![Morphology of psyllium seeds [ Plantago ovata ]](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Monica-Rao-5/publication/277618220/figure/fig1/AS:294371304984580@1447194996937/Morphology-of-psyllium-seeds-Plantago-ovata_Q320.jpg)
Content uploaded by Monica RP Rao
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Monica RP Rao on Jun 03, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
Characterization of Psyllium (Plantago ovata) Polysaccharide and
Its Uses
Ashwini R. Madgulkar, Monica R. P. Rao* and Deepa Warrier
Department of Pharmaceutics, AISSMS College of Pharmacy, Pune, India
Abstract
The Plantago is one of the genera in family Plantaginaceae, a large genus of herbs or sub-herbs
distributed mostly in the temperate region and a few in the tropics. Psyllium has been in use as a
medicinal agent since ancient times throughout the world. It is used for treatment of constipation,
diarrhea, hemorrhoids, and high blood pressure. In olden days it was also used topically to treat skin
irritations, such as poison ivy reactions and insect bites and stings. The husk of the seeds of various
species of psyllium is used for its medicinal properties. The primary ingredient of the seeds and husk
is a mucilaginous polysaccharide. Psyllium has been reported for the treatment of constipation,
diarrhea, and irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis), colon
cancer, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia. When mixed with water, the therapeutic efficacy of
the drug is due to the swelling of the mucilaginous seed coat which gives bulk and lubrication.
Psyllium increases the volume of the feces by absorbing water in the gastrointestinal tract,
which stimulates peristalsis. Modification of the polysaccharide by cross-linking or derivatization
has been done to investigate its use as pharm aceutical excipient with multifarious roles. Various
cross-linkers that have been studied include methacrylamide, N,N-methylenebisacrylamide, and
polymethacrylamide.
Keywords
Psyllium; Ispaghula; Dietary fibers; Constipation; Irritable bowel syndrome; Cancer; Hyperlipid-
emia; Acrylamides; Excipients
Abbreviations
AAm Acrylamide
APS Ammonium persulfate
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
GLUT-4 Glucose transporter protein
HEMA Hydroxylethylmethacrylate
HLA-B2712 Human leukocyte antigen
IBS Irritable bowel syndrome
IP Indian Pharmacopoeia
*Email: monicarp_6@hotmail.com
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 1 of 17
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
MAAm Methacrylamide
N,NMBAAm N,N-methylenebisacrylamide
NVP N-vinylpyrrolidone
PAM Polyacrylamide
PMA Polymethacrylic acid
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
RAPD Random amplifi ed polymorphic DNA
SCFA Short-chain fatty acids
SHP Seed husk of psyllium
1 Introduction
Natural carbohydrates are the world’s most abundant, renewa ble, and biodegradable polymers. They
are the most basic source of fuel for all life forms on earth. The simplest carbohydrates are the
monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose, galactose, xylose, and mannose. Polysaccharides are
complex carbohydrate polymers consisting of two or more monosaccharides linked together
covalently by glycosidic linkages in a condensation reaction. They are usually insoluble in water
because of their large molecular size. Polysaccharides can be classified as homopolysaccharides and
heteropolysaccharides. A homopolysaccharide is one with repeat units of a single type of mono-
saccharide, whereas a heteropolysaccharide is composed of two or more types of monosaccharides.
In both types of polysaccharide, the monosaccharides are linked in a linear or branched fashion.
Polysaccharides are extremely important in organisms for the purposes of energy storage and
structural inte grity (Berg 2007).
Starch is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants in the form of both amylose and the branched
amylopectin. Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in
the cell walls of plants and other organisms and is said to be the most abundant organic molecule on
earth. Chitin has a similar structure but has nitrogen-containing side branches, increasing its
strength. Polysaccharides also include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan,
mannan, fucoidan, and galactomannan (Campbell 1996).
Complex carbohydrates are important dietary elements for humans and are commonly called as
dietary fibers. Dietary fibers are classified as soluble and insoluble fibers. Soluble fibers cause an
increase in intestinal transit time of food and are readily fermented in the colon into gases. Insoluble
fibers may be metabolically inert and provide bulk to intestinal contents or may undergo fermen-
tation in the large intestine. Insoluble fibers tend to hasten movement of food through the intestine
(Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy et al. 2005; Eastwood and Kritchevsky 2005). Soluble fibers
reportedly bind to bile acids in the small intestine, thereby reducing their absorption. This conse-
quently leads to lower cholesterol levels in the blood (Anderson et al. 2009). Soluble fibers also
interfere with the absorption of sugar, regularize blood lipid levels, and produce short-chain fatty
acids as by-products of fermentation in the colon with wide-ranging physiological activities.
Although insoluble fibers are associated with reduced diabetes risk, the mechanism by which this
occurs is unknown (Weickert and Pfeiffer 2008 ).
Modern lifestyle has given rise to a plethora of diseases including diabetes, cancer, and cardio-
vascular diseases. The short-term and long-term side effects associated with the therapeutic regimen
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 2 of 17
used for control of these conditions have shifted the focus to alternative methods of prevention, cure,
and control which can work complementarily with the treatment. This in turn has spawned a
worldwide interest in the benefits of dietary fibers, the so-called wonder food of the new millennium.
Dietary fiber is regarded as important for the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed
countries recommending increase in fiber intake (Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy et al. 2005;
Eastwood and Kritchevsky 2005; European Food Safety Authority 2014; Jones and Varady 2008).
1.1 Polysaccharides as Pharmaceutical Excipients
Excipients are an integral part of pharmaceutical dosage forms and comprise the greatest proportion
in dosage units. Knowledge of the composition, function, and behavior of excipients is a prerequisite
for the successful design, development, and manufacture of pharmaceutical dosage forms. Interest in
the physical effects and properties of the excipients used in pharmaceutical formulations has
increased in recent years due to the awareness of the fun damental effect that excipients can exert
on the bioavailability, bioequivalence, and stability of formulations.
Globally, there is a renewed interest in investigating drugs and excipients from natural sources,
especially from plant and marine sources that include starches obtained from corn, wheat, rice, and
tapioca (Andreev 2004) and different types of essential and aromatic oils. A number of poly-
saccharides like chitosan (Park et al. 2002; Sakkinen et al. 2003; Thanou et al. 2000), tamarind
seed polysaccharide (Gholardi et al. 2000; Kulkarni et al. 2005; Sumath and Ray 2002; Miyazaki
et al. 1998), psyllium husk (Fischer et al. 2004a), guar gum (George and Abraham 2007), xanthum
gum (Attama et al. 2006; Khourefieh et al. 2007), and rice bran wax (Dolz et al. 2007) are currently
being used or investigated for varied roles as pharmaceutical excipients which include
mucoadhesion, gel former, drug release retardant, plasticizer, thickener, and binder. The investiga-
tions to explore and investigate newer and newer plant sources continue unabated despite the
availability of a large number of synthetic excipients.
2 Psyllium
Psyllium has been in use since ancient times throughout the world. In India the use of P. ovata dates
back to 1500 BC in the Ayurvedic system of medicine, whereas the Chinese have used it in
traditional medicine for thousands of years. The European use of the herb dates back centuries,
and in North America, psyllium gained prominence in healing only near the end of the twentieth
century (http://savoursomepsyllium.blogs pot.in/2010/11/historytraditional-use.html 2014; Truestar
Health: http://www.truestarhealth.com/Notes/2150006.html#Traditional-Use 2014). The Indian and
the Chinese have used psyllium since 1500 BC for treatment of constipation, diarrhea, hemorrhoids,
bladder problems, and high blood pressure. It was also used topically to treat skin irritations, such as
poison ivy reactions and insect bites and stings. Europeans and North Americans began using
psyllium for cholesterol and blood glucose-lowering effects (http://www.psylliums.com/psyllium.
htm 2014). Typically, psyllium was administered in powder, flakes, or granular form. These would
then be diluted in liquids and drank or sprinkled over meals. Only recently have they been made
available in tablets, capsules, and liquid forms (http://savoursomepsyllium.blogspot.in/2010/11/
historytraditional-use.html 2014; Bluementhal et al. 1998).
2.1 Biological Source
The dried, ripe seeds of Plantago afra (Plantago psyllium), Plantago indica (Plantago arenaria),
and Plantago ovata (Plantaginaceae) are used in medicine. The US National Formulary includes all
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 3 of 17
three species under the name “Plantago Seed” (Trease and Evans 2008). Psyllium husk is the
cleaned, dried seed coat (epidermis) separated by winnowing and thrashing from the seeds of
Plantago ovata Forskal. It is commercially referred to as blond psyllium or Indian psyllium or
ispaghula. The husk may also be obtained from Plantago psyllium Linne or from Plantago indica
Linne (Plantago arenaria Waldstein et Kitaibel) commonly known as Spanish or French psyllium
(Plantaginaceae), in whole or in powdered form (United States Pharmacopoeia 2006). As per British
Pharmacopoeia, psyllium seed consists of the ripe, whole, dry seeds of Plantago afra L. (Plantago
psyllium L.) or Plantago indica L. (Plantago arenaria L. Waldstein and Kitaibel) (British pharma-
copoeia 1968). According to IP, ispaghula husk (isabgol husk, Plantago) consists of the epidermis
and collapsed adjacent layers removed from the dried ripe seeds of Plantago ovata Forsk (Indian
Pharmacopoeia 2010).
2.2 Geographical Source
Ispaghula is an annual herb cultivated in India in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, and in
parts of Rajasthan and Sindh Province of Pakistan (Rangari 2008). Plantago psyllium is cultivated in
France and Spain for the European market. Plantago ovate seeds are cultivated in Southern Europe,
North Africa, and West Pakistan (Gupta 2005). India exports about 90 % of the gross production of
ispaghula and nearly 93 % of the export being husk. Psyllium husks and industrial powders are
exported in countries such as USA, UK, France, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Canada, Mexico,
Sweden, Spain, Norway, Italy, Australia, Denmark, Korea, Pakistan, and some Gulf countries. The
USA is the largest buyer of ispaghula from India and accounts for about 75 % of the total husks
exports from India (http://www.psylliums.com/psyllium.htm 2014) (Table 1).
2.3 Cultivation, Collection, and Treatment
The crop requires marginal, light, well-drained sandy-loam to loamy soils having pH between 7 and
8. The plant does not have any specific nutrient requirement. It requires a cool climate and dry sunny
weather during harvesting. Mild dew, cloudy, or light showers cause seed shedding (Trivedi 2004).
Seeds are sown by broadcasting method in sandy, loamy soil. Addition of farmyard manure or
animal manure (prepared basically using cow dung, cow urine, waste straw, and other dairy wastes)
has favorable effect but generally ammonium sulfate is added as a fertilizer. Irrigation is done
regularly at an interval of 8–10 days. Ispaghula is not significantly affected by pests or diseases, but
the annual harvest greatly suffers due to storm and rainfall. Plantago wilt “Fusarium oxyspirum”
and downy mildew are the major diseases of ispaghula. White grubs and aphids are the major insect
pests. The crop is harvested when the flower spikes turn reddish brown, lower leaves dry, and upper
leaves turn yellow. Harvested seeds are dried below 12 % moisture to enable cleaning, milling, and
storage (Rangari 2008). Ispaghula husk is separated from the seed by crushing in flat stone grinding
mills by winnowing. It is marketed as a separate commodity. It is more in demand and fetches more
price than that of seeds. Raw psyllium seeds are fumigated in their storage area to avoid any
Table 1 Properties of psyll ium seeds
Characters Plantago ovata Plantago afra Plantago indica
Origin India, Pakistan Cuba, Spain, France Egypt, Medi terranean, Europe
Color Dull pinkish gray brown Glossy deep brown Dull blackish brown
Shape Boat shaped; outline ovate Boat shaped; outline elongated ovate Boat shaped; outline elliptical
Length 1.8–3.3 mm 2.0–3.0 mm 2.0–2.5 mm
Weight of 100 seeds 0.15–0.19 g 0.09–0.10 g 0.12–0.14 g
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 4 of 17
contamination. Psyllium products like husk and powder are treated in the fumigation chamber with
approved chemical reagents like methyl bromide as per latest international guidelines. Psyllium
products can also be sterilized by ethylene oxide or gamma radiation, if required (http://phytosani-
torysolution.com/ 2014). Seeds and husks of Plantago major Linn, Plantago lanceolata Linn,
Plantago psyllium Linn, as well as seeds of Lepidium sativum are used as adulterants in ispaghula
(http://www.psylliums.com/psyllium.htm 2014).
2.4 Morphology
Psyllium seeds are ovoid-oblong in shape, about 2–3 mm long and 0.8–1.5 mm wide (Fig. 1). They
are pinkish gray to brown in color with a convex dorsal surface and concave ventral surface with a
deep groove running lengthwise along the center (http://www.psylliums.com/psyllium.htm 2014)
(Figs. 2 and 3a, b).
Fig. 1 Morphology of psyllium seeds [Plantago ovata]
Fig. 2 Transverse section of seeds of Psyllium ovate
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 5 of 17
2.5 Microscopy
The transverse sections of the seed that cut through the central region possess a reniform outline and
exhibit a spermoderm, endosperm, and embryo. The spermoder m shows an outer epidermis of
mucilaginous epidermal cells with obliterated walls in glycerine mounts; the radial and inner walls
swell and disintegrate to form a clear mucilage upon irrigation of the mount with water, and a
pigment layer with brown amorphous content. The endosperm is composed of irregular-shaped,
thick-walled cells with walls of reserve cellulose. The outer layer of this region consists of palisade
cells 15–40 mm in height. Aleurone grains and fixed oils are found in the endosperm cells (Bruneton
1995).
2.6 Chemical Constituents
Many elements have been identified in the seed which include proteins, lipids, sterols, triterpenes,
and aucubin glycoside. The mucilage level is about 30 %. The principal constituent of the mucilage
is 85 % of a soluble polysaccharide fraction dominated by
D-xylose. The polymer backbone is a
xylan with 1!3 and 1! 4 linkages with no apparent regularity in their distribution. The mono-
saccharides in this primary chain are substituted on C-2 or C-3 by
L-arabinose, D-xylose, and
a-
D-galactouronyl-(1!2)-L-rhamnose (Bruneton 1999). Psyllium seed mucilage contains 22.6 %
arabinose, 74.65 % xylose and traces of other sugars, and 35 % nonreducing terminal residues
(Fischer et al. 2004b).
2.7 Structure
The polysaccharide structure constitutes a densely substituted main chain of (1!4)-linked
D-xylopyranosyl residues, some carrying single xylopyranosyl side chains at position 2, others
Fig. 3 (a) Chemical structure of arabinosyl (galactouronic acid) rhamnosylxylan. (b) Ball-and-stick model of
arabinosyl (galactouronic acid) rhamnosylxylan
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 6 of 17
bearing, at position 3, trisaccharide branches having the sequence 1-Araf- (1! 3)-1-Araf. Chemi-
cally the polysaccharide is arabinosyl (galacturonic acid) rhamnosylxylan.
3 Clinical Indications
Psyllium has been reported for the treatment of constipation, diarrhea, and irritable bowel syndrome,
inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis), colon cancer, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia
(Majmudar et al. 2008; Reynolds 1993).
3.1 Constipation
Psyllium husk is widely used for treatment of constipation due to its mucilaginous components.
When mixed with water, the therapeutic efficacy of the drug is due to the swelling of the
mucilaginous seed coat which gives bulk and lubrication (Tyler et al. 1988 ). Psyllium increases
the volume of the feces by absorbing water in the gastrointestinal tract, which stimulates peristalsis
(Read 1986). The intraluminal pressure is decreased, colon transit is increased, and the frequency of
defecation is increased (Martea u et al. 1994 ; Sölter and Lorenz 1983). The effectiveness of fiber, and
psyllium in particular, on constipation depends on the main cause of the constipation. In a study of
149 patients with chronic constipation, the consumption of 15– 30 g daily of a psyllium seed
preparation provided bowel relief in 85 % of participants who had no known pathological cause
for their constipation. Only 20 % of individuals with slow transit responded to psyllium. A slightly
greater percentage (37 %) of those with disorders of defecation – including rectocele, internal
prolapse, anismus, and rectal hyposensitivity – found improvement (Alternative Medicine Review
2002; Voderholzer et al. 1997; Kumar et al. 1987; Qvitzau et al. 1988).
3.2 Fecal Incontinence
Psyllium has been shown to have the paradoxical property of both improving constipation by
increasing stool weight and ameliorating chronic diarrhea. Because of its ability to retain water,
psyllium has also been shown to benefit ind ividuals with fecal incontinence from liquid stools or
diarrhea. A placebo-controlled trial of person s with liquid stool fecal incontinence was performed in
which supplementation with both gum arabic and psyllium showed approximately a 50 % decrease
in the occurrence of incontinent stools. The psylliu m group had the highest water-holding capacity
of water-insoluble solids and total water-holding capacity of the stool (Alternative Medicine Review
2002; Bliss et al. 2001).
3.3 Hemorrhoids
With the known benefit of psyllium for both constipation and loose stools, psyllium was also
reported to be beneficial for the treatment of hemorrhoids. It was found to have a significant
improvement in reduction of bleeding and a dramatic reduction of congested hemorrhoidal cushions
(Perez et al. 1996; Broader et al. 1974; Webster et al. 1978).
3.4 Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Constipation is characterized by unsatisfactory defecation and infrequent stools, difficult stool
passage, or both. On the other hand, the presence of clinically important abdominal discomfort or
pain associated with constipation defines IBS with constipation. Intake of psyllium may be effective
in alleviating chronic constipation in patients without slow colonic transit or disordered constipa-
tion. On the other hand, fiber with lactulose may improve stool consistency in patients with IBS with
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 7 of 17
constipation. The easing of bowel dissatisfaction appears to be a major reason for the therapeutic
success of psyllium in IBS (Degan and Phillips 1996; Bouchoucha et al. 2004; Koch et al. 1997).
3.5 Ulcerative Colitis (Crohn’s Disease)
The two primary sites for Crohn’s disease are the ileum, which is the last portion of the small bowel
(ileitis, regional enteritis), and the colon (Crohn’s colitis). A small number of studies have examined
the ability of psyllium to maintain remission in ulcerative colitis. Dietary fiber has been proven to be
beneficial in maintaining remission in human ulcerative colitis, an effect related with an increased
luminal production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), i.e., acetate, propionate, and butyrate in the
intestines. Dietary fiber supplementation ameliorated colonic damage in HLA-B2712. In an open
label, randomized, multicenter trial of persons with ulcerative colitis, psyllium seed supplementation
(10 g twice daily) was as effective as mesalamine in maintaining emission. It was inferred that this
effect may possibly be due to increased levels of butyric acid with psyllium supplementation
(Alternative Medicine Review 2002; Fernandez et al. 1999 ).
3.6 Appetite
Psyllium may also have an effect on appetite. A triple-blind study on 17 women looked at the effect
of 20 g of psyllium seed 3 h pre-meal and again immediately post-meal during three 3-day study
periods. The subjects reported significantly increased feelings of fullness 1 h after meals with the
psyllium and exhibited a significantly lower fat intake with those meals (Turnbull and Thomas
1995).
3.7 Hyperlipidemia
Psyllium has been shown to reduce total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol
in animals and in humans (Fernandez 1995; Fernandez et al. 1995; Terpstra et al. 2000). Sprecher
et al. demonstrated a 3.5 % reduction in total cholesterol and a 5.1 % reduction in LDL levels after
consuming 5 g of psyllium husk twice daily for 8 weeks (Sprecher et al. 1993). Another study began
with individuals on the American Heart Association Step 1 diet, followed by 8 weeks of psyllium,
resulting in decreased total cholesterol (4.8 %) and LDL (8.8 %) (Bell et al. 1989). A meta-analysis
was performed on eight trials of psyllium husk in conjunction with a low-fat diet in the treatment of
hypercholesterolemia. After an initial 8-week, low-fat diet run-in, 10.2 g psyllium was given per day,
resulting in a 4-percent reduction in serum total cholesterol and a 7-percent reduction in LDL
cholesterol, compared to diet and placebo. A 6 % reduction in the ratio of apolipoprotein (apo) B to
apo A-I was also noted (Anderson et al. 2000a; Levin et al. 1990; Anderson et al. 2000b; Olson
et al. 1997). A meta-analysis of 12 studies of psyllium-enhanced cereal product consumption on
total and LDL cholesterol in 404 adults with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia demonstrated a
reduction of 5 % of total cholesterol and 9 % of LDL cholesterol (Romero et al. 1998). Researchers
studied the effect of fiber-enhanced cookies on blood lipids in hypercholesterolemic men, using
wheat bran-, psyllium-, or oat bran- containing cookies (wheat bran was used as the placebo since it
has no demonstrated cholesterol-lowering effect). At the end of the 8-week study, plasma LDL
cholesterol had decreased to 22.6 % in the psyllium group and 26 % in the oat bran group (Burton
and Manninen 1982). A 4-month study of 12 elderly patients showe d psyllium husk reduced total
serum cholesterol by 20 %, a figure much higher than the abovementioned studies [(Ste wart
et al. 1991)]. In another study, a significant reduction in total serum cholesterol was noted in
176 elderly persons who used psyllium for 1 year (Vega-Lopez et al. 2001). The authors found
that for every 1 g increase in daily psyllium dose, there was a 0.022-mmol/l (0.84 mg/dl) decrease in
serum total cholesterol concentration. In a study to examine age and gender differences in the effect
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 8 of 17
of psyllium on blood lipids, men and pre- and postmenopausal women were given psyllium (15 g
daily) or placebo. Psyllium lowered plasma LDL cholesterol by 7–9 % in all groups. Triglyceride
levels were lowered by 17 % in men, but were increased by 16 % in postmenopausal women.
Premenopausal women displayed no significant shift in triglycerides (Agrawal and Pariddhavi
2012).
The mechanism of action of psyllium’s hypocholesterolemic effects has not been fully
expounded. Psyllium was shown to stimulate bile acid synthesis (7 a-hydroxylase activity) in
animal models (Horton et al. 1994; Matheson et al. 1995) and in humans (Everson et al. 1992).
The diversion of hepatic cholesterol for bile acid production is an established mechanism for
reducing serum cholesterol. Psyllium ’s effect on the absorption of cholesterol (Everson
et al. 1992; Turley et al. 1994) and fat (Ganji and Kies 1994) is negligible but may appear to
contribute to cholesterol lowering. Additional mechanisms, such as inhibition of hepatic cholesterol
synthesis by propionate (Anderson 1995) and secondary effects of slowing glucose absorption
(Jenkins et al. 1990), may also play a role.
3.8 Diabetes Mellitus
Dietary fibers from psyllium have been used extensively in processed food to aid weight reduction,
for glucose control in diabetic patients (Anderson et al. 1999). It has been shown to improve
postprandial glycemic index and insulin sensitivity. In rats it was found to suppress sucrose and
glucose absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Studies also showed enhanced blood glucose
disposal by regulating skeletal muscle plasma membrane GLUT-4 protein (glucose transporter)
expression without phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation (Yu et al. 2009). The effect of psyllium
husk was studied in 34 men with type 2 diabetes and hypercholesterolemia, given either placebo or
5 g psyllium twice daily for 8 weeks. Total cholesterol was lower by 8.9 % and LDL by 1 %. In
addition, the postprandial rise of glucose was significantly reduced (Duke 1985). The mechanism for
hypoglycemic effect in humans may be due to suppression of diffusion of glucose to small intestinal
epithelium for absorption, delayed gastric emptying time, and reduced carbohydrate digestibility by
retarding their access to digestive enzymes (Liangli and Wei Liu 2012).
3.9 Cancer
Seeds of Plantago coronopus, P. lanceolata, P. ovata , and P. psyllium were used by humans against
cancer (Liangli and Wei Liu 2012; Hartwell 1982). Besides, the presence of luteolin-7-O-
b-glucoside, a major flavonoid present in the leaves of P. serraria, P. psyllium, P. coronopus, and
P. lanceolata , was able to strongly inhibit the proliferation of human cancer cell lines (Galvez
et al. 2003). Butyric acid which is reported to exhibit antineoplastic activity against colorectal cancer
is the preferred oxidative substrate for colonocytes and may be helpful in the treatment of ulcerative
colitis (Whitkus et al. 1994). Butyrate may also dose-dependently suppress cancer cell proliferation,
promote differentiation marker expression, and lead to reversion of cells from a neoplastic to
nonneoplastic phenotype (Yu et al. 2009). In a study of patients with resected colorectal cancer,
those given 20 g of psyllium seeds daily for 3 months exhibited an average increase of butyric acid
production of 42 %, which decreased to pretreatment levels within 2 months of cessation of
supplementation (Nordgaard et al. 1996).
Psyllium might also alter colonic sphingomyelin metabolism and apoptosis which may have an
impact on colon tumorigenesis and inflammation in mice (Cheng et al. 2004).
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 9 of 17
4 Safety Data
4.1 Precautions
The recommended dose for psyllium varies as per the age and clinical indication. Nonetheless the
precautions are common regarding safe use of psyllium. Psyllium should not be taken in case of
suspected intestinal obstruction (ileus), diseases of the esophagus, and patients with difficulty in
swallowing. It is also not recommended for patients with intestinal atresia and stenosis and for
children below 6 years. It should be consumed with sufficient quantity of water, failing which may
cause choking due to blockage of the throat or esophagus (New HMPC Commission 2014).
4.2 Drug Interactions
Bulking agents have been reported to reduce the absorption of some minerals (calcium, magnesium,
copper, and zinc), vitamin B
12
, cardiac glycosides, and coumarin derivatives (Gattus o and Kamm
1994;H
€
ansel et al. 1994a; Drews et al. 1981). The co-administration of psylliu m with lithium salts
has been reported to reduce the plasma concentrations of the lithium salts due to inhibition of their
absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (Pearlman 1990). It has also been reported to decrease both
the rate and extent of carbamazepine absorption, inducing subclinical levels of the drug. Therefore,
ingestion of lithium salts or carbamazepine and psyllium should not be concomitant (Etman 1995).
Insulin-dependent diabetic people may require less insulin if they are concurrently taking psyllium
(Bradley 1983).
4.3 Preclinical Safety Data
The material hydrates and swells to form mucilage in vivo as it is only partially solubilized. Less
than 10 % of the mucilage gets hydrolyzed in the stomach. Preclinical studies in various animal
species revealed pigmentation of various organs. Albino rats showed a dark pigmentation of the
suprarenal gland, kidney, marrow, and liver after 125 days on a diet of 25 % of psyllium seeds. Dogs
showed gray color of kidneys after a diet containing 25 % psyllium seeds for 30 days. Similar effects
were not observed in humans. The pigmentation could be attributed to the dark pigment in the
pericarp of the seeds (H
€
ansel et al. 1994b).
5 Preserving Genetic Integrity
Proper conservation and successful breeding of commercially viable crops is facilitated by appro-
priate identification of the plant. Conventionally, identification and classification of plant groups are
solely based on differences in morphological features, especially the floral character which was
considered to be consistent. It is well established that morphological characteristics are a result of the
interaction between the environment and the genotype and can also be influenced by climatic and
edaphic factors. Molecular techniques using DNA markers are ther efore useful not only to identify
the genotypes for authentication, but also in assessing and exploiting the genetic variability
(Whitkus et al. 1994b). These techniques are suitable means for estimating genetic diversity because
of their abundant polymorphism and the fact that they are independent of environment (Gepts 1993).
DNA fingerprintin g is a remarkable tool to create the genetic blueprint of all medicinal plants.
Genetic diversity in five cultivars of P. ovate was estimated using molecular markers by Pal (Pal and
Raychoudhuri 2004) and Raychoudhuri (Raychoudhuri and Pramanik 1997). Similarly, Vahabi
et al. used molecular and morphological markers for the evaluation of genetic diversity between
P. ovate (Vahabi et al. 2008). Wolff and Morgan-Richards used random amplified polymorphic DNA
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 10 of 17
(RAPD) markers for differentiating subspecies of Plantago major (Wolff et al. 2000). Samantaray
et al. use d RAPD markers to assess genetic relationships and variance in seven species of Plantago,
i.e., P. ovata (Forsk.), P. indica (L.), P. arenaria (Waldst.), P. psyllium (Linn.), P. lanceolata (Linn.),
P. serraria (Linn.), and P. coronopus (Linn.) (Samantaray et al. 2010 ). In India, facilities have been
developed for long-term storage of germplasm in the National Gene Bank in New Delhi, India, to
avoid frequent regeneration and to check genetic drift (Trivedi 2004).
6 Chemical Modifications
A lot of work involving derivatization/cross-linking of polysaccharide obtained from psyllium seeds
and husk is underway. The objective of these studies is to modify the properties of the polysaccha-
ride in order to exploit it as a pharmaceutical excipient. Some of the pioneering works done in this
field are enlisted below:
1. Singh and Sharma have developed psyllium–PVA–acrylic acid-based novel hydrogels for use in
antibiotic drug delivery through graft copolymerization. The use of a very small amount of these
petroleum products has developed low energy, cost-effective, biodegradable, and biocompatible
material for potential biomedical applications. In this experiment, polyvinyl alcohol and acrylic
acid were used as monomers; N,N-methylenebisacrylamide was used as the cross-linking agent,
and ammonium persulfate was used as the thermal initiator (Singh and Sharma 2010).
2. Patil et al. have developed and evaluated psyllium seed husk polysaccharide-based wound-
dressing films. In this study, wound-dressing films were fabricated using seed husk of psyllium
(SHP) complexed with povidone iodine and were evaluated for various physicochemical prop-
erties as well as wound healing activity in albino rats (Basavaraj et al. 2011).
3. Singh and Chauhan have prepare d psyllium- and acrylamide-/methacrylamide-based hydrogels,
and the effects of pH on the release dynamics of insulin from drug-loaded hydrogels were studied
to evaluate the drug release mechanism. Two types of hydrogels were prepared by using
acrylamide and a mixture of acrylamide/methacrylamide. The hydrogels were named as psy-cl-
poly (AAm) and psy-cl-poly (AAm-co-MAAm) hydrogels, respectively. N,
N-methylenebisacrylamide was used as the cross-linking agent and ammonium persulfate was
used as the thermal initiator (Singh and Chauhan 2010).
4. Sen et al. conducted research on a novel microwave-initiated method for synthesis of
polyacrylamide-grafted psyllium (Psy-g-PAM). Psyllium was modified through grafting of
polyacrylamide (PAM) chains on it using microwave radiations only, in the absence of any
other free radical initiator. The synthesized grades of the graft copolymer were characterized
through various physicochemical techniques. The flocculation efficacy of the synthesized graft
copolymers was studied in kaolin and coal fine suspension through standard “Jar test” procedure.
It was found that the high flocculation efficacy of Psy-g-PAM makes it a good candidate to be
used as a flocculant for waste water treatment and treatment of effluents discharged from coal
washeries (Sen et al. 2010).
5. Singh and Kumar prepared psyllium-N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP)-based hydrogels by radiation-
induced cross-linking. The reaction mixture was irradiated with gamma rays of a dose rate of
2.43 kGy/h, in 60 Co gamma chamber for a specific time. The cross-linking polymers thus formed
were named as psy-cl-poly (NVP) hydrogels. These hydrogels were then studied for their release
dynamics of anticancer model drug (5-fluorouracil). It was found that the release of the drug from
the hydrogels occurred through non-Fickian diffusion mechanism (Singh and Kumar 2008).
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 11 of 17
6. Kumar and Sharma synthesized a new material (Psy-g-PMA) by grafting polymethacrylic acid
onto the backbone of psyllium using a microwave-assisted method. Acetylsalicylic acid was
incorporated in the various Psy-g-PMA samples and tablets were prepared to study the in vitro
drug release. This biodegradable material is good for the fast release of medicine in acidic
environments such as the human stomach. The material also demonstrated superabsorbent
capacity for water and may be useful in diapers and feminine sanitary pads (Kumar and
Sharma 2013).
7. Singh and Chauhan prepared psyllium 2-hydroxylethylmethacrylate (HEMA) and acrylamide
(AAm)-based polymeric networks by using N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (N,N-MBAAm) as
cross-linker and ammonium persulfate (APS) as initiator. It was concluded that the swelling of
the modified psyllium-based hydrogels is affected by the composition of the hydrogels and pH of
the swelling medium (Singh et al. 2008).
7 Conclusion
The surge in the development of newer drug molecules for the treatment of a plethora of diseases has
definitely led to improved therapy, but it has also resulted in a concomitant rise in side effects and
adverse reactions. This has led to a resurgence of plant-based traditional systems of medicine and
nutraceuticals which either supplement or complement these therapeutic regimens. The impact of
the role of dietary fibers, the “wonder food” of the new millennium, in the control and cure of many
lifestyle diseases cannot be underestimated. Psyllium has been in use since ages for its various
medicinal effects and continues to rule the roost for the treatment of constipation, diarrhea, irritable
bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel diseases, ulcerative colitis, colon cancer, diabetes, and
hypercholesterolemia. The high mucilaginous content of psyllium seeds and husk has also spawned
an interest in its use as pharmaceutical excipient. Chemical modifications have been done to improve
its profile as multifunctional pharmaceutical excipient. Future studies could be aimed at exploring
and discovering more uses of this remarkable but unassuming plant.
References
Agrawal SS, Pariddhavi M (2012) Herbal drug technology, 2nd edn. Universities Press, India,
pp 715, 721
Alternative Medicine Review (2002) volume 7, Number 2 http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.
fulltext/7/2/155.pdf (cited on 20 April 2014)
Anderson JW (1995) Short-chain fatty acids and lipid metabolism: human studies. In: Cummings
JH, Rombeau JL, Sakata T (eds) Physiological and clinical aspects of short-chain fatty acids.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 509–523
Anderson JW, Allgood LD, Turner J et al (1999) Effects of psyllium on glucose and serum lipid
responses in men with type 2 diabetes and hypercholesterolemia. Am J Clin Nutr 70:466–473
Anderson JW, Allgood LD, Lawrence A et al (2000a) Cholesterol-lowering effects of psyllium
intake adjunctive to diet therapy in men and women with hypercholesterolemia: meta-analysis of
8 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 71:472–479
Anderson JW, Davidson MH, Blone L et al (2000b) Long-term cholesterol-lowering effects of
psyllium as an adjunct to diet therapy in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Am J Clin Nutr
71:1433–1438
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 12 of 17
Anderson JW, Bai rd P, Davis RH et al (2009) Health benefits of dietary fiber. Nutr Rev
67(4):188–205
Andreev PV (2004) Using modified starch in Russian Pharmaceutical Industry. J Pharm Chem
38(8):447–450
Attama AA, Schiche BC, Muller CC (2006) Further characterization of Theobroma oil-beeswax
admixtures as lipid matrices for improved drug delivery systems. Eur J Pharm Biopharm
64(3):294–306
Basavaraj SP, Vinayak S, Kulkarni AR (2011) Development and evaluation of psyllium seed husk
polysaccharide based wound dressing films. Orient Pharm Exp Med 11:123–129
Bell LP, Hectorne K, Reynolds H, Hunninghake DB (1989) Cholesterol-lowering effects of psyl-
lium hydrophilic mucilloid. J Am Med Asso 261:3419–3423
Berg JM (2007) Biochemistry, 6th edn. W.H. Freeman, New York, pp 310–323
Bliss DZ, Jung HJ, Savik K et al (2001) Supplementation with dietary fiber improves fecal
incontinence. Nurs Res 50:203–213
Bluementhal M et al (1998) Therapeutic guide to herbal medicines. The Complete Commission
E Monographs. American Botanical Council, Austin, pp 190–192
Bouchoucha MG, Faye A, Savarieau B, Arsac M (2004) Effect of an oral bulking agent and a rectal
laxative administered alone or in combination for the treatment of constipation. Gastroenterol
Clin Biol 28:438–443
Bradley PR (1983) British herbal compendium, vol 1. British Herbal Medicine Association,
Bournemouth, pp 199–200
British Pharmacopoeia (1968) Published on the recommendation of the Medicines Commission
pursuant to the Medicines Act 3rd edn. Medicines Commissi on, H.M. Stationery Office, Great
Britain, pp 34–15
Broader JH, Gunn IF, Williams JA (1974) Evaluation of a bulk-forming evacuant in the management
of hemorrhoids. Br J Surg 61:142–144
Bruneton J (1995) Pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, medicinal plants. Techniques & documenta-
tion, 1st edn. Lavoisier Publishers, Paris, p 915
Bruneton J (1999) Pharmacognosy & phytochemistry medicinal plants. Techniques & documenta-
tion, vol 81, 2nd edn. Lavoisier Publishers, Paris, pp 106–109
Burton R, Manninen V (1982) Influence of a psyllium- based fibre preparation on faecal and serum
parameters. Acta Med Scand 668:S91–S94
Campbell NA (1996) Biology, 4th edn. Benjamin Cummings, New York, p 23
Cheng Y, Ohlsson L, Duan R-D (2004) Psyllium and fat in diets differentially affect the activities
and expressions of colonic sphingomyelinases and caspase in mice. Br J Nutr 91:715–723
Degan LP, Phillips SF (1996) How well dose stool form reflects colonic transit? Gut 39:109–113
Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein,
and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) (2005), Chapter 7: Dietary, Functional and Total fiber. US
Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library and National Academy of Sciences,
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board (cited on 15 April 2014)
Dietary reference values for carbohydr ates and dietary fiber. European Food Safety Authority. (cited
on 14 April 2014)
Dolz M, Hermande z MJ, Delegido J et al (2007) Influence of xanthum gum and locust bean gum
upon flow and thixotropic behaviour of food emulsions containing modifi
ed starch. J Food Engg
81(1):179–186
Drews L, Kies C, Fox HM (1981) Effect of dietary fiber on copper, zinc, and magnesium utilization
by adolescent boys. Am J Clin Nutr 32:1893–1897
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 13 of 17
Duke JA (1985) Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 209
Eastwood M, Kritchevsky D (2005) Dietary fiber: how did we get where we are? Annu Rev Nutr
25:1–8
Etman MA (1995) Effect of a bulk forming laxative on the bioavailability of carbamazepine in man.
Drug Dev Ind Pharm 21:1901–1906
Everson GT, Daggy BP, McKinley C, Story JA (1992) Effects of psyllium hydrophilic mucilloid on
LDL-cholesterol and bile acid synthesis in hypercholesterolemic men. J Lipid Res 33:1183–1192
Fernandez ML (1995) Distinct mechanisms of plasma LDL lowering by dietary fiber in the guinea
pig: specific effects of pectin, guar gum, and psyllium. J Lipid Res 36:2394–2404
Fernandez ML, Ruiz LR, Conde AK et al (1995) Psyllium reduces plasma LDL in guinea pigs by
altering hepatic cholesterol homeostasis. J Lipid Res 36:1128–1138
Fernandez BF, Hinojosa J, Sanchez JL et al (1999) Randomized clinical trial of plantago ovata seeds
(dietary fiber) as compared with mesalamine in maintaining remission in ulcerative colitis. Am
J Gastroenterol 94:427–433
Fischer M, Nanxiong Y, Gray G et al (2004a) The gel forming polysaccharide of Psyllium husk.
Carbohydr Res 4:339
Fischer HM, Nanxiong Y, Ralph RGJ, Andersond L, Marletta JA (2004b) The gel forming
polysaccharide of psyllium husk (P. ovate Forsk). Carbohydr Res 339:2009–2017
Galvez M, Martin CC, Lopez LM, Cortes F, Ayuso MJ (2003) Cytotoxic effect of Plantago spp. on
cancer cell lines. J Ethnopharma 88:125–130
Ganji V, Kies CV (1994) Psyllium husk fibre supplementation to soybean and coconut oil diets of
humans: effect on fat digestibility and faecal fatty acid excretion. Eur J Clin Nutr 48:595–597
Gattuso JM, Kamm MA (1994) Adverse effects of drugs used in the management of constipation
and diarrhea. Drug Saf 10:47–65
George M, Abraham TE (2007) pH sensitive alginate-guar gum hydrogel for the controlled delivery
of protein drugs. Int J Pharm 335(1–2):123–129
Gepts P (1993) The use of molecular and biochemical markers in crop-evolution studies. In: Hecht
MK (ed) Evolutionary biology. Plenum Press, New York, pp 51–94
Gholardi E, Tavant A, Celandroni F et al (2000) Effect of a novel mucoadhesive polysaccharide
obtained from tamarind seeds on the intraocular penetration of Gentamicin and Ofloxacin in
rabbits. J Antimicrob Chemother 46:831–834
Gupta AK (2005) Handbook on herbs: cultivation & processing. Asia Pacific Business Press Inc,
Delhi, pp 329–330
H
€
ansel R et al (1994a) Hagers Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis, vol 6, 5th edn. Springer,
Berlin, pp 361–384
H
€
ansel R, Keller K, Pimpler H, Schneider G (1994b) Plantago. In: Drogen P-Z (ed) Hagers
handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis, vol 6, 5th edn. Springer, Berlin, pp 221–239
Hartwell JL (1982) Plants used against cancer: a survey. Quarterman Publications, Lawrence (cited
on 16 May 2014)
Horton JD, Cuthbert JA, Spady DK (1994) Regulation of hepatic 7 alpha-hydroxylase expression by
dietary psyllium in the hamster. J Clin Invest 93:2084–2092
http://phytosanitorysolution.com/ (cited on 15 April 2014)
http://savoursomepsyllium.blogspot.in/2010/11/historytraditional-use.html (cited on 15 Apr 2014)
http://www.psylliums.com/psyllium.htm (cited on 15 Apr 2014)
Indian Pharmacopoeia (2010) Government of India, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare,
Published by the Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission, vol 3, pp 2153
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 14 of 17
Jenkins DJA, Jenkins AL, Wolever T, Vuksan V (1990) Fiber and physiological and potentially
therapeutic effects of slowing carbohydrate absorption. In: Furda I, Brine CJ (eds) New devel-
opments in dietary fiber. Plenum Press, New York, pp 129–134
Jones PJ, Varady KA (2008) Are functional foods redefining nutritional requirements? Appl Physiol
Nutr Metab 33(1):118–123
Khourefieh HA, Herald TJ, Aramouni F, Alavi S (2007) Intrinsic viscosity and viscoelastic
properties of xanthan/guar mixtures in dilute solutions. Food Res Int 40(7):883–893
Koch A, Voderholzer WA, Klauser AG, Muller LS (1997) Symptoms in chronic constipation. Dis
Colon Return 40:902–906
Kulkarni GT, Gowtharnarajan K et al (2005) Development of controlled release spheroids using
natural polysaccharides as a release modifier. Drug Deliv 12(4):201–206
Kumar R, Sharma K (2013) Biodegradable polymethacrylic acid grafted psyllium for controlled
drug delivery systems. Front Chem Sci Eng 7(1):116–122
Kumar A, Kumar N, Vij JC, Sarin SK, Anand BS (1987) Optimal dosage of ispaghula husk in
patients with irritable bowel syndrome: correlation of symptom relief with whole gut transit time
and stool weight. Gut 28: 150–155
Levin EG, Miller VT, Muesing RA et al (1990) Comparison of psyllium hydrophilic mucilloid and
cellulose as adjuncts to a prudent diet in the treatment of mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia.
Arch Intern Med 150:1822–1827
Liangli Yu, Zhuohong Xie and Wei Liu (2012) Nutraceutical and health properties of psyllium. In:
Liangli LYu, Rong Tsao, Fereidoon Shahidi (eds) Cereals and pulses: nutraceutical properties and
health benefits. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118229415.ch11) (cited on 18 May 2014)
Majmudar H, Mourya V, Devdhe S, Chandak R (2008) Pharmaceutical applications of ispaghula
husk: mucilage. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res 18(1):49–55
Marteau P et al (1994) Digestibility and bulking effect of ispaghula husks in healthy humans. Gut
35:1747–1752
Matheson HB, Colon IS, Story JA (1995) Cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity is increased by
dietary modification with psyllium hydrocolloid, pectin, cholesterol and cholestyramine in rats.
J Nutr 125:454 –458
Miyazaki S, Suisha F, Kawasaki N et al (1998) Thermally reversible xyloglucan gels as a vehicle for
rectal delivery. J Cont Release 56(1–3):75 –83
New HMPC Commission, (Herbal Medicinal Products Committee) The European Scientific Coop-
erative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP), WHO vol 1 (cited on 18 May 2014).
Nordgaard I, Hove H, Clausen MR, Mortensen PB (1996) Colonic production of butyrate in patients
with previous colonic cancer during long-term treatment with dietary fibre (Plantago ovate seeds).
Scand J Gastroenterol 31:1011–1020
Olson BH, Anderson SM, Becker MP et al (1997) Psyllium-enriched cereals lower blood total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, but not HDL cholesterol, in hypercholesterolemic adults: results
of a meta-analysis. J Nutr 127:1973–1980
Pal MD, Raychoudhuri SS (2004) Estimation in genetic variability in Plantago ovata cultivars. Biol
Plant 47:459–462
Park HS, Lee JY, Cho SH et al (2002) Colon delivery of prednisolone based on chitosan coated
polysaccharide tablets. Arch Pharma Res 25(6):964–968
Pearlman BB (1990) Interaction between lithium salts and ispaghula husks. Lancet 335:416
Perez MM, Gomez CA, Colombo LT et al (1996) Effect of fiber supplements on internal bleeding
hemorrhoids. Hepatogastroenterology 43:1504–1507
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 15 of 17
Qvitzau S, Matzen P, Madsen P (1988) Treatment of chronic diarrhoea: loperamide versus ispaghula
husk and calcium. Scand J Gastroenterol 23:1237–1240
Rangari VD (2008) Pharmacognosy & phytochemistry, vol 1, 2nd edn. Career Publications, India,
pp 202–204
Raychaudhuri SS, Pramanik S (1997) Comparative studies on DNA content and superoxide
dismutase isozymes of Plantago ovata, P. psyllium, P. indica, P. lanceolata. J Med Arom Plant
Sci 19:964–967
Read NW (1986) Dietary fiber and bowel transit. In: Vahouny GV, Kritchevsky D (eds) Dietary fiber
basic and clinical aspects. Plenum Press, New York, pp 91–100
Reynolds M (1993) The extra pharmacopeia, 30th edn. The Pharmaceutical Press, London, p 900
Romero AL, Romero JE, Galviz S, Fernandez ML (1998) Cookies enriched with psyllium or oat
bran lower plasma LDL cholesterol in normal and hypercholesterolemic men from Northern
Mexico. J Am Coll Nutr 17:601–608
Sakkinen M, Linna A, Ojala S et al (2003) In vivo evaluation of matrix granules containing
microcrystalline chitosan as a gel forming excipients. Int J Pharm 250(1):227–237
Samantaray S, Dhagat U, Maiti S (2010) Evaluation of genetic relationships in Plantago species
using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Plant Biotechnol 27:297–303
Sen G, Mishra S, Usha Rani G, Rani P, Prasad R (2010) Microwave initiated synthesis of
polyacrylamide grafted psyllium and its application as a flocculant. Int J Biol Macromol
50:369–375
Singh B, Chauhan N, Kumar S, Bala R (2008) Psyllium and copolymers of 2-
hydroxylethylmethacrylate and acrylamide-based novel devices for the use in colon specific
antibiotic drug delivery. Int J Pharm 352:74–80
Singh B, Kumar S (2008) Synthesis and characterization of psyllium-NVP based drug delivery
system through radiation crosslinking polymerization. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res
266:3417–3430
Singh B, Chauhan N (2010) Dietary fiber psyllium based hydrogels for use in insulin delivery. Int
J Diabetes Mellitus 2:32–37
Singh B, Sharma V (2010) Design of psyllium–PVA–acrylic acid based novel hydrogels for use in
antibiotic drug delivery. Int J Pharm 389:94–106
Sölter H, Lorenz D (1983) Summary of clinical results with prodiem plain, a bowel regulating agent.
Today’s Ther Trends 1:45–59
Sprecher DL, Harris BV, Goldberg AC et al (1993) Efficacy of psyllium in reducing serum
cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients on high- or low-fat diets. Ann Intern Med
119:545–554
Stewart RB, Hale WE, Moore MT et al (1991) Effect of psyllium hydrophilic mucilloid on serum
cholesterol in the elderly. Dig Dis Sci 36:329–334
Sumath S, Ray AR (2002) Release behaviour of drugs from tamarind seeds polysaccharides tablets.
J Pharm Sci 5(1):12–18
Terpstra AH, Lapre JA, de Vries HT, Beynen AC (2000) Hypocholesterolemic effect of dietary
psyllium in female rats. Ann Nutr Metab 44:223–228
Thanou M, Verhoef JC, Marbach P (2000) Intestinal absorption of octreotide: N-trimethyl chitosan
chloride ameliorates the permeability and absorption properties of the somatostatin analogue
in vitro and in vivo. J Pharm Sci 89(7):951–957
Trease GE, Evans WC (2008) A textbook of pharmacognosy, Indian edn, 16th edn. W B Saunders,
Noida, pp 168, 215, 193
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 16 of 17
Truestar Health: http://www.truestarhealth.com/Notes/2150006.html#Traditional-Use (cited on
15 April 2014)
Trivedi PC (2004) Me dicinal plants utilisation & conservation. Avishkar Publishers & Distributors,
Jaipur, pp 121–129
Turley SD, Daggy BP, Dietschy JM (1994) Psyllium augments the cholesterol-lowering action of
cholestyramine in hamsters by enhancing sterol loss from the liver. Gastroenterology
107:444–452
Turnbull WH, Thomas HG (1995) The effect of Plantago ovata seed containing preparation on
appetite variables, nutrient and energy intake. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19:338–342
Tyler VE, Brady LR, Robbers JE (1988) Pharmacognosy, 9th edn. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia,
pp 52–53
United States Pharmacopoeia (2006) The official compendia of standards. Asian Edition, National
Formulary, pp 1863, 1864
Vahabi AA, Lotif A, Solouki M, Bahrami S (2008) Molecular and morphological markers for the
evaluation of diversity between Plantago ovata in Iran. Biotechnology 7:702–709
Vega-Lopez S, Vidal-Quintanar RL, Fernandez ML (2001) Sex and hormonal status influence
plasma lipid responses to psyllium. Am J Clin Nutr 74:435–441
Voderholzer WA, Schatke W, Muhldorfer BE et al (1997) Clinical response to dietary fiber treatment
of chronic constipation. Am J Gastroenterol 92:95–98
Webster DJ, Pugh DC, Craven JL (1978) The use of bulk evacuant in patients with hemorrhoids. Br
J Surg 65:291–292
Weickert MO, Pfeiffer AF (2008) Metabolic effects of dietary fiber and any other substance that
consume and prevention of diabetes. J Nutr 138(3):439–442
Whitkus R, Doebley J, Wendel JF (1994) Nuclear DNA markers in systematics and evolution. In:
Phillips L, Vasil IK (eds) DNA based markers in plants. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
pp 116–141
Wolff K, Morgan-Richards M, Davison AW (2000) Patterns of molecular genetic variation in
Plantago major and P. intermedia in relation to ozone resistance. New Phytol 145:501–509
Yu LL, Lutterodt H, Cheng Z (2009) Beneficial health properties of psyllium and approaches to
improve its functionalities. Adv Food Nutr Res 55:193–220. doi :10.1016/s1043-4526(08)
00404-x(citedon18May2014)
Polysaccharides
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_49-1
#
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Page 17 of 17
