polycyclic molecules that absorb ultraviolet photons, store them for a while, and then release them in a burst onto the skin resulting in phototoxicity. ...
... [194] Bergapten and furocoumarins present in some CEOs are the main polycyclic molecules that absorb ultraviolet photons, store them for a while, and then release them in a burst onto the skin resulting in phototoxicity. [33] Expressed bergamot essential oil triggered severe photo-dermatotoxic effects on hairless mice and pigs. [195] The distilled oils are normally not phototoxic but the expressed oils always have a low to moderate risk of phototoxicity which could be attributed to the presence of furanocoumarins. ...
Citrus essential oil (CEO) is obtained from the fruit of Genus Citrus, a flowering plant shrub in the family of the Rutaceae (Eremocitrus or Microcitrus) and extensively used in food, chemical industry, and traditional medicinal treatment owing to its pleasant aroma, antioxidant, and antiseptic properties. This review presents a botanical description, distribution, traditional uses, chemical composition, bioactive components, and the therapeutic uses as well as toxicological effects of the CEO. The objective was achieved via a comprehensive literature search of electronic databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, Wiley, ACS, Springer, Taylor and Francis, Google Scholar, SCOPUS, conference proceedings, thesis, and books until 2022 for publications. Citrus essential oils and their constituents are extracted and isolated either from the fruit peels, seeds, leaves, or flowers of the citrus plants. A comparative study of the sources of CEO confirmed its origin, ethnopharmacological and therapeutic uses. Over 2000 secondary metabolites have been isolated, with the main active constituents: being terpenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes. A comprehensive literature review revealed vast therapeutic benefits of CEO. Incomplete data report on in vitro and in vivo trials especially, on dosage, positive and negative control groups, intervention time, toxicity studies, phytochemical profiling, and clinical trials seem to be a knowledge gap.
... A review of essential oils (Tisserand and Young, 2014) described litsea berry oil (May Chang) as a dermal sensitiser with evidence of effects in both animals (Local Lymph Node Assay) and human dermatitis patients (Rudzki et al. 1976, as referenced in Tisserand andYoung, 2014). Lalko and Api (2006) investigated dermal sensitisation potential of litsea berry oil provided by commercial supplier (further details not provided but stated by the applicant to have a similar composition as that of litsea berry oil) using a local lymph node assay at concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50% w/v in 1:3 ethanol:diethyl phthalate. ...
... A review of essential oils (Tisserand and Young, 2014) described litsea berry oil (May Chang) as a dermal sensitiser with evidence of effects in both animals (Local Lymph Node Assay) and human dermatitis patients (Rudzki et al. 1976, as referenced in Tisserand andYoung, 2014). Lalko and Api (2006) investigated dermal sensitisation potential of litsea berry oil provided by commercial supplier (further details not provided but stated by the applicant to have a similar composition as that of litsea berry oil) using a local lymph node assay at concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50% w/v in 1:3 ethanol:diethyl phthalate. ...
... It is stated by Tisserand and Young (2014) that undiluted oil is moderately irritating to rabbits and strongly irritating to the skin of pigs and mice. This irritant potential is also supported by evidence from the ECHA submission on essential oil of Litsea. ...
Abstract Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of an essential oil from the fruits of Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. (litsea berry oil), when used as a sensory additive (flavouring) in feed and water for drinking for all animal species. The FEEDAP Panel concluded that litsea berry oil is safe up to the maximum proposed use level of 125 mg/kg complete feed for ornamental fish. For the other species, the calculated safe concentration in complete feed are 11 mg/kg for chicken for fattening, 16 mg/kg for laying hen, 14 mg/kg for turkey for fattening, 19 mg/kg for piglet, 23 mg/kg for pig for fattening, 28 mg/kg for lactating sow, 48 mg/kg for veal calf (milk replacer), 43 mg/kg for cattle for fattening, sheep, goat and horse, 28 mg/kg for dairy cow, 17 mg/kg for rabbit, 47 mg/kg for salmon, 50 mg/kg for dog and 8.5 mg/kg for cat. The FEEDAP Panel also concluded that the use of litsea berry oil at the maximum proposed use level in water for drinking of 1 mg/kg is safe for all animal species. Simultaneous use in feed and water for drinking may lead to the maximum safe dose being exceeded. No concerns for consumer safety were identified following the use of the additive up to the highest safe use level in feed for the target animals. The essential oil under assessment should be considered as irritant to skin and eyes, and as a skin and respiratory sensitiser. The use of the additive in animal feed under the proposed conditions was not expected to pose a risk for the environment. Litsea berry oil is recognised to flavour food. Since its function in feed would be essentially the same as that in food, no further demonstration of efficacy was considered necessary.
... Its roots contain up to 3% volatile oil, rich in sesquiterpene lactones [2,3,6,7]. Analysis showed that the main constituents of this volatile oil are alantolactone (52.4%), isoalantolactone (33.0%) and eudesmanolides (eudesma-5,7(11)-diene-8 b-12 olide in 1.3% and b-elemene in 1.2%), but also there are presented thymol-derivatives, triterpens, sterols and furanoids, such as cis-Linalool oxide [8,9]. ...
... These agents can be extracted by hydrophobic solvents or supercritical fluid extraction too [8,9]. According to the literature, these compounds possess a strong antiproliferative [10,11] and antibacterial [12] effect. ...
... Nowadays, established upon several sources, it is proven, that the agents of elecampane root extracts exert antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antitumor and in vitro cytotoxic activities too [13]. However, these phytochemicals are capable of sensitising human skin [9]. ...
ABSTRACT
Elecampane (Inula helenium L.) is a perennial plant mostly known for its high content of sesquiterpene lactones and volatile oils. These compounds can be extracted by hydrodistillation from its root. According to ethnomedicine literature they possess a strong disinfectant activity. Antibiotic resistant epidermal infections are deleterious health problems, which can lead to bloodstream infections, toxin-mediated diseases or rheumatic heart disease, etc. However elecampane root extract is capable of exerting a significant antimicrobial effect against them.
The aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial activity of elecampane root extract. The antimicrobial activity was tested against 6 species of fungi (Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida cruzei, Candida parapsilosis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergilus niger) and 7 species of bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, E. coli D31, Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Also relevant secondary signal transduction mechanisms of action were researched upon by utilizing literature data.
The examined material was extracted by hydrodistillation from elecampane root using a Clevenger type apparatus. The antimicrobial testing was conducted using the two fold tube dilution method. For literature based study of mechanisms the research was performed in National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) as well as Web of Science database.
The results showed that the extracted mixture of sesquiterpene lactones and essential oil exhibited considerable inhibitory effects against all tested fungi and bacteria. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values ranged between 25 and >100 μg/mL. Elecampane extract's regulating effect on Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, Matrix-metalloproteinase (MMP)s, Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-κB) and Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) underpins it's antimicrobial properties against C. albicans, MRSA, TBC, S. pyogenes and P. aeruginosa strains.
The antimicrobial effects of the experimental material was confirmed. Based upon the results of the study the researchers concluded that elecampane in combinations with antibiotics and/or other drugs could increase the efficacy of existing antimicrobial therapies. Eleocampane extract could be also a usefull tool against antibiotic resistant microba and/or multi-infections.
... For instance, essential oils are challenging to standardize because of the variable growing conditions, genetics, and harvesting of botanicals [102]. In fact, in recent years, several studies have been published with regard to the safety profiles on essential oils [103,104]. ...
... Besides, the oxidation of essential oil constituents can increase risk of causing skin reactions because the oxides and peroxides formed are more reactive. This can be seen with (+)-limonene, δ-3-carene and α-pinene and arise due to the formation of oxidation products, some of which are more sensitizing than the parent compound [103]. For this reason, proper storage of essential oils is required to preserve their effectiveness and decrease the risk of adverse reactions. ...
... Nevertheless, the fact that an essential oil constituent is capable of being oxidized does not automatically imply that the use of essential oil containing it presents a significant allergenic risk [103]. On the other hand, many essential oils that are considered to be non-toxic can have a toxic effect on some people; this can be influenced by preceding sensitization to a particular essential oil, a group of essential oils having similar components or some adulterants in an essential oil [105]. ...
Fragrance is an integral part of cosmetic products and is often regarded as an overriding factor in the selection of cosmetics among consumers. Fragrances also play a considerable role in masking undesirable smells arising from fatty acids, oils and surfactants that are commonly used in cosmetic formulations. Essential oils are vital assets in the cosmetic industry, as along with imparting pleasant aromas in different products, they are able to act as preservatives and active agents and, simultaneously, offer various benefits to the skin. Moreover, the stimulating demand for natural ingredients has contributed massively to a renewed interest in cosmetic and wellness industries in plant derivatives, especially essential oils. This has led popular cosmetic companies to endorse natural fragrances and opt for minimally processed natural ingredients, given the potentially adverse health risks associated with artificial fragrance chemicals, which are major elements of cosmetics. Among the high-valued essential oils used as fragrances are citrus, lavender, eucalyptus, tea tree and other floral oils, among others, while linalool, geraniol, limonene, citronellol, and citral are much-appreciated fragrance components used in different cosmetics. Thus, this review aimed to highlight the enormous versatility of essential oils as significant sources of natural fragrances in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Moreover, a special focus will be laid on the different aspects related to essential oils such as their sources, market demand, chemistry, fragrance classification, aroma profile, authenticity and safety.
... Considering the major constituents, the literature reveals that essential oils of wormwood exhibit intraspecific variation of its chemical composition, thus several chemotypes are known for this oil. Tisserand et al. have reported 7 chemotypes of A. herba alba essential oil, dividing them into those predominated by one compound, and those predominated by two or three compounds [38]. The chemotypes most encountered were the ones dominated by thujone which may reach up to 95% [38] of α-thujone [39] and β-thujone [40]. ...
... Tisserand et al. have reported 7 chemotypes of A. herba alba essential oil, dividing them into those predominated by one compound, and those predominated by two or three compounds [38]. The chemotypes most encountered were the ones dominated by thujone which may reach up to 95% [38] of α-thujone [39] and β-thujone [40]. Other studies reported camphor [40], chrysanthenone, chrysanthenyl acetate [41], davanone, pinocarvone [42], α-thujone/camphor, α-thujone/β-thujone, and 1,8-cineole/camphor/thujone (α + β) [16] chemotypes. ...
Nowadays, the combination of molecules influences their biological effects, and interesting outcomes can be obtained from different component interactions. Using a mixture design method, this research seeks to simulate the efficacy of essential oil combinations against various bacteria and forecast the ideal combination. The chemical compositions of Myrtus communis, Artemisia herba-alba and Thymus serpyllum essential oils were analyzed using CG/MS. Then, the combined antibacterial effects were evaluated by testing mixture design formulations using the microdilution bioassay. The main compounds detected for M. communis essential oil were myrtenyl acetate (33.67%), linalool (19.77%) and 1,8-cineole (10.65%). A. herba-alba had piperitone as a chemotype, representing 85%. By contrast, the T. serpyllum oil contained thymol (17.29%), γ-terpinene (18.31%) and p-cymene (36.15%). The antibacterial effect of the essential oils studied, and the optimum mixtures obtained were target strain-dependent. T. serpyllum alone ensured the optimal inhibition against S. aureus and E. coli, while a ternary mixture consisting of 17.1%, 39.6% and 43.1% of M. communis, A. herba-alba and T. serpyllum respectively, was associated with optimal inhibitory activity against B. subtilis. The outcome of this research supports the idea of the boosting effect of essential oil combinations toward better activities, giving better understanding of the usefulness of mixture designs for food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical applications.
... The applicant made a literature search aimed at retrieving studies related to the safety of preparations obtained from C. flexuosus for the users. 33 There is limited evidence from the literature of skin irritation (Opdyke, 1979) and skin sensitisation in mice due to the citral component (Lalko and Api, 2006; reviewed by Tisserand and Young, 2014). ...
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of lemongrass oil obtained from the aerial parts of Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Will. Watson when used as a sensory additive for all animal species. The FEEDAP Panel concluded that lemongrass oil is safe up to the maximum proposed use levels in complete feed of 125 mg/kg for salmonids; 100 mg/kg for sows and horses; 75 mg/kg for veal calves (milk replacer), cattle for fattening, dairy cows, sheep and goats; and 50 mg/kg for dogs and ornamental fish. For the other species, the calculated safe concentrations in complete feed were 41 mg/kg for chickens for fattening, 61 mg/kg for laying hens, 55 mg/kg for turkeys for fattening, 74 mg/kg for piglets, 88 mg/kg for pigs for fattening, 65 mg/kg for rabbits and 33 mg/kg for cats. These conclusions were extrapolated to other physiologically related species. For any other species, the additive is safe at 33 mg/kg complete feed. The use of lemongrass oil in water for drinking for poultry, pigs, calves and rabbit is safe provided that the total daily intake does not exceed the daily amount considered safe when consumed via feed. No concerns for consumers and the environment were identified following the use of the additive up to the highest safe use level in feed. The essential oil under assessment should be considered as an irritant to skin and eyes and as a dermal and respiratory sensitiser. Since the aerial parts of C. flexuosus and its preparations were recognised to flavour food and its function in feed would be essentially the same as that in food, no further demonstration of efficacy was considered necessary.
... Research on essential oils has been increasingly done by many researchers, since the chemical constituents in the essential oils showed important aspects to human life [11][12][13]. Some chemical constituents of the essential oils extracted from plants have been utilized not only as fragrances, flavors, and perfumes but also as antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, antitumor, anticancer, antiinflammatory, etc [14][15][16][17][18]. ...
Objective: Essential oils extracted from the leaf of Euodia suaveolens have been reported. However, there is no published data on comprehensive report on the chemical constituents of the essential oils and the methods utilized to extract the essential oils from the plant. This research aimed to reveal and determine the chemical constituents of essential oils from the leaf of E. suaveolens. Methods: Essential oils of leaf of E. suaveolens were extracted by steam distillation and were analyzed utilizing Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) methods. Results: The GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of twenty-five different chemical constituents from the essential oils. The main chemical constituents of essential oils extracted from E. suaveolens’ leaves were as follows menthofuran (50.38 %), p-mentha-1,8-diene (14.34 %), limonen (10.99 %), evodone (5.55 %), α-curcumene (4.65 %), globulol (1.88 %), longipinenepoxide (1.66 %), and linalool (1.40 %). This present research found three compounds, namely p-mentha-1,8-diene, globulol, and longipinenepoxide that have never been reported by any researchers working with this plant. Conclusion: The results showed that E. suaveolens contains essential oils that are potential to be explored further and utilized as medicinal products against some ailments.
... The main components of rose EO are citronellol, geraniol, and nerol [61]. Citronellol and nerol have analgesic-like activity based on animal models or human trials [16]. ...
Essential oils (EOs) are widely used topically in musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs); however, their clinical efficacy is controversial. Our aim was to find evidence that topical EOs are beneficial as an add-on treatment in MSDs. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to summarize the evidence on the available data of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The protocol of this work was registered on PROSPERO. We used Web of Science, EMBASE, PubMed, Central Cochrane Library and Scopus electronic databases for systematic search. Eight RCTs were included in the quantitative analysis. In conclusion, EO therapy had a favorable effect on pain intensity (primary outcome) compared to placebo. The greatest pain-relieving effect of EO therapy was calculated immediately after the intervention (MD of pain intensity = −0.87; p = 0.014). EO therapy had a slightly better analgesic effect than placebo one week after the intervention (MD of pain intensity = −0.58; p = 0.077) and at the four-week follow-up as well (MD of pain intensity = −0.52; p = 0.049). EO therapy had a beneficial effect on stiffness (a secondary outcome) compared to the no intervention group (MD = −0.77; p = 0.061). This systematic review and meta-analysis showed that topical EOs are beneficial as an add-on treatment in reducing pain and stiffness in the investigated MSDs.
... Unlike Indian dill seed oil (Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Flem.), the European type of dill seed oil contains no dill apiole (Tisserand and Young, 2014). No information on substances of concern in aqueous hydroalcoholic preparations was retrieved. ...
Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of a tincture from the fruit of Anethum graveolens L. (dill tincture) when used as a sensory additive in feed and water for drinking for all animal species. The product is a ■■■■■ solution, with a dry matter content of approximately 0.9%. The product contained 0.0247% polyphenols (of which 0.0137% were flavonoids) and 0.003% carvone. Estragole was present at concentrations between the limit of detection and the limit of quantification in the five batches examined. The Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) concluded that the dill tincture is safe at the maximum proposed use levels of 200 mg/kg complete feed for horses and 50 mg/kg complete feed for all other animal species. The FEEDAP Panel considered that the use in water for drinking is safe provided that the total daily intake of the additive does not exceed the daily amount which is considered safe when consumed via feed. No safety concern would arise for the consumer from the use of dill tincture up to the maximum proposed use levels in feed. Dill tincture should be considered as irritant to skin and eyes, and as a dermal and respiratory sensitiser. When handling the additive, exposure of unprotected users to estragole cannot be excluded. Therefore, to reduce the risk, the exposure of the users should be minimised. The use of dill tincture as a flavour in animal feed was not expected to pose a risk for the environment. Since the fruit of A. graveolens and its preparations were recognised to flavour food and their function in feed would be essentially the same as that in food, no further demonstration of efficacy was considered necessary.
... α-pinene (1.3-1.4%), β-element (1.2%), 2-undecanone (1.4%) [9]. Herb oils are known throughout human history and used without extra modification as well as in encapsulation [10], micro/nano emulsion [11], organo-hydrogel [12][13][14][15][16][17] and organogel [18] in the field of health and food. ...
The use of the metal free catalysts synthesized form natural and environmental friendly materials for fast generation of hydrogen is accomplished form sodium borohydride (NaBH4) methanolysis assays. Thus, green and metal free-catalysts were prepared form natural resources of ginger oil (GO). Polymeric GO particles were synthesized via emulsion polymerization technique and characterized in detail. The hydrodynamic diameters of p(GO) particles were found to be in the 220 nm and the zeta potential was − 162.48 mV. TGA results showed that thermal decomposition of microparticles was gradually continuing up to 700 °C. The catalytic performance of the metal-free p(GO) particles were studied under various conditions such as changing NaBH4 concentrations, amount of p(GO) and media temperature. A fast hydrogen production rate of 617.8 mL min⁻¹ gcat⁻¹ is achieved at 20 °C by methanolysis of 50 mM NaBH4 and 0.1 g p(GO) particles. Factors are regularly investigated to reveal methanolysis kinetic properties. The activation energy is found 24 ± 0.9 kJ mol⁻¹. Thanks to this study, the p(GO) particle obtained from GO has been transformed into a product with high energy value.
... 18 Analysis of the ten batches 19 showed that 8-methoxypsoralen was below the limit of detection (LOD) in all sample, when determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection (0.5 mg/kg). The literature search provided by the applicant showed that only the furocoumarins bergamottin (0.001%) and 5-methoxypsoralen (bergapten, 0.0003%) were reported to occur in very low amounts (analytical values according to the evaluation of furocoumarins in cosmetic products (SCCP, 2005 as reported by Tisserand and Young, 2014). The phylogenetic analysis by Dugrand-Judek et al. (2015) on Citrus species confirmed that mandarins have only a low capacity to synthesise ...
Abstract Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of expressed mandarin oil from the fruit peels of Citrus reticulata Blanco, when used as a sensory additive (flavouring) in feed and water for drinking for all animal species. The FEEDAP Panel concluded that the essential oil under assessment is safe up to the maximum proposed use levels in complete feed of 15 mg/kg for poultry, 33 mg/kg for pigs, 30 mg/kg for ruminants, 40 mg/kg for horse, and 15 mg/kg for salmon and rabbit. The presence of perillaldehyde was identified as a source of potential concern. However, in target species fed citrus by‐products as part of daily feed the use of the expressed mandarin oil in feed was not expected to increase the exposure to perillaldehyde to a relevant extent (< 4%). For companion animals and ornamental fish not normally exposed to citrus by‐products, no conclusion can be drawn. The FEEDAP Panel considered that the use in water for drinking is safe provided that the total daily intake of the additive does not exceed the daily amount that is considered safe when consumed via feed. No concerns for consumer safety were identified following the use of the additive up to the maximum proposed use level in feed. The essential oil under assessment should be considered as irritant to skin, eyes and the respiratory tract, and as a skin sensitiser. The use of the additive in animal feed under the proposed conditions of use was not expected to pose a risk for the environment. Expressed mandarin oil was recognised to flavour food. Since its function in feed would be essentially the same as that in food, no further demonstration of efficacy was considered necessary.
... Essential oils are complex mixtures of many biologically active constituents. 39 These are administered through inhalation (e.g., eucalyptus oil), orally (e.g., peppermint oil), and transdermally (e.g., tea tree oil). ...
The post-viral acute cough is the most common symptom in childhood. Consequently, the use of cough relievers is frequent. Many products for treating cough contain natural components. An ancient tradition has always established herbal medicine and honey as effective and safe means to relieve cough. Nevertheless, very few studies adequately investigated the real effectiveness and safety of natural products in treating acute cough. There is some evidence, provided by pediatric randomized controlled trials, about honey, one multicomponent product (containing Plantagolanceolata, Grindelia robusta, Helichrysum italicum, and honey), and Pelargonium sidoides. Other group of substances, including glycerol and isolated natural compounds, can help manage cough but robust evidence still lacks in children. There is an urgent need to perform rigorous studies that confirm the natural products' efficacy and safety for relieving post-viral acute cough.Key points: Acute post-viral cough is prevalent in childhood and adolescence. There is a growing interest concerning the use of natural remedies for post-viral cough. Many herbal medicines could be used satisfactorily for this issue.
... Four components, trans-ligustilide, α-terpinyl acetate, cis-ligustilide and β-phellandrene, constituted almost 95% of the total yield of isolated oil. Ligustilide, a phthalide, is efficient for treating osteoporosis and exhibits other pharmacological activities, such as anti-atherosclerosis, neuroprotection, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities [30,31]. On watering with LPGPA, the content of its trans-and cis-isomers increased and decreased by 6 and 5%, respectively. ...
Plantations of lovage, marjoram, rosemary and thyme were watered with water treated with low-temperature, low-pressure glow plasma of low frequency. Such watering appeared beneficial to the extent dependent on particular herb. In terms of crop yield and quality, water treated with glow plasma performed best in the case of rosemary, and the worst results were observed for thyme. When yield of essential oils are taken into account, only in the case of lovage did such watering appear beneficial, while in the remaining cases it had no effect. However, such watering considerably changed the composition of essential oils. These changes were specific for a given herb and involved the quantity of particular components of the oils. Only in the essential oil from lovage did γ-terpinene appear as its novel component.
The occurrence of coumarin-based photoactive compounds in essential oils has been a concern due to the adverse health effects it has on human health. A fit-for-purpose analytical method for major coumarin-based phototoxins is critical to guarantee the essential oils product safety and compliance with the regulatory requirements. Herein, a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analytical method was developed to identify and quantify 25 coumarin derivatives in essential oils. The sample preparation procedure was optimized to use selective solvent extraction to remove the limonene matrix interference. To achieve the optimal sensitivity and specificity, UHPLC column of biphenyl stationary phase was used for this analysis. An inter-laboratory validation study was conducted to evaluate the method performance. The limit of quantification (LOQ) for all target analytes was validated at 5 µg/g. Satisfactory recoveries were obtained for the majority of analytes in the range of 80–115%. Both the repeatability RSDr (within-laboratory) and reproducibility RSDR (between-laboratory) were < 10%. This method was demonstrated as applicable for the quality control testing of coumarin-based phototoxins in essential oils.
Oral malodor, often known as halitosis, is an irritating breath odor that originates in the mouth and can cause significant psychological and social distress. Chlorhexidine, a powerful antimicrobial agent effective against bacteria and fungi, has become the standard treatment for halitosis. However, it has drawbacks including altered taste perception, dry mouth, and more noticeable dental staining. The use of natural essential oils to avoid these unwanted effects has proven to be an attractive strategy. This study aims to evaluate the potential of four essential oils consisting of Ma-kwean fruit (Zanthoxylum limonella, MK), clove bud (Syzygium aromaticum, CV), star anise fruit (Illicium verum, SA) and cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum aromaticum, CM) for the purpose of combating bad breath by assessing their antibacterial efficacy against halitosis-associated bacteria (Streptococcus mutans and Solobacterium moorei). The hydro-distillation process was used to prepare the essential oils, which were obtained as yellowish to colorless liquids with yields of 6.58 ± 0.81, 12.21 ± 2.98, 4.29 ± 0.15 and 1.26 ± 0.09% for MK, CV, SA and CM, respectively. The terpenoid compounds terpinene-4-ol (47.04%), limonene (17.19%), sabinene (13.27%) and alpha-terpineol (6.05%) were found as the main components in MK essential oil, while phenylpropanoids were identified as the primary components of other essential oils, namely trans-cinnamaldehyde (83.60%), eugenol (83.59%) and anethol (90.58%) were identified as the primary components of CM, CV and SA essential oils, respectively. For the antibacterial properties, the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) values were investigated. CM essential oil exhibited the greatest capacity to inhibit growth and eradicate S. mutans, with MIC and MBC values of 0.039%, followed by CV (MIC of 0.078% and MBC of 0.156%) and MK (MIC and MBC of 0.156%), whereas the MIC of SA was 1.250% without eradication. Both CM and CV essential oils demonstrated exceptional efficacy against S. moorei, with MIC and MBC values of 0.019% and 0.033%, respectively. Furthermore, the inhibition of S. moorei biofilm formation was investigated and we discovered that the lowest effective concentration necessary to eliminate the S. moorei biofilm was one quarter of the MIC for MK, CM and CV, while that for SA essential oil was half of the MIC. These encouraging results suggest that the incorporation of MK, CM and CV essential oils into oral care products could potentially enhance their efficacy in halitosis treatment.
Breast cancer continues to be one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers around the world. Despite the decrease in mortality, there has been a steady increase in its incidence. There is much evidence that naturally occurring phytochemicals could prove to be safer alternatives aimed at prevention and development of breast cancer. In the present review, we discuss important phytochemicals, namely capsaicin, alpha-santalol and diallyl trisulphide that are shown to have chemopreventive and anti-tumour properties against breast cancer development. We examined current knowledge of their bioavailability, safety and modulation of molecular mechanisms including their ability to induce apoptotic cell death, promote cell cycle arrest, and inhibit cellular proliferation in different breast cancer cell lines and in vivo models. This review emphasises the importance of these naturally occurring phytochemicals and their potential of becoming therapeutic options in the arsenal against breast cancer development provided further scientific and clinical validation.
Environment-derived products such as secondary metabolites from plants and animals also provide a humongous chemical space for potential candidates for drug discovery. It is a known fact that over 80% of the approved drugs have either been derived or are directly used in natural products. Ocimum sanctum L. or holy basil has been considered a majestic reservoir for medically potential phytochemicals and tremendous therapeutic applications. Basil was the most widely used medicinal plant in ancient civilizations in Africa, Central and South America, and Middle Eastern countries of Asia such as India, China, and Malaysia. Different parts of basil, such as leaves, stems, and roots, have shown various therapeutic activities. Phytochemicals derived from holy basil can be classified as terpenoid, flavonoid, phenolic acid, neolignan, phenylpropanoid, cerebroside, and coumarin. Bioinformatic and cheminformatic approaches such as target fishing and identification, pharmacophore-based modelling, and QSAR can be used to identify the potential targets.
Tea tree oil (TTO) is a volatile essential oil obtained by distillation, mainly from the Australian native plant Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel (Myrtaceae). In this study, a comparative analysis of the chemical constituents of seven tea tree oils (M. alternifolia) and four other Melaleuca spp. oils (M. cajuputi, (MCa), two chemotypes of M. quinquenervia, (MNe and MNi), and M. ericifolia (MRo)) was carried out using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). Among the seven TTOs, terpinen-4-ol (37.66–44.28%), γ-terpinene (16.42–20.75%), α-terpinene (3.47–12.62%), α-terpineol (3.11–4.66%), and terpinolene (2.75–4.19%) were the most abundant compounds. On the other hand, the most abundant compounds of the other Melaleuca oils varied, such as 1,8-cineole (64.63%) in MCa oil, (E)-nerolidol (48.40%) and linalool (33.30%) in MNe oil, 1,8-cineole (52.20%) in MNi oil, and linalool (38.19%) and 1,8-cineole (27.57%) in MRo oil. HPTLC fingerprinting of Melaleuca oils enabled the discrimination of TTO oils from other Melaleuca spp. oils. Variation was observed in the profile of the Rf values among EOs. The present study shows that HPTLC is one of the best ways to identify and evaluate the quality control in authenticating TTOs, other Melaleuca EOs, or EOs from other species within the Myrtaceae.
Aromaterapi, bitkilerden elde edilen esansiyel yağların kimyasal içeriklerine bağlı olarak değişen terapötik özelliklerine göre, fiziksel ve psikolojik olarak iyileştirmek amacıyla kullanılmasıdır. Uzun bir tarihsel geçmişe sahip olan ve günümüzde tamamlayıcı alternatif tıp tedavilerinden biri olarak kullanılan aromaterapinin uygulaması kolaydır, maaliyeti düşüktür ve yan etkisi yok denecek kadar azdır. Aromaterapi oral absorbsiyon, masaj ve inhalasyon yoluyla uygulanabilir. Uçucu yağlar inhale edildiklerinde burundaki reseptörler kokuları elektriksel impulslara çevirerek elektrokimyasal mesajları oluştururlar. Bu mesajlar olfaktör yol ile limbik sisteme iletilir, hipotalamus aracılığıyla koku alma sisteminden beyne sinyaller gönderilmesiyle seratonin ve dopamin gibi nörotransmitterler salgılanmasını gerçekleştirirler. Bunun sonucunda depresyon ve anksiyeteyi düzenleyerek analjezik ve anksiyolitik etki gösterirler. Aromaterapinin anksiyolitik ve analjezik etkisinden faydalanmak amacıyla tıp ve diş hekimliği alanında kullanımı yaygınlaşmıştır. Onkoloji tedavisi gören ve opere edilen hastaların anksiyete ve ağrı yönetiminde sıklıkla tamamlayıcı ve alternatif bir yöntem olarak tercih edilen aromaterapinin diş hekimliğinde tedavilerin karşısındaki en büyük küresel engellerden biri olan dental kaygının yönetiminde kullanımı son yıllarda artmıştır. Dental kaygı diş tedavileri konusunda anormal bir korku veya endişe olarak tanımlanmıştır ve çocuk hastalarda görülme sıklığı % 5-20 arasında değişmektedir. Günümüze dek yapılan çalışmalarla dental kaygıyı yönetmek amacıyla farmakolojik ve nonfarmakolojik çeşitli davranış yönlendirme teknikleri literatüre kazandırılmıştır. Dental kaygının yönetimindeki nonfarmakolojik güncel yaklaşımlardan biri olan aromaterapi kaygılı hastalarda ağrı duyarlılığı daha fazla gözlendiği için ağrı kontrolünde de kullanılabilmektedir.
Simple Summary
Essential oils (EOs) with biopesticide effects are key to sustainable food production. Although it is thought that they possess lower impacts on natural enemies of pests, there is little information on this subject. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of Cymbopogon nardus EO on the life cycle and midgut morphology of the predator Ceraeochrysa claveri. Insects treated with C. nardus showed changes in the different stages of the insect development, such as lack of cocoon formation, dead pupa inside the cocoon, and malformed adults. EO-induced damage included injuries in the midgut epithelium, displaying detachment of columnar cells and the development of epithelial folds. These results suggest that C. nardus oil induces alterations on the life cycle and development of C. claveri.
Abstract
Cymbopogon nardus (citronella) essential oil (EO) has been widely used in the cosmetic and food industry due to its repellent and fumigant properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate its effects on the life cycle and midgut morphology of the natural predator Ceraeochrysa claveri. Larvae were fed on sugarcane borer eggs (Diatraea saccharalis) pretreated with citronella EO solutions (1–100 µg/mL in methanol, 5 s) or solvent and air-dried at room temperature for 30 min. Larval and pupal stage duration, the percentage of emergence of the insect, and malformed insects were recorded. One day after adults emerged from their cocoons, adult insects were used to obtain their midgut and analyzed using light microscopy. The chemical composition of C. nardus EO revealed that citronellal (25.3%), citronellol (17.9%), geraniol (11.6%), elemol (6.5%), δ-cadinone (3.6%), and germacrene D (3.4%) were the predominant compounds. Exposure to the EO produced a significant change in development duration for third instar and prepupa of the insect. The observed alterations in the lifecycle included prepupae with no cocoon formation, dead pupa inside the cocoon, and malformed adults. Several injuries in the midgut epithelium of exposed adults were registered, such as detachment of columnar cells leaving only swollen regenerative cells fixed on the basement membrane, and the formation of epithelial folds. In summary, these data suggest that C. nardus oil has adverse effects on the life cycle and midgut morphology of a beneficial predator.
Essential oils (EOs) that have antifungal activity and mycotoxin reduction ability are candidates to develop bioactive alternatives and environmentally friendly treatment against Fusarium species in cereals. However, their practical use is facing limitations such as high volatility, UV sensitivity, and fast oxidation. Encapsulation techniques are supposed to provide protection to the EOs and control their release into the environment. Ammoides pusilla essential oil (AP-EO) proved to be an efficient inhibitor of Fusarium avenaceum growth and its enniatins (ENNs) production. In the present work, AP-EO was encapsulated, using the impregnation method, into mesoporous silica particles (MSPs) with narrow slit pores (average diameter = 3.1 nm) and coated with chitosan. In contact assays using an agar medium, the antifungal activity of AP-EO at 0.1 µL mL−1 improved by three times when encapsulated into MSPs without chitosan and the ENNs production was significantly inhibited both in coated and non-coated MSPs. Controls of MSPs also inhibited the ENNs production without affecting the mycelial growth. In fumigation experiments assessing the activity of the EO volatile compounds, encapsulation into MSPs improved significantly both the antifungal activity and ENNs inhibition. Moreover, coating with chitosan stopped the release of EO. Thus, encapsulation of an EO into MSPs improving its antifungal and antimycotoxin properties is a promising tool for the formulation of a natural fungicide that could be used in the agriculture or food industry to protect plant or food products from the contamination by toxigenic fungi such as Fusarium sp. and their potential mycotoxins.
Hop-derived volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and their transformation products significantly impact beer flavour and aroma. Geraniol, a key monoterpene alcohol in hops, has been reported to undergo yeast-modulated biotransformation into various terpenoids during fermentation, which impacts the citrus and floral aromas of the finished beer. This study monitored the evolution of geraniol and its transformation products throughout fermentation to provide insight into differences as a function of yeast species and strain. The headspace concentration of VOCs produced during fermentation in model wort was measured using Solid-Phase Microextraction Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) and Proton Transfer Reaction-Time of Flight-Mass Spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS). In the absence of yeast, only geraniol was detected, and no terpenoid compounds were detected in geraniol-free ferments. During fermentation, the depletion of geraniol was closely followed by the detection of citronellol, citronellyl acetate and geranyl acetate. The concentration of the products and formation behaviour was yeast strain dependent. SPME-GC/MS provided confidence in compound identification. PTR-ToF-MS allowed online monitoring of these transformation products, showing when formation differed between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces pastorianus yeasts. A better understanding of the ability of different yeast to biotransform hop terpenes will help brewers predict, control, and optimize the aroma of the finished beer.
Cinnamon is one of the most commonly used spices worldwide. In some Arab countries, cinnamon is used with other ingredients to relieve bronchospasm and treatment of airways-related disorders. In the current study, GC, GC-MS and tracheal relaxant effect comparison were performed using the three available types in Saudi Arabia, Cinnamomum verum (Ceylon cinnamon), C. cassia (Chinese cinnamon) and C. loureiroi (Vietnamese cinnamon). The essential oil of C. verum was the most potent in the relaxation of guinea pig isolated tracheal muscles against carbachol (CCh, 1 uM)-evoked bronchospasm at the concentration range from 0.03 to 3 mg/mL followed by C. bureiroi at 0.03 to 5 mg/mL; whereas, C. cassia was the least potent oil. Cinnamaldehyde (1), isolated as the main component of the three oils induced complete relaxation of low K+ (25 mM)-evoked contractions, with mild effect on the contractions evoked by high K+ (80 mM). Pre-incubation of the tracheal tissues with glibenclamide (10 mM) significantly opposed the relaxation of low K+ by cinnamaldehyde. The standard drug, cromakalim also inserted glibenclamide-sensitive inhibition of low K+ without relaxing high K+. These results indicate that cinnamaldehyde acts predominantly by ATP-specific K+ channel opening followed by weak Ca++ antagonistic effects. The obtained results justify the medicinal value of cinnamon oil in respiratory disorders.
Even though Olea europaea L. is one of the most important and well-studied crops in the world, embryonic parts of the plants remain largely understudied. In this study, comprehensive phytochemical profiling of olive vegetative buds of two Croatian cultivars, Lastovka and Oblica, was performed with an analysis of essential oils and methanol extracts as well as biological activities (antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities). A total of 113 different volatiles were identified in essential oils with hydrocarbons accounting for up to 60.30% and (Z)-3-heptadecene being the most abundant compound. Oleacein, oleuropein, and 3-hydroxytyrosol had the highest concentrations of all phenolics in the bud extracts. Other major compounds belong to the chemical classes of sugars, fatty acids, and triterpenoid acids. Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities were determined for both cultivars. Apart from antioxidant activity, essential oils had a weak overall biological effect. The extract from cultivar Lastovka showed much better antioxidant activity than both isolates with both methods (with an oxygen radical absorbance capacity value of 1835.42 μM TE/g and DPPH IC50 of 0.274 mg/mL), as well as antimicrobial activity with the best results against Listeria monocytogenes. The human breast adenocarcinoma MDA-MB-231 cell line showed the best response for cultivar Lastovka bud extract (IC50 = 150 μg/mL) among three human cancer cell lines tested. These results demonstrate great chemical and biological potential that is hidden in olive buds and the need to increase research in the area of embryonic parts of plants.
It has been found that the addition of CH2CN− anion to the carbonyl group of acylethynylpyrroles, generated from acetonitrile and t-BuOK, results in the formation of acetylenic alcohols, which undergo unexpectedly easy (room temperature) decomposition to ethynylpyrroles and cyanomethylphenylketones (retro-Favorsky reaction). This finding allows a robust synthesis of ethynylpyrroles in up to 95% yields to be developed. Since acylethynylpyrroles became available, the strategy thus found makes ethynylpyrroles more accessible than earlier. The quantum-chemical calculations (B2PLYP/6-311G**//B3LYP/6-311G**+C-PCM/acetonitrile) confirm the thermodynamic preference of the decomposition of the intermediate acetylenic alcohols to free ethynylpyrroles rather than their potassium derivatives.
Breast cancer is the second highest cancer-related death worldwide. The treatment for breast cancer is via chemotherapy; however, occurrences of multidrug resistance, unselective targets, and physicochemical problems suggest that chemotherapy treatment is ineffective. Therefore, there is a need to find better alternatives. Essential oil is a plant secondary metabolite having promising bioactivities and pharmacological effects, including anti-breast cancer capabilities. This review intends to discuss and summarize the effect of essential oils on anti-breast cancer from published journals using keywords in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. Our findings reveal that the compositions of essential oils, mainly terpenoids, have excellent anti-breast cancer pharmacological effects with an IC50 value of 0.195 μg/mL. Hence, essential oils have potential as anti-breast cancer drugs candidates with the highest efficacy and the fewest side effects.
Essential oils are natural aromatic substances that contain complex mixtures of many volatile compounds frequently used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Dacryodes peruviana (Loes.) H.J. Lam is a native species from Ecuador whose anti-inflammatory activity has not been previously reported, thus the aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of D. peruviana essential oil. To that end, essential oil from D. peruviana fruits was isolated by hydrodistillation and characterized physically and chemically. The tolerance of the essential oil was analyzed by cytotoxicity studies using human keratinocytes. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by an arachidonic acid-induced edema model in mouse ear. The predominant compounds in D. peruviana essential oil were α-phellandrene, limonene, and α-pinene, with the three compounds reaching approximately 83% of the total composition. Tolerance studies showed high biocompatibility of this essential oil with human keratinocytes. In vivo studies demonstrated a moisturizing effect and an alleviation of several events occurred during the inflammatory process after topical treatment with D. peruviana essential oil such as decline in skin edema; reduction in leukocytic infiltrate; and decrease in inflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-8, IL-17A, and IL-23. Therefore, this essential oil could be an attractive treatment for skin inflammation.
Santalum genus belongs to the family of Santalaceae, widespread in India, Australia, Hawaii, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia, and valued as traditional medicine, rituals and modern bioactivities. Sandalwood is reported to possess a plethora of bioactive compounds such as essential oil and its components (α-santalol and β-santalol), phenolic compounds and fatty acids. These bioactives play important role in contributing towards biological activities and health-promoting effects in humans. Pre-clinical and clinical studies have shown the role of sandalwood extract as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, neuroleptic, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, and anticancer activities. Safety studies on sandalwood essential oil (EO) and its extracts have proven them as a safe ingredient to be utilized in health promotion. Phytoconstituents, bioactivities and traditional uses established sandalwood as one of the innovative materials for application in the pharma, food, and biomedical industry.
Olive weevils, Pimelocerus (Dyscerus) perforatus Roelofs, utilize olive trees as a host plant. The adult female uses an elongated snout to puncture the trunk and lay one egg a day, resulting in dozens of eggs over its lifetime. The hatched larvae grow by eating the olive trunk. When olive trees die due to feeding damage, olive productivity is seriously impaired. Since there is no effective pesticide for olive weevils so far, the authors aimed to develop a repellent for adult olive weevils from the viewpoint of integrated pest management. We prepared a measurable apparatus for the repellent action against olive weevils and screened chemical substances by using the apparatus. When the repellent activity was measured using vanillin and its derivatives, a clear repellent effect could be confirmed for two types of vanillin derivatives, such as o-vanillin, and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde. In addition, when the repellent activity against olive weevils was measured using monoterpenes, four types of acyclic monoterpenes, geraniol, β-citronellol, citral, and linalool, and three types of monocyclic monoterpenes, (−)-limonene, (+)-limonene, and (−)-menthol, and a bicyclic monoterpene, (1R)-(+)-α-pinene, were found to have dose-dependent repellent activity with statistical significance. In the future, it is expected that the formulation for applying the repellent substances to olive trees and the study of their practicality in olive fields will progress.
Myroxylon pereirae resin (MP; balsam of Peru) is a botanical balsam which is derived from a tree known as Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms var. pereirae (Royle) Harms, balsamum. This natural substance has a long history of medicinal use (antiseptic and for wound healing) but surprisingly there is a lack of toxicological data. The medicinal application of Peru balsam has been documented throughout a period of at least 30 years, however, due to the high risk of sensitisation and other treatment options available in the proposed indication, the medicinal use of MP in EU today is limited. The aim of this article is deriving Permitted Daily Exposure (PDE) values for MP for regulatory purposes using various toxicological strategies due to the problems with toxicological data. The results described in this article fills a gap in the literature on toxicological aspects of MP for the first time.
• α-Pinene caused a concentration-responsive increase in bladder hyperplasia and decrease in sperm counts in rodents following inhalation exposure. Additionally, it formed a prospective reactive metabolite, α-pinene oxide.
• To provide human relevant context for data generated in animal models and explore potential mechanism, we undertook studies to investigate the metabolism of α-pinene to α-pinene oxide and mutagenicity of α-pinene and α-pinene oxide.
• α-Pinene oxide was formed in rat and human microsomes and hepatocytes with some species differences. Based on area under the concentration versus time curves, the formation of α-pinene oxide was up to 4-fold higher in rats than in humans.
• While rat microsomes cleared α-pinene oxide faster than human microsomes, the clearance of α-pinene oxide in hepatocytes was similar between species.
• α-Pinene was not mutagenic with or without induced rat liver S9 in Salmonella typhimurium or Escherichia coli when tested up to 10 000 µg/plate while α-pinene oxide was mutagenic at ≥25 µg/plate.
• α-Pinene was metabolised to α-pinene oxide under the conditions of the bacterial mutation assay although the concentration was approximately 3-fold lower than the lowest α-pinene oxide concentration that was positive in the assay, potentially explaining the lack of mutagenicity observed with α-pinene.
Optimization of microcapsule shell to preserve Citrus aurantifolia lime oil (LOs), employing a coacervation method, and their inhibition against bacteria was conducted. Pre‐optimization of the microcapsule properties was evaluated from three types of shell combination; alginate/gelatin (A/G), gum arabic/gelatin (GA/G), and gum arabic/chitosan (GA/C). The best pairs were further improved for their ratios ranged from 1 : 3, 1 : 3.25, 1 : 3.5, 1 : 3.75, and 1 : 4. The performance of microcapsules was evaluated based on yield, oil content, encapsulation efficiency, particle size and distribution, morphology, and release kinetic. Additionally, antibacterial activity was subsequently performed using the Kirby Bauer method. The result showed that the LOs were effectively coated by alginate/gelatin (1 : 3.75) with yield, encapsulation efficiency (EE), and oil content (OC) of 48±1 %, 90±10 %, and 58±7 %, respectively. The spherical microcapsules were homogenously well distributed with an average particle size of 1.802±0.082 μm. Avrami's kinetic model revealed a first‐order kinetic mechanism of LOs release (k=1.1 ×10−4 s−1). The LOs microcapsules exhibited the highest antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis, followed by Klebsiella pneumonia, and Staphylococcus aureus. Thereby, the LOs microcapsules were potentially applied in the field of health, food, and textile as an antibacterial agent. Spherical microcapsules of lime oil (LOs), coated by biodegradable polymers, were already obtained via a coacervation method. The microcapsules exhibited medium antibacterial activity, mostly against common typical bacteria. Thus, it is potentially applied in the cosmetotextile as an antibacterial agent.
This book provides a global perspective of Indian Sandalwood categorized as ‘Vulnerable’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It deals with history, distribution, propagation, chemistry, utilization, improvement, trade, and conservation in the present context. This book explores ways and means for restoring its past glory by creating awareness for its conservation and sustainable utilization. The content encompasses informative tables, appropriate graphs and figures, and illustrations with photographs and line drawings. This compendium would be useful for foresters, forestry professionals, botanists, policymakers, conservationists, NGOs, and researchers in the academia and the industry sectors.
The essential oil produced by steam distillation from the heartwood of East Indian sandalwood trees (Santalum album) has been used as a traditional medicine for centuries due to its broad spectrum of biological properties. Recent biochemical studies have begun to elucidate the specific mechanisms of action of the oil and its major components. The creation of guidelines for the development of botanical drugs as a special category by regulatory agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has allowed the development of complex mixtures such as sandalwood oil as potential pharmaceutical agents. Sandalwood oil has been shown in several early Phase 2 clinical trials in the USA to give promising results. Extensive pivotal clinical studies are required to confirm the beneficial activity and favourable safety profile seen in these early human studies.
Background: The essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (L. angustifolia), a species from the Lamiaceae family, possesses several biological activities; therefore it is used in some herbal medicines. The lack of studies into identifying the essential oil of L. angustifolia and its similar appearance to Nepeta menthoides Boiss. & Buhse (N. menthoides) as “Ustukhuddoos” in Iranian traditional medicine, have caused misuse and adulteration in the products. Objective: In this study, the chemical compositions of L. angustifolia and N. menthoides essential oils, and three commercial herbal medicines of L. angustifolia essential oil in Iranian markets were evaluated and investigated as adulteration with the help of GC/MS analysis and chemometric methods. Methods: The essential oils of L. angustifolia and N. menthoides, and commercial samples were extracted by different extraction methods. Furthermore, their chemical compositions were evaluated by GC/MS analysis. After identification of components by GC/MS, the obtained results were assessed by principal component analysis (PCA, Unscrambler X version 10.4) for clustering. Results: Results showed that all three commercial herbal preparations matched with the manufacturer's claim about using L. angustifolia essential oil in the products. PCA distinguished two groups which were characterized based on different types and amounts of the components. Conclusion: GC/MS analysis with the help of chemometric methods is a powerful method to evaluate and discriminate between the essential oils and their products. In general, the combination of instrumental analysis and clustering chemometric analysis can provide an accurate tool for identifying misuse between plant species.
In this chapter, we focus on the current status of knowledge on the floral biology of Santalum album and the role of flower visitors in its pollination and fruit set. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and epigynous, borne on axillary or terminal panicles. Based on the position of stigma, three types of flowers are observed: pin (stigma above the level of anther), thrum (stigma at a lower level) and homostylous (stigma and anther at the same level). A flower lasts for about three days, and its colour gradually changes from pale green or white to dark red with age. Though the ovary has 2‒4 embryo sacs, only one matures. From flowering to fruit maturation, it takes 80‒85 days, and the berries are eaten by birds, especially the Asian Koel, which may also be involved in the dispersion of seeds. There appear to be some contradictions concerning pollination, though many workers suggest that S. album is an obligate outcrossing species. However, the per cent fruit set under open pollination conditions appears to be very low, indicating a deficit in pollinators. Of the 46 species of flower visitors recorded, syrphids, calliphorids and honey bees have been reported as the most frequent visitors. However, there have been no studies to identify efficient pollinators, as most of the reports are subjective and are not supported by hard data. We also discuss the methods to be followed in sandalwood pollination studies.
We propose a new class of haptic devices that provide haptic sensations by delivering liquid-stimulants to the user’s skin; we call this chemical haptics. Upon absorbing these stimulants, which contain safe and small doses of key active ingredients, receptors in the user’s skin are chemically triggered, rendering distinct haptic sensations. We identified five chemicals that can render lasting haptic sensations: tingling (sanshool), numbing (lidocaine), stinging (cinnamaldehyde), warming (capsaicin), and cooling (menthol). To enable the application of our novel approach in a variety of settings (such as VR), we engineered a self-contained wearable that can be worn anywhere on the user’s skin (e.g., face, arms, legs). Implemented as a soft silicone patch, our device uses micropumps to push the liquid stimulants through channels that are open to the user’s skin, enabling topical stimulants to be absorbed by the skin as they pass through. Our approach presents two unique benefits. First, it enables sensations, such as numbing, not possible with existing haptic devices. Second, our approach offers a new pathway, via the skin’s chemical receptors, for achieving multiple haptic sensations using a single actuator, which would otherwise require combining multiple actuators (e.g., Peltier, vibration motors, electro-tactile stimulation). We evaluated our approach by means of two studies. In our first study, we characterized the temporal profiles of sensations elicited by each chemical. Using these insights, we designed five interactive VR experiences utilizing chemical haptics, and in our second user study, participants rated these VR experiences with chemical haptics as more immersive than without. Finally, as the first work exploring the use of chemical haptics on the skin, we offer recommendations to designers for how they may employ our approach for their interactive experiences.
Due to the lack of prophylactic vaccines and effective treatment strategies against numerous public health conditions, viral infections remain a serious threat to global public health and socioeconomic development. The current ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, against which there is no prophylactic vaccine or licensed antiviral agents, underscores the need to continuously identify novel/effective treatment strategies against these infectious agents. Plants and plant-derived compounds have immensely contributed to the fight against numerous health conditions by providing bioactives that possess potent antimicrobial attributes, including antiviral activities. One such plant that has gathered much interest, due to its multiple medicinal properties, is the Nigella sativa plant, a flowering plant belonging to the family Ranunculacea, which is native to various regions of the world. In this chapter, we discuss the antiviral activities of N. sativa against critical viral pathogens, focusing more on the SARS-CoV-2 virus, the etiologic agent of the current unparalleled coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic.
Essential oils are obtained from a plant or its parts by various extraction and concentration techniques. The word essential is a misnomer and denotes “essence or concentrate” of the plant or its parts and not essential for human beings. These essential oils are omnipresent especially in various balms, ointments, cosmetic products, toothpaste, and over-the-counter medications including those of complementary and alternative systems. Essential oils from certain plants have brain stimulatory properties especially those of camphor and eucalyptus. These pro-convulsant essential oils may induce or provoke neuropsychiatric disorders like seizure, epilepsy, migraine, cluster headache, and anxiety disorders and may also be addictive. As most physicians are unaware of the side effects of these essential oils, they are unable to recognize and connect these neuropsychiatric disorders with essential oils. In this chapter, we will be exploring the probable scientific relationships between these brain stimulatory essential oils and neuropsychiatric disorders.
Aromaterapi, tamamlayıcı tıp uygulamaları arasında çeşitli hastalıkları önlemek ve tedavi etmek amacıyla terapötik ajanlar olarak uçucu yağları kullanan terapilerden biridir. Uçucu yağlar, aromatik bitkilerin çeşitli kısımlarından genellikle distilasyon yöntemi elde edilen sekonder metabolitlerdir. Fiziksel ve psikolojik düzeyde vücudun doğal dengesini korumak ve onarmak için, etkisini koku duyusu yani inhalasyon ve bununla birlikte masaj, kompres ve banyo uygulamaları ile göstermektedir. Aromaterapi eski Mısır Uygarlığı’na kadar uzanan yaklaşık 6000 yıllık bir geçmişe sahiptir. Aromaterapide kullanılan her bir uçucu yağın kendine has kokusu ve tedavi edici özelliği vardır. Uçucu yağlar, anksiyete, depresyon, dikkat ve konsantrasyon problemleri, uykusuzluk gibi psikolojik rahatsızlıklar, sindirim problemleri, baş ağrısı, kas ve eklem ağrıları, solunum yolu enfeksiyonları, yara, yanık, alopesi, egzema ve diğer bazı cilt rahatsızlıkları gibi çok sayıda hastalıkların tedavisinde çeşitli kombinasyonlarda kullanılmaktadır. Aromaterapide kullanılan uçucu yağlardan antiviral ve antimikrobiyal özellikleri taşıyanlara çay ağacı ve ökaliptus uçucu yağları; anksiyete, depresyon, uykusuzluk problemleri ve konsantrasyon artışı için tıbbi papatya, lavanta, limon ve gül uçucu yağları, astım ve nefes darlığında günlük uçucu yağı, migrende ise tıbbi nane uçucu yağı örnek verilebilir. Uçucu yağlar, genellikle, minimum yan etkileri ile kullanımı güvenli kabul edilen sekonder metabolitlerdir. Ancak aromaterapi uygulamaları haricen gerçekleştirilmekte olup uçucu yağlar bu terapi biçiminde dahilen kullanılmazlar. Bu çalışma ile günümüz sağlık hizmetlerinde, aromaterapi uygulamalarında en çok kullanılan uçucu yağlar ve özellikleri derlenmiştir.
Medicinal plants are potential sources of natural compounds with biological activities and therefore attract the attention of researchers worldwide. Citrus oils are a complex mixture of more than a hundred components of differing chemical natures. Qualitative and quantitative analysis by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GCMS) of the Citrus reticulata essential oil collected from El Hadaïk, Skikda City (Algeria), identified 28 compounds representing a total of 99.41%. The essential oil is constituted mainly of: D-Limonene (85.10%), Sabinene (2.49%), Linalyl acetate (2.00%), Copaene (1.80%) et α-Pinene (1.75%) totaling approximately 93.14%. The essential oil was also analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis (FTIR). FTIR spectroscopy allowed us to identify 10 volatile compounds and indicated that the functional groups of the essential oils are C-H (Alkene), C-H (aromatic) and C=C. The obtained results have shown that the essential oil can be fully utilized for pharmacy, cosmetology and industry.
Maintaining good ear hygiene is important, yet currently available ear cleaning products such as cotton buds and ear scoop might lead to internal ear injury when improperly used. This study examines the market competitiveness of a conceptual ear hygiene product based on analyzing consumer needs. This new ear hygiene product is expected to be able to clean the ear properly without exposing users to unnecessary risks, satisfy consumer needs, as well as giving added value in the form of antimicrobial properties. Consumer needs identification and reception toward the product concept were determined through online surveys to 218 respondents. Forty-eight different potential user needs were collected from survey results, which were then transformed into product specifications using the appropriate metrics. A feasibility matrix was made to compare 155 different concepts generated from mind-mapping and brainstorming processes, which results in 13 final product concepts. Further screening stages and benchmarking were applied to select the final product concept. The final concept is a topical, herbal ear hygiene product with antibacterial, antifungal, and earwax solubilization properties with micelle-based solvent in spray form. The active compound of this product is the essential oil of clove oil, also known as eugenol. The testing of the final product concept pointed towards the positive for consumer acceptance.
Mutagenic and antimutagenic potential of essential oil (EO) of cultivated sage (S. officinalis L.) and its monoterpenes: thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphor and limonene against UVC-induced mutations was studied with Salmonella/microsome, E. coli WP2, E. coli K12 [Simić, D., Vuković-Gačić, B., Knežević-Vukčević, J., 1998. Detection of natural bioantimutagens and their mechanisms of action with bacterial assay-system. Mutat. Res. 402, 51–57] and S. cerevisiae D7 reversion assays. The toxicity of EO differed, depending on the strain used. The most sensitive were permeable strains TA100, TA102, E. coli K12 IB112 and non-permeable WP2. Mutagenic potential of EO and monoterpenes was not detected, with or without S9. EO reduced the number of UV-induced revertants in a concentration-dependent manner, reaching 50–70% of inhibition at the maximum non-toxic concentrations: 3 μl/plate (TA102), 5 μl/plate (WP2), 7.5 μl/plate (IB112), 30 μl/plate (E. coli K12 SY252) and 60 μl/plate (D7). The metabolic activation had no effect on antimutagenic potential of EO. Similar toxicity of monoterpenes was observed in TA100, E. coli SY252 and D7, with the exception of limonene (less toxic to D7). Reduction of UV-induced revertants by non-toxic concentrations of monoterpenes, tested with SY252 and D7, reached 40–50% at 15–20 μl/plate of thujone, 10 μl/plate of cineole and 1–10 μg/plate of camphor. Limonene showed antimutagenic effect only in D7. Our data recommend sage monoterpenes for further chemoprevention studies.
Sage is generally used as an expectorant, diuretic, spasmolytic, antimicrobic, antiinflamatory, diaphoretic and antiseptic agent in several clinical conditions. We report a newborn with convulsion which occurred after receiving, accidentally, sage oil orally which was prepared for topical use.
The anticancerogenic activity of the essential oil of Melissa officinalis L. against continuous cell culture of HEp-2 cells derived from human laryngeal cancer was investigated. The effects of the essential oil was compared with the anticancerogenic effects of the Methotrexate (MTX) and Vepesid. The various concentrations of MTX, Vepesid and the essential oil on cells was examined by the morphological changes they induced on the cells and by flow cytometry analysis. The oils like MTX and Vepesid induced cytopathological changes. Whilst the essential oil terminated the cells of the G1 and S phases of the cell cycle, MTX was achieve at the S and G2 phases and Vepesid of the G1 phase was observed. These results show that the essential oil obtained from the M. officinalis L. has anticancerogenic effects.
The composition of essential oils in the seeds of Brassica juncea (L.) Coss., grown in Hebei, Shaanxi and Shandong Province was determined by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We have identified twenty-two compounds constituting 89.6% by weight of the mustard oil from Hebei Province. The main components were allyl isothiocyanate (54.8%), diallyl trisulfide (9.4%), diallyl sulfide (5.5%) and 3-butenyl isothiocyanate (4.8%). Fourteen compounds representing 94.5 % by weight of the mustard oil from Shaanxi Province were identified. They were allyl isothiocyanate (68.8%), diallyl trisulfide (7.8%) and 3-butenyl isothiocyanate (4.9%). Fifteen components were identified accounting for 94.3% by weight of the mustard oil from Shandong Province. Major constituents were allyl isothiocyanate (61.3%), diallyl trisulfide (9.7%) and 3-butenyl isothiocyanate (5.9%).
The essential oil of black cumin seeds, Nigella sativa L., was tested for a possible antioxidant activity. A rapid evaluation for antioxidants, using two TLC screening methods, showed that thymoquinone and the components carvacrol, t-anethole and 4-terpineol demonstrated respectable radical scavenging property. These four constituents and the essential oil possessed variable antioxidant activity when tested in the diphenylpicrylhydracyl assay for non-specific hydrogen atom or electron donating activity. They were also effective ·OH radical scavenging agents in the assay for non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation in liposomes and the deoxyribose degradation assay.
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of responses to selected fragrance materials in patients who were fragrance sensitive. 178 patients were evaluated in 8 centers worldwide with a fragrance mix (FM) and 20 other fragrance materials. Reaction to the fragrance mixture (FM) occurred in 78.7% of the subjects. Substances reacting at a rate of 2% or higher included jasmine absolute, geranium oil bourbon, l-citronellol, spearmint oil, 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-benzopyran, omega-6-hexadecenlactone, dimethyltetrahydrobenzaldehyde (isomer mixture), and alpha-amylcinnamaldehyde. These chemicals should be furthur evaluated to corroborate their allergenicity. We are constantly looking for new fragrance allergens to extend the diagnostic capability of the fragrance mix (FM)
An investigation of the mechanism of peppermint oil action was performed using isolated pharmacological preparations from guinea pig large intestine and patch clamp electrophysiology techniques on rabbit jejunum. Peppermint oil relaxed carbachol-contracted guinea pig taenia coli (IC50, 22.1 μg/mL) and inhibited spontaneous activity in the guinea pig colon (IC50, 25.9 μg/mL) and rabbit jejunum (IC50, 15.2 μg/mL). Peppermint oil markedly attenuated contractile responses in the guinea pig taenia coli to acetylcholine, histamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and substance P. Peppermint oil reduced contractions evoked by potassium depolarization and calcium contractions evoked in depolarizing Krebs solutions in taenia coli. Potential-dependent calcium currents recorded using the whole cell clamp configuration in rabbit jejunum smooth muscle cells were inhibited by peppermint oil in a concentration-dependent manner. Peppermint oil both reduced peak current amplitude and increased the rate of current decay. The effect of peppermint oil resembled that of the dihydropyridine calcium antagonists. It is concluded that peppermint oil relaxes gastrointestinal smooth muscle by reducing calcium influx.
Rats dosed with peppermint oil and pulegone up to 100 or 160 mg/kg body weight/day, respectively, in 28 days developed encephalopathy. Microscopically dose-related cyst-like spaces were found in the white matter of the cerebellum.
The volatile leaf oils of Eucalyptus miniata Cunn. ex Schauer, E. canaliculata Maiden, E. pumila Cambage, E. vergrandis L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. suggrandis L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. tenera L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. incerata Brooker & Hopper ined., E. recta L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. balladoniensis Brooker subsp. sedens L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. 'species P subsp. P' L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. 'species T' L. A. S. Johnson & K. D. Hill, E. ovata Labill. var, ovate, E. yarraensis Maiden & Cambage, E. nova-anglica H. Deane & Maiden, E. smithii R.T. Baker, E. dawsonii R.T. Baker, E. agglomerata Maiden, E. radiata Sieber ex DC. subsp, radiata, E. radiata Sieber ex DC. subsp. robertsonii (Blakely) L. A. S. Johnson & D. F. Blaxell, E. dives Schauer, E. pauciflora Sieber ex Spreng. subsp. pauciflora and E. pauciflora Sieber ex Spreng. subsp. niphophila (Maiden & Blakely) L. A. S. Johnson & D. F. Blaxell, isolated by vacuum distillation, were analysed by GC and GC-MS. Many species contained alpha-pinene (0-84.3%), limonene (0-6.3%), alpha-phellandrene (0-16.9%), 1,8-cineole (0-77.5%), p-cymene (0-27.2%), beta-caryophyllene (0-10.8%), terpinen-4-ol (0-28.2%), piperitone (0-54.5%), aromadendrene (0-21.9%), bicyclogermacrene (0-65.6%) and torquatone (tr.-3.6%) as principal leaf oil components. (C) 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Male and female Swiss mice received by intragastric application 50 mg of aqueous extracts of various medicinal plants for 25 days. The effect of aqueous extracts ingestion was monitored on fertility. Intragastric administration of aqueous extract of Peganum harmala reduced male mice fertility. The number of viable fetuses were reduced in females impregnated by males ingested extract of Arum maculatum. The number of resorptions were increased in females impregnated by males ingested Arum maculatum, Piper nigrum, Salvia triloba, Ammi visnaga, and Daucus carota. On the other hand, the administration of aqueous extracts of Ruta graveolens, Abrus precatorius, Salvia tribola and Foeniculum vulgare reduced female mice fertility. The number of implantations and the number of viable fetuses were reduced in females ingested aqueous extracts of Ruta graveolens, Abrus precatorius. The number of resorptions were increased in females ingested extracts Ruta graveolens, Abrus precatorius, Arum maculatum, Piper nigrum and Nigella sativa.
Background: Melaleuca essential oil, extracted by hydrodistillation front the leaves of Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel or tea tree, is used widely for its antiseptic properties. Its presence in an increasing number of cosmetics, detergents, topical preparations but also in phytodrugs foresees increasingly more widespread use of Melaleuca oil in Italy. Objectives: The aims of our study were to determine the prevalence of delayed sensitivity to Melaleuca and assess the optimum patch test concentration of substance. Materials and methods: 725 consecutive subjects of both sexes (mean age, 43.5 years) were patch tested according to the GIRDCA guidelines; 393 of these suffered front contact dermatitis (allergic in 141, irritant in 252), 35 from atopic dermatitis, and 297 front other skin disorders in whom patch testing was required for diagnostic purposes. An atopy constitution was proven in 169 subjects, but it was clinically relevant only in 134. Patch testing was performed with the SIDAPA/GIRDCA standard series, Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel oil stabilised by microincapsulation (undiluited, 5%, 1% and 0.1% in pet.), Compositae mix and sesquiterpene lactone mix. The results were analysed using χ2 test and Student's t-test. Results: in 43 subjects (5.9%) positive reactions to undiluted Melaleuca oil were observed, but they were slight (±/+) in 37 and non-persistent at 96 hours in 14. The serial dilution test was positive until 1% only in 1 subject. The 0.1% dilution was always negative. The positive reactions were more frequent in subjects with allergic contact dermatitis or atopic dermatitis. Conclusions: the sensitization potential of Melaleuca essential oil is poor, at least in Italy and for the time being. The optimum patch test concentration is 1%.
Fragrances have been used by mankind more than 3000 years, judging from the perfume container discovered in an ancient ruin in India and from a fresco showing ladies enjoying perfume in Egypt. They will surely also be used in the future since they are a kind of art, and at the same time are a part of our daily necessities such as cosmetics, toiletries and food. Some fragrances, however, have been demonstrated to be allergenic, and responsible for causing cosmetic dermatitis. Therefore discovering these “trouble making” fragrances was the first stage. Replacing them with alternative fragrances was then necessary at the second stage. This combination project has been carried out in Japan since 1970. This is a short report on the history of the project.
Fingerprint tracings for essential oils of caraway (Netherlands), cardamom (Guatemala), celery (India), nutmeg (Sri Lanka) and pimento berry (West Indies) are presented.
Essential oils are gaining increasing interest due to their multiple biological activities and great potential for therapeutic use. The antioxidant effect of essential oils is of special interest in diseases with inflammatory aspects. In this paper, the antioxidant activities of eleven essential oils extracted from Australian native plants were examined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azinobis (3- ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) assays. In the DPPH assay, all of the essential oils showed substantial antioxidant potential, with a radical-scavenging activity ranging from 12.9% ± 0.3% to 86.9% ± 0.2% at the concentration of 1.6 × 10-2 mL/mL. In the ABTS assay, lemon-scented tea-tree oil (Leptospermum petersonii Bailey) (80.6% ± 0.7%), Australian blue cypress oil (Callitris intratropica R. T. Baker & H. G. Smith) (78.6% ± 1.3%), lemon-scented eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.) (56.7% ± 0.9%) and lemon-scented ironbark oil (Eucalyptus staigeriana F. Muell. ex Bailey) (58.9% ± 0.8%) exhibited relatively high radical-scavenging activities at the concentration of 1.6 × 10-2 mL/mL. Taken together, in both DPPH and ABTS assays, lemon-scented tea-tree oil (with IC50 of 1.5 × 10-3 mL/mL and 1.5 × 10-3 mL/mL, respectively), Australian blue cypress oil (with IC50 of 9.5 × 10-3 mL/mL and 3.0 × 10-3 mL/mL, respectively), lemon-scented eucalyptus oil (with IC50 of 4.8 × 10-3 mL/mL and 8.9 × 10 -3 mL/mL, respectively) and lemon-scented ironbark oil (with IC 50 of 6.4 × 10-3 mL/mL and 7.0 × 10 -3 mL/mL, respectively) showed the highest antioxidant potential of the essential oils tested. By comparison, the antioxidant capacity of vitamin E had IC50 values of 5.3 × 10-5 mL/mL and 4.3 × 10 -6 mL/mL in the DPPH and ABTS tests respectively.
The effects of harvesting date and different substrates on the yield and chemical composition of the essential oils of Portuguese Thymus mastichina (L.) L. subsp. mastichina were compared with samples grown in pots. The best oil yields were obtained in June (3.2, 3.6 and 4.9% in the local sandy soil, in non-fertilized peat, and in fertilized peat, respectively). The essential oils were dominated by 1,8-cineole, the highest concentration of which was detected in June (58.6%) in samples kept in non-fertilized peat, and the lowest values were from plants growing in fertilized peat during April and June (45.1%). The remaining samples always reached the highest percentages in October (around 54% in both oil samples), although the concentration profile over time was similar in every sample. Concerning the monoterpene hydrocarbons, α-pinene, camphene, sabinene and β-pinene were the most significant components. While the amounts of α-pinene tended to decrease from April to June, for β-pinene such tendency was observed from October to January, independently of the growing material used. Amounts of camphene, being similar to those of α-pinene, decreased successively from October to April. Elemol and intermedeol were the most representative sesquiterpene components, although the concentrations never exceeded 2.2% and 1.3%, respectively. The results obtained in this work suggest that the harvesting dates of Portuguese T. mastichina influence oil yields and their chemical compositions much more than the different growing media used, although a higher oil yield was obtained with the fertilized growing material.
