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A Case for Contextual Intelligence
Abstract
In this perspective, I make a case for entrepreneurs and academics alike to focus on what I have referred to elsewhere as Contextual Intelligence, the ability to understand the limits of our knowledge, and to adapt that knowledge to a context different from the one in which it was developed. As befits this special issue on India, my work was originally motivated by the observation that some patterns, derived from analysis and introspection of data from a small sample of (typically OECD) countries were being presented as being valid ‘out of sample’, that is, applicable more universally, but these did not accord with my own intuition, largely shaped by Indian examples. I review how confronting such anomalies led to the articulation of the idea of institutional voids. This framework helps understand enduring differences in how economies are structured, and in the nature of the entrepreneurial opportunities and pitfalls they present. Superimpose on such enduring but underestimated differences the idea that mental models often persist unaltered, and the case for contextual intelligence becomes clear.
... Some studies investigated the effects of managers' psychological characteristics on decision processes, including the locus of control, need for achievement, risk-taking propensity, proactiveness or global mindset (Elbanna et al., 2020). However, contextual intelligence (CI) has not been examined for its relevance to international entrepreneurship or international business, although its relevance has been prominently acknowledged (Khanna, 2014;Khanna, 2015). In the meantime, it has been reported as an important leadership skill which can be conducive to 'identifying external and internal influences that are not immediately obvious' (Kutz & Stiltner, 2022, p. 2). ...
... Khanna (Khanna, 2014;Khanna, 2015) described CI as the ability to understand the limits of our knowledge and to adapt that knowledge to a context different from the one in which it was developed, which may be interpreted as a feature of being able to deal with complexity by applying a concept which appears to be an experiential or tacit knowledge or a feature of an individual showing an ability somewhat similar to experiential innervation. In his publication in 2014 (Khanna, 2014), he also stresses the need for managers to develop experience or knowledge of local context from their own perspective rather than relying on conventional market research. ...
... Khanna (Khanna, 2014;Khanna, 2015) described CI as the ability to understand the limits of our knowledge and to adapt that knowledge to a context different from the one in which it was developed, which may be interpreted as a feature of being able to deal with complexity by applying a concept which appears to be an experiential or tacit knowledge or a feature of an individual showing an ability somewhat similar to experiential innervation. In his publication in 2014 (Khanna, 2014), he also stresses the need for managers to develop experience or knowledge of local context from their own perspective rather than relying on conventional market research. ...
... The caste system exacerbated professional distance between hierarchical employee groups, i.e., reflected in the unwillingness of employees to engage in manual work or cleaning Khanna (2015) Continuous disenfranchisement of lower-caste individuals prevents them from engaging in entrepreneurial activities ...
... In addition, some scholars suggested that caste increases professional distance between hierarchical employee groups, resulting, for example, in the unwillingness of employees to engage in manual work or cleaning (Becker-Ritterspach & Raaijman, 2013). Further, Khanna (2015) provided an example of how the continuous disenfranchisement of lower-caste members creates barriers that prevent them from pursuing entrepreneurship. ...
... As discussed above, policy interventions related to caste may have a differential impact on MNEs as based on their geographic origin and scope of operations, which provides scholars with suitable empirical settings to research the effect of caste diversity, costs of caste homogeneity, and mechanisms to improve caste diversity. First, scholars can study whether caste diversity would: yield diverse perspectives, resulting in richer knowledge exchange across the organization (Becker-Ritterspach & Raaijman, 2013) or whether it might have unforeseen implications (e.g., frictions in teams hampering cooperation); help MNEs promote and assess human capital that is observed or measured, rather than inherited social and cultural capital; improve organizational ethics and performance (Porcena et al., 2020); help MNEs gain a more committed and loyal workforce by promoting the representation of disadvantaged castes (Saini & Budhwar, 2008) and derive performance advantages, similar to those experienced by firms that employ more women (Siegel et al., 2019) or whether there are also contrary effects (e.g., loss of reputation or stigmatization among the current talent pool, which in turn leads to performance losses); and, finally, whether MNEs can gain further contextual intelligence about the middle and lower segments and effectively tap into those large markets by developing products and services that meet the needs and aspirations of consumers in these segments (Dhanaraj & Khanna, 2011;Khanna, 2015). ...
Caste is an informal institution that influences socioeconomic action in many contexts. It is becoming increasingly evident that international business research, practice, and policy need to programmatically address caste. To facilitate this endeavor, we review the limited research in IB that has addressed caste, and theorize caste as a distinct informal institution by distinguishing it from other systems of stratification like race, class, and gender. In addition, we propose a parsimonious framework to highlight the implications of caste for Indian and non-Indian MNEs in their Indian and global operations. In doing this, we focus on implications with respect to the internal organization and inter-organizational relationships of MNEs, and consider how these implications might differ as based on the MNEs’ organizational forms. We then build on these implications to discuss how MNEs and other stakeholders of international business can address caste inequalities via policies related to human rights, anti-racism, and affirmative action. By bridging theory, practice, and policy, we pave the way for MNEs to address global inequalities that relate to caste.
... Companies need to identify significant marketplace changes. To achieve this, companies should have systematic and organized methods of collecting information about customers (Khanna, 2014). They should spend time interacting with customers and observing competitors and other outside groups. ...
... Marketers also collect detailed information about the manner in which consumption patterns vary across and within countries (Khanna, 2014). For example, the Swiss consume the most chocolate on a per capita basis. ...
... Companies which are capable of collecting superior information can choose their markets better, develop offerings, and execute better marketing planning (Khanna, 2014). The Michigan Economic Development (MEDC) collected the demographic information of its visitors. ...
Companies cannot make decisions without proper information about their customers. The study discusses the various ways that companies collect customer information, store the information, and analyze the information. The study focuses on the role of customer relationship management (CRM) in making proper usage of the information and the intelligence gathered from the information in building better relationships with customers. The study emphasizes that building fruitful relationships with customers will help companies grow their businesses in the long run. Although CRM implementation helps companies in developing customer relationships, CRM has its own drawbacks. Companies should realize that CRM is a tool that is used to develop customer relationships. However, implementation of CRM will not solve all issues related to customers. Companies need to be aware about all these aspects while implementing CRM. Once implemented properly, CRM helps companies in growing their businesses and achieve business excellence in the long run.
... Firstly, this entails an ex-ante focus on understanding and structuring the business environment and specific decision-making context. This draws on extant streams of literature including situational awareness (Endsley, 1995) and contextual intelligence (Khanna, 2014). The business environment can be evaluated on various dimensions. ...
... A recent example here is the work on alternative frameworks for strategy formulation and implementation in a digitized world in the context of new business realities (Gottschalck & Günther, 2017). This translates into the need for senior executives to refocus efforts to develop customized decision-making models, instead of simply trying to replicate existing frameworks with an insufficient appreciation of the contextual factors in which they succeeded in the past (Khanna, 2014). Senior executives with Framework Proficiency thus focus on the development of tailored decision-making models which place emphasis on the most relevant and impactful questions. ...
... The strategy teams at AutoIntel built and leveraged their local networks to gather not just contextually relevant intelligence, but also in collaboratively building decision-relevant knowledge in the form of strategic insights. The local networks served as a socio-cultural bridge to provide them with the contextual intelligence (Khanna, 2014 sectors. This ensured that the entire company was focusing on customer needs and not solely on technological possibilities. ...
Strategy practitioners and executives face increasingly dynamic environments in which their firms operate. In pursuit of better company performance and competitive advantages in such environments, the onus is on them to make better strategic decisions. To this end, it is critical that they achieve a fit between their information requirements and their information processing capacities. On one hand, the dynamics in their business environments are resulting in exacerbated information requirements. On the other hand, we are now in an information age with an endless flow of data inputs from various sources. Against this background, this dissertation examines how executives and strategy practitioners faced with such challenging circumstances can achieve a fit between their increasing information requirements and their growing difficulty in identifying and analyzing relevant information. The thesis suggests that this fit can be achieved by developing a Decision Intelligence approach. The individual articles comprising this work provide an overview and then delve deeper into individual core elements of a Decision Intelligence approach. In addition to the overall approach, this entails how executives gather, filter, interpret, and synthesize information inputs from multiple sources, as well as innovating which strategy tools and frameworks they leverage to gain a contextual understanding of their environments and for processing decisions-relevant information. Further, the last article examines how executives and strategy practitioners can innovate their decision models to develop business models which can lead to competitive advantages for their companies.
... Therefore, in the future, successful leadership will not result from the old paradigms of traditional leadership frameworks (Bolden, 2011;Elkington, Pearse, Moss, Van der Steege, & Martin, 2017;Mehra, Smith, Dixon, & Robertson, 2006), as they are not fully equipped to handle technology's impact on social and business structures. Instead, research reflects that new leadership strategies are required, such as systems thinking (Osborn, Hunt, & Jauch, 2002;Ramosaj & Berisha, 2014;Rios et al., 2018;Schneider, Wickert, & Marti, 2017;Senge et al., 2015) contextual intelligence (Khanna, 2014(Khanna, , 2015Kutz, 2008aKutz, , 2017Kutz & Bamford-Wade, 2013;Leavy, 2013;Masciulli, 2011) and metacognitive strategies (Avolio & Hannah, 2008;Black, Soto, & Spurlin, 2016;Chua, Morris, & Mor, 2012;Davis, Curiel, & Davis, n.d.;Swart, Chisholm, & Brown, 2015). ...
... Understanding the context of leadership is eloquently described in the words of Plato, "the true pilot must pay attention to the year and seasons and sky and stars and winds, and whatever else belongs to his art if he intends to be really qualified for the command of a ship". To lead effectively in today's complex global environment that is reliant on layers of networked systems, context is vital (Khanna, 2014;Masciulli, 2011). Global leadership does not occur without a surrounding ecosystem, and contextual intelligence fosters an understanding of how a leader and context mutually impact each other allowing the leader to consider the dynamic nature of their environment (Osborn et al., 2002). ...
... In their (2005) article, Mayo and Nohria note that, in order to capitalize on the spirit of the times, a leader must have contextual intelligence. In addition, Khanna (2014) posits that to understand the spirit of the times within a leader's sphere, the knowledge that this context shifts based on culture, demographics, economics, as well as other factors, is crucial to effective global leadership. The concept of contextual intelligence was popularized by Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg (1984) in his work on the Triarchic ...
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected through intricate networks in technology-laden environments, leadership has become exponentially more complex. This VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous) context disrupts long-held leadership constructs. Historically, leaders have been able to reflect on past decision making to guide their current and future decisions. No longer is this practice viable; leaders now require new skills to lead competently in this rapidly iterating ecosystem. With its challenges, this dynamic environment also offers opportunities for those who are able to capitalize on the next waves of disruption. Social entrepreneurs, tackling the world’s most pressing challenges, are leading systems-wide changes within this technology-driven context. With a heightened awareness of these global issues, employing contextual intelligence to capitalize on new and innovative social solutions through creative destruction enables leaders to exploit this technology-rich landscape to expand their social impact.
Consequently, this phenomenological qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews to investigate the best practices and strategies employed by Ashoka Fellow social entrepreneurs who are leading change successfully within this VUCA context. In addition, this study explored the challenges these entrepreneurs encountered while leading, the ways in which they evaluated their success, the role that technology played day-to-day, and what recommendations they would make to future leaders of systems-wide change. Through this study, 30 key findings surfaced in relation to successful practices and strategies for leading systems-wide change in a technology-rich VUCA ecosystem.
... Hence, an appropriate research philosophy based on the case method must take into account the complexity of the underlying object in its environment. This is our understanding of creating and developing contextual intelligence based on grounded learning as introduced in the next sections (Mosca & Howard, 1997;Schwarz, 1985; see as well Kutz, 2008;Khanna, 2014). We call this approach the 'Integrated Case Method'. ...
... This does not only include conditions of economic development but of institutional character, physical geography, educational norms, language, and culture (cf. Khanna, 2014;Voigt, 2019). For this reason, in section 3, we develop a wheel of circular knowledge transfer in as a further integral part of the 'Integrated Case Method' to ensure that the business ecosystem is recognised in a casebased curriculum of higher education institutions. ...
... Shortcomings are an oversimplifying "best practice" thinking showing a deficiency in theoretical background or research competence (cf. McKeachie, 1994;Mayo & Nohria, 2005;Khanna, 2014) and a too narrow perspective on a few existing thought patterns and models of a number of big companies (cf. Argyris, 1977, Argyris, 2017. ...
In the field of management science and business administration, the case method is gaining ground in research as well as in teaching. Case studies support on the one hand exploratory research and on the other hand problem-based teaching. However, we find that case research and case teaching remain unchained in management study programs and propose to close this gap. We identify an untapped potential of boosting the case method by integrating case-based research and teaching into a discovery and learning journey of applied science. We suggest embedding the 'Integrated Case Method' in the ecosystem of universities to the end of enhancing and intensifying the knowledge transfer between business and the higher educational sector better thereby achieving better learning objectives in higher education. As a result, this approach enables the development of a high level of contextual intelligence and thus helps to avoid the fallacies of teaching based on uniform theoretical content.
... Firstly, this entails an ex-ante focus on understanding and structuring the business environment and specific decision-making context. This draws on extant streams of literature, including situational awareness (Endsley, 1995) and contextual intelligence (Khanna, 2014). The business environment can be evaluated on various dimensions. ...
... A recent example here is the work on alternative frameworks for strategy formulation and implementation in a digitized world in the context of new business realities (Gottschalck & Günther, 2017). This translates into the need for senior executives to refocus efforts to develop customized decision-making models, instead of simply trying to replicate existing frameworks with an insufficient appreciation of the contextual factors in which they succeeded in the past (Khanna, 2014;. Senior executives with Framework Proficiency thus focus on the development of tailored decision-making models which place emphasis on the most relevant and impactful questions. ...
... The strategy teams at AutoIntel built and leveraged their local networks to gather not just contextually relevant intelligence, but also in collaboratively building decisionrelevant knowledge in the form of strategic insights. The local networks served as a socio-cultural bridge to provide them with the contextual intelligence (Khanna, 2014(Khanna, , 2015 to understand and interpret developments. Subsequently, AutoIntel continues to leverage the local Intelligence has transformed into a regular and ongoing practice complementing conventional strategy development and implementation. ...
Dynamic business environments throw up many challenges for senior executives. To make strategic decisions in such environments, it is crucial for them to find the right fit between the intelligence required for decisions, and how their companies gather and process intelligence. This paper conceptualizes a ‘ Decision Intelligence’ framework for achieving such a fit. The four major elements constituting the framework place the emphasis explicitly on senior executives adopting the right decision context, tailoring appropriate decision-making frameworks, innovating the access to diverse sources of intelligence and implementing the decisions proficiently. These elements are illustrated and elucidated by drawing on multiple firm experiences from automotive, agritech, pharma, banking and farming sectors. The paper concludes with a discussion on the major implications on intelligence processing capacity challenges of companies, and what this implies for management education and strategy research.
... Contextual intelligence (CI) has been described as a necessary and viable leadership-related skill set within athletic training, [8,9] medicine, [10,11] military science, [12] educational psychology, [13] institutional research, [14] higher education, [15] human resources, [16] nursing, [17] international business, [18,19] and sports psychology. [20] CI is reported to help in 'identifying external and internal influences that are not immediately obvious, helps in considering nonlinear relationships, promotes a holistic perspective to resolve tensions among opposite ideas, and generates innovative outcomes, [21] in general, CI can be particularly useful in VUCA environments. ...
... Research in athletic training and healthcare administration has also described the necessity of contextual intelligence [8,21]. Contextual Intelligence was introduced in the scholarly literature in the 1980s [18], but Kutz [21] was the first to identify specific behaviors associated with CI. The contextual intelligence framework is a circumplex based on 12 behaviors organized around three (3) time-orientations (i.e. ...
Context
Contextual intelligence (CI) has been theorized to be an asset to the clinical practice of Athletic Trainers (AT’s). However, no research has explored if CI behaviors are practiced by AT’s.
Objective
To delineate the practice frequency of CI by athletic trainers and describe any differences according to respondent characteristics.
Participants
2143 clinical AT’s were invited to participate. 284 completed the survey (13.2%) and 229 were usable (81%). Forty-four percent (44%) of participants earned a professional Master’s degree; the most frequently reported age range was 26–30 years old (29%); and a the majority (59%) of participants had ≥10 years of experience and (82%) were Caucasian/White.
Main outcome measure(s)
Frequency of CI behaviors were measured using the Contextual Intelligence Profile™ (CIP™).
Results
The Cronbach coefficient alpha for the 48-item CIP™ was α = .935. . Kaiser–Myers–Olkin’s (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy for the means of the CIP’s™ 12-behaviors was 0.927; and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant (X² = 1195.04(66), p = .001), indicating validity. All 12 CI behaviors were practiced by participants. However, no CI behavior was practiced with high frequency (M≤1.50). No differences were found according to sex or district. ANOVA with a Games-Howell post hoc analysis indicated differences between several respondent groups including ethnicity, education level, experience level, and dual credentialed. Paired samples t-tests found that Foresight (M = 1.82 ± .66) and Hindsight (M = 1.80 ± .61) behaviors were practiced more frequently than Insight behaviors (M = 2.19 ± .86); (tF = 8.486(172), p = .001; tH = 8.303(171), p = .001, respectively).
Conclusions
All (12) CI behaviors were reported to be practiced by AT’s. However, none of them were practiced with high frequency. Insight behaviors were practiced the least. More experienced and educated athletic trainers reported practicing CI behaviors more often.
... Research on this topic has broadly demonstrated that the diversification-performance (D-P) relationship is contingent on numerous internal and external factors (Chakrabarti, 2007;Mayer et al., 2015;Schommer et al., 2019). One aspect receiving significant conceptual attention, but limited empirical support, is how home-country formal institutions and type of diversification jointly affect the D-P relationship (Chakrabarti et al., 2007;Khanna andPalepu, 1999, 2010;Peng et al., 2005;Wan and Hoskisson, 2003;Wan, 2005). In particular, scholars have argued that formal institutional quality generally weakens the D-P relationship by creating more efficient external markets, which diminish the value of the internal markets associated with diversification strategies (Berger and Ofek, 1995). ...
... We extend research in this area by demonstrating that related diversification becomes increasingly rational relative to unrelated diversification when firms hail from countries with stronger formal institutions. While some research has posited about these relationships (Khanna and Palepu, 1997;Khanna, 2015;Manikandan and Ramachandran, 2015), they have not been examined comprehensively or empirically. In doing so, we help establish that related diversification can help firms appropriate market rents in efficient external markets by taking advantage of frictions in those markets because it allows firms to exploit firm-specific resources that unrelated diversifiers lack. ...
Purpose
The authors meta-analyze research on the diversification–performance relationship to empirically establish the impact of home-country formal institutional quality on this relationship. Prior research assumes that a country’s formal institutional quality negatively affects the diversification–performance relationship, especially when it involves unrelated diversification. However, empirical evidence for these propositions is inconclusive because existing studies consider blocks of countries with limited institutional heterogeneity. To provide more clarity, this study aims to consider the diversification–performance relationship across developed, emerging and developing countries.
Design/methodology/approach
The meta-analysis relies on a sample of 293 effect sizes of the diversification–performance relationship from 76 primary studies across 15 countries between 1988 and 2019. The sample excludes effects sizes from papers that consider both product and international diversification to control for complex interactions between the strategies, as well as papers that did not consider both related and unrelated diversification.
Findings
The results confirm that stronger home-country formal institutions weaken the diversification–performance relationship by decreasing the relative efficiency of internal markets versus external ones. Further, the effect is less negative for related diversification because this strategy can better exploit market frictions in countries with stronger formal institutions and more efficient external markets than its unrelated counterpart.
Originality/value
The study contributes to the literatures on the diversification–performance relationship and home-country governance by providing robust evidence for how formal institutional quality impacts the efficacy of related and unrelated diversification.
... This seemingly counter-intuitive finding has been a topic of ongoing interest for both researchers and practitioners (Carney et al., 2018;Ramachandran et al., 2013). Possible explanations for affiliates' superior performance in emerging markets include their capacity to create internal labor and capital markets to overcome the absence of these externally, access to group level strategic resources and connection to powerful political forces in the home country (Almeida and Wolfenzon, 2006;Khanna andPalepu, 1997, 2010). The theoretical bases for these explanations are institutional voids (Khanna and Palepu, 1997), the resource-based view (Barney, 1991) and social network theory (Inkpen and Tsang, 2005;Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998). ...
... Business group structure provides flexibility to run the organization as an independent entity while connecting multiple diverse businesses under one group through an array of interorganizational networks. It is important for business group managers from developed countries to Figure 3 Guiding path and propositions to upgrade to a higher-level quadrant j JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT j understand the process of adaption of knowledge that is valid in different contexts as well as the inter-related process of building contextual intelligence (Khanna, 2014). For example, in no way does our research suggest that developed market diversified business groups should adopt an emerging market business group structure. ...
Purpose
This study seeks to understand how business group-affiliated firms perform in emerging markets. Previous studies identify that in spite of changes in the competitive landscape, seemingly counter-intuitively, business group affiliates outperform their standalone counterparts in emerging markets. This study adopts a knowledge-based view to resolve this apparent paradox.
Design/methodology/approach
This study uses a problematization methodology to qualitatively analyze the strategic decisions of Indian business group-affiliated firms. This study cross-validates their analysis with the empirical results available in published academic and practitioner articles.
Findings
Previous studies explain this outperformance paradox based on assumptions that include filling institutional voids, access to strategic resources and leveraging political connections. By questioning these assumptions, this study identifies an alternative explanation that is based on affiliates’ ability to adopt a strategic approach that balances knowledge capital acquired through international expansion and innovation.
Practical implications
The findings have important implications for managers of business group-affiliated firms in emerging markets, as well as for those in developed markets seeking to compete or collaborate in emerging markets.
Originality/value
This study provides a framework for managers of business group affiliates to identify suitable pathways to higher levels of competitive advantage.
... Context related factors can be influential and even disruptive: for example, a loud background noise within a virtually recreated operating room in e-REAL impacts negatively on the surgical team's ability to communicate and may consequently contribute to their committing an error. The most effective learning occurs through being immersed in context, requiring the ability to understand the limits of our knowledge and action, and to adapt that knowledge to an environment different from the one in which it was developed (Khanna 2014, Guralnick 2018. ...
... Effective team management during a crisis is a core element of expert practice. Medical simulation can contribute enormously to enhance teamwork during a crisis (Gaba, Fish & Howard 1994), fostering situational awareness and contextual intelligence (Khanna 2014) which refers to the abilities to apply knowledge to real world scenarios and situations, as well as cognitive retention of essential steps and procedures to be performed during an ongoing crisis. ...
Enhanced reality for immersive simulation (e-REAL®) is the merging of real and virtual worlds: a mixed reality environment for hybrid simulation where physical and digital objects co-exist and interact in real time, in a real place and not within a headset. The first part of this chapter discusses e-REAL: an advanced simulation within a multisensory scenario, based on challenging situations developed by visual storytelling techniques. The e-REAL immersive setting is fully interactive with both 2D and 3D visualizations, avatars, electronically writable surfaces and more: people can take notes, cluster key-concepts or fill questionnaires directly on the projected surfaces. The second part of this chapter summarizes an experiential coursework focused on learning and improving teamwork and event management during simulated obstetrical cases. Effective team management during a crisis is a core element of expert practice: for this purpose, e-REAL reproduces a variety of different emergent situations, enabling learners to interact with multimedia scenarios and practice using a mnemonic called Name-Claim-Aim. Learners rapidly cycle between deliberate practice and direct feedback within a simulation scenario until mastery is achieved. Early findings show that interactive immersive visualization allows for better neural processes related to learning and behavior change.
... As a result, Indian MNEs' outward FDI stock increased from $113 million in 1991 to $578 million in and then $191 billion in 2020(UNCTAD, 2021. While this demonstrates the rapid internationalization of Indian firms, in the context of growing heterogeneity within emerging markets (Hoskisson et al., 2013;Khanna, 2015), it points to the urgent need for research into the international growth of Indian MNEs. ...
The rapid international growth of emerging market multinational enterprises (EMNEs) has become widely researched in the international management field. The compositional springboarding view (CSV) provides a theoretical understanding of amalgamation‐ambidexterity‐adaptability elements that impact EMNEs' internationalization. Here we utilize the CSV to conduct a configurational analysis of factors explaining Indian firms' rapid international growth. Using fuzzy‐set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) of a survey‐archival data set matched with a sample of listed manufacturing firms from India, we identify five configurational solutions for Indian multinational enterprises (MNEs) to achieve international growth. We further develop a taxonomy of Indian MNEs' CSV configurations supporting rapid international growth that we name as amalgamator, adapter, augmentor, explorer, and springboarder. Through the configurational approach, we extend the EMNE literature in the international management field by exploring the efficacy and complementarity of compositional springboarding factors that enable Indian MNEs' rapid international growth. We also contribute to the organization theory and strategy literatures by addressing the tension alleviation between reconfiguring existing resources and creating new ones. Our theoretical extension opens new opportunities for CSV to guide strategic analyses across various resource reuse and creation scenarios.
... Contextual intelligence is also critical since the cultural, social, political, and economic contexts in which global leaders work impacts the approach the leaders take. Khanna (2014) defined contextual intelligence as "the ability to understand the limits of our knowledge and to adapt that knowledge to an environment different from the one in which it was developed" (para. 4). ...
... Contextual intelligence is also critical since the cultural, social, political, and economic contexts in which global leaders work impacts the approach the leaders take. Khanna (2014) defined contextual intelligence as "the ability to understand the limits of our knowledge and to adapt that knowledge to an environment different from the one in which it was developed" (para. 4). ...
Global leaders are needed more than ever to help shape the evolving global order toward a more collaborative, equitable world where nations can work together to address pressing social and environmental challenges. Responsible proleptic global leadership is an ethical, cosmopolitan approach to leadership that is inspired by glimpses of that more ideal world. “Prolepsis” is a literary and theological term, derived from the Greek term prolepsis meaning “an anticipating,” a “taking beforehand,” and from prolambanein “to take before,” which includes the prefix pro, “before.” Collective, responsible proleptic leadership includes enabling a rich and compelling vision of the future to come into being, as an early and necessary stage in allowing others to be drawn forward. Through a process of co-creation or, better, communal midwifery, global leaders facilitate and help the vision from the future to be born in the present. In other words, leadership should not see itself as creating the future vision itself out of its own present resources. Rather, leadership involves the openness, seeking, debate, discussion, reflection, and meditation required to enable this future vision to come into view in the present. This slight change in key ensures that global leaders are not dictating the future through their own goals and desires but allowing a shared and common vision of the future to reveal itself. Enabling as rich and complex a future vision as possible to come into view is a powerful step in motivating and inspiring individuals and society to be pulled forward toward that future reality.
... CI is the capacity to recognize when (and which) variables are converging, see their impact, and then have a keen sense of knowing what to do as the new reality (or setting) being observed is unfolding. CI has been described as a necessary and viable ability within athletic training, 7-9 medicine, 10,11 military science, 12 educational psychology, 13 institutional research, 14 higher education, 15 human resources, 16 nursing, 17 international business, 18,19 entrepreneurship, 20 and sports psychology. 21 CI is reported to help in identifying external and internal influences that are not immediately obvious, help in considering nonlinear relationships, promote a holistic perspective to resolve tensions among opposite ideas, and generate innovative outcomes. ...
Athletic training and the environment in which it is practiced is constantly changing. The emergent environment is volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous. This new environment necessitates an adjustment to athletic training education particularly as it pertains to the instruction and development of the nonclinical skills (meta-skills) needed for clinical settings. One such meta-skill is contextual intelligence. Contextual intelligence is the capacity to recognize the convergence of different variables and respond to the emerging context as it is developing. Practicing contextual intelligence includes integrating 12 specific behaviors and the 3D thinking framework of hindsight, insight, and foresight into clinical decision making.
... It is not a theory about academic achievement in general and does not purport to explain the lion's share of the variance in grades or test scores" [149]. • Demonstrate contextual intelligence/competence. Contextual intelligence applies to those "that understand the limits of their knowledge and are able to adapt that knowledge to a context different from the one in which it was developed" [150]. Kutz and Bamford-Wade [151] identified contextual intelligence as a leadership model for a "knowledge economy" that helps individuals understand why a solution may work in one situation but not another (among other outcomes). ...
Transdisciplinarity is gaining traction as a research approach for developing impactful solutions by bringing together diverse sources of technical and local expertise. Many of the skills and knowledge for conducting transdisciplinary research are not currently emphasized in conventional graduate education. The objective of this paper is to present a literature-supported organization of competencies that contribute to transdisciplinary graduate education. An extensive literature review of more than 160 papers was undertaken to identify competencies needed for transdisciplinary research teams. The competencies are focused on students and early career academic professionals and especially those entering careers in FEWS fields and those teaching or mentoring these groups. The review identified competencies related to six domain areas, oriented around the individual, relationships and connections, team, process, outputs and outcomes, and growth. As academic institutions continue to recognize the role of transdisciplinary research in addressing complex societal issues, graduate education programs will have to incorporate transdisciplinary competencies into the curriculum. We offer the competencies identified by the INFEWS-ER project as a contribution to this ongoing conversation about the development of transdisciplinary professionals. introduction
... A systematic literature review performed from a meta-perspective and content-based perspective makes it possible to diagnose research gaps and set directions for further research in the BPM domain [13,30], while the findings of Pilav-Velić & Marjanovic [27] and Stojanović et al. [35] indicate the need for detailed BPM research in CEE countries due to their unique contextual character of transition economies. The need for monitoring the state of BPM-related research in CEE countries is derived from the hitherto paucity of such research [9,10] and is in line with the belief that different research environments may result in new research questions leading to significant contributions to the discipline [19]. This was our motivation for surveying the BPM research landscape in CEE countries. ...
This article presents the results of a literature review on Business Process Management in the countries of Central Eastern Europe, authored by researchers affiliated to those countries. In line with the used review protocol, our study comprises 159 journal articles analyzed from a meta-perspective, including 60 empirical articles that underwent content-based analysis. While researching BPM in CEE countries, we diagnosed Management as the most-studied phenomenon among the three main areas of BPM alongside Foundations and Engineering. Among the different characteristics of BPM research diagnosed, we identified, as examples, research developments over time, and, Croatia and Slovenia as the nations most involved in BPM research. In order to identify the research gap regarding the BPM capabilities understudy, and to engage researchers in new trends combining BPM with digitalization, we used the original and updated core elements of the BPM framework. We have shown that BPM methods are the most tested, followed by Governance and Strategy Alignment. As in previous studies, elements of People and Culture are under researched. The inclusion of enhanced and novel BPM capabilities in light of digitalization is in the very early stages of research in CEE. Our studies show apparent research gaps that should be filled in line with the idea of contextual intelligence, justifying the new questions on BPM that researchers in CEE countries may post. This approach allows the drawing of new conclusions and thus contributes to the development of the BPM body of knowledge.KeywordsBusiness Process ManagementBPMCentral Eastern EuropeCEELiterature review
... The role of context and its relevance to practice, theory and methodology continue to be a polemical issue for international business (IB) researchers (Delios, 2017;Doh, 2015;Khanna, 2015;Nielsen et al., 2020;Reuber & Fischer, 2021). These concerns, while timely given the challenges researchers face in addressing today's uncertain and turbulent IB environment (Eden & Nielsen, 2020), are by no means new (Michailova, 2011;Redding, 2005;Welch et al., 2011). ...
This paper advances the extended case method (ECM), a powerful context sensitive case-based research strategy that is underutilized in international business (IB). Demonstrating how the ECM offers an alternative to established case-based methods, we show how the method's core postulate of ‘outward extension’ opens new opportunities for designing, conducting, and theorizing case research suited to the contextual novelty of IB. We propose an analytical pathway to provide practical guidance on how to implement and design for contextualized explanation, examining recent studies on international practice transfer to illustrate the choices, directions and redirections made possible by extending out – i.e., contextualizing.
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... The findings of this study will encourage the companies to adopt GSCM practices through which the environmental pollution can be decreased, cost-effectiveness, and improvement of social performance as well. (Khanna, 2015) argued that when organizations considered the behavioral practices as a foundation, then technical practices of GSCM could be leveraged. This argument indicated that equipment or technologies might not be much important, which leads to the best dimensions in emerging markets, but it depends on the behavioral and contextual elements. ...
Environmental sustainability issues have become an increasing concern for enterprises and organizations due to new tendencies in climate change. Green supply chain management (GSCM) practices are growing worldwide in this context. Based on socio-technical systems and institutional theory, the present study develops a conceptual model highlighting a mediating effect between two distinct categories of GSCM dimensions, i.e., technical practices and behavioral practices, along with the moderating effect of institutional pressure on organizational performance. Data were collected from 260 Pakistani manufacturers, and the structural equation modeling (SEM) approach was employed to analyze the hypotheses. The classification of technical and behavioral GSCM practices and findings of this research contributes to the literature on GSCM. Empirical results reveal that behavioral practices of GSCM (top management support, supplier, and customer involvement) mediate the relationship between technical GSCM practices (eco-design, green manufacturing, and reverse logistics) and organizational performance (economic, environmental, and social). The results also demonstrate that institutional pressure positively moderates the relationship between technical practices and organizational performance. These findings suggest that organizations in developing countries must focus on the behavioral dimensions of GSCM first for the successful implementation of technical dimensions of GSCM to gain effective environmental, economic, and social performance.
... This also allows for the diffusion of contextual knowledge that might otherwise remain embedded in indigenous and localised social systems (Mair & Marti, 2009). A platform (e.g, YouTube, Netflix) tends to become more responsive over time as it integrates 'contextual intelligence' regarding language preferences, content engagement, and propensity for payments from local markets, specifically in emerging markets, and delivers value to customers and partners (Khanna, 2015;Kumar, 2019). Recently, an RI platform study showed how reframing of core purpose leads to repurposing (Rauch & Ansari, 2022). ...
Marginalized communities globally encounter grand challenges such as lack of access to education, healthcare, and sustained livelihoods. Several initiatives to address these complex, global problems have resulted in fragmented solutions. Recognizing this, there have been several calls for the study of responsible innovation (RI) to address grand challenges. Digital platforms such as AirBnB, Uber and so forth have now become commonplace and are known to generate economic value but also face criticism for being exploitative and exclusive. Only a handful of studies show how similar platforms can innovate responsibly to serve marginalized communities by generating simultaneous economic and social value. To address this gap, our study examines the cases of two platforms that orchestrated ecosystems consisting of individuals from marginalized communities, government agencies, and other entities to provide physical, digital and societal solutions based on principles of RI. We contribute to the RI and IS literatures to show how RI solutions can be fostered through digital platforms to address grand challenges. The article provides empirical evidence of all four dimensions of the RI framework—anticipation, reflexivity, inclusion, and responsiveness ‐ and their operationalization through digital platforms. This research lays the foundation for future studies at the intersection of RI and digital platforms literature. The study also provides practice insights on developing digital platform solutions for marginalized communities to address grand challenges and is useful to policymakers to formulate appropriate interventions. It pushes the theoretical and practice boundaries of our understanding of RI and digital platforms.
... Too often, seemingly generalisable market-based solutions which require entire ecosystems to succeed stumble at the myriad obstacles along the fault lines of socioeconomic disparities (Rodríguez and Urbanos-Garrido, 2016). To design workable solutions to new crises rooted in intractable problems, contextual intelligence must be added to sound strategies and scientific management (Khanna et al, 2010;Khanna, 2014). ...
The Special Edition of European Scientific Journal with title "Public Policy in times of Pandemics" in which we are Guest Editors, is ready. In 266 pages of the Special Edition, the authors analyse the public policies which are tackling the pandemic.
We want to thank the Editorial Office of ESJ
and the authors who submitted their papers.
We are looking forward to continuing the research.
#politicalscience #publicpolicy #publichealth #healthpolicy #efficiency #covid19 #ethics #research #health #healthcare #covid #management #medicine #economics #work #medical #security #administration
... Too often, seemingly generalisable market-based solutions which require entire ecosystems to succeed stumble at the myriad obstacles along the fault lines of socioeconomic disparities (Rodríguez and Urbanos-Garrido, 2016). To design workable solutions to new crises rooted in intractable problems, contextual intelligence must be added to sound strategies and scientific management (Khanna et al, 2010;Khanna, 2014). This paper takes a capability-based approach to supply-chain optimisation and crisis management. ...
Background: The distribution of healthcare resources across local and global communities has triggered alarms throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Injustice and inefficiency in the transfer of lifesaving medical supplies are magnified by the urgency of the public health crisis, ramified through pre-existing socioeconomic tensions, and further aggravated by frictions that plague international cooperation and global governance. Aim: This article explores the ethical and economic dimensions of medical supplies, from the microcosm of distributive algorithms to the macroscope of medical trade. Methods: It first analyses the performance, strategy, and social responsibility of ventilator-suppliers through a series of case studies. Then, the authors seek to redress the need-insensitivity of existing distributive models with a new price-based and need-conscious algorithm. Next, the paper empirically traces the exchange of medical supplies across borders, examines the effect of trade disputes on medical reliance and pandemic preparedness, and makes a game-theoretical case for sharing critical resources with foreign communities. Conclusion: The authors argue that the equitable allocation of medical supplies must consider the contexts and conditions of need; that political barriers to medical transfers undermine a government’s capacity to contain the contagion by reducing channels of access to medical goods; and that self-interested public policies often turn out to be counterproductive geopolitical strategies. In the post-pandemic world, the prospect of medical justice demands a balanced ethical and economic approach that cuts across the borders of nation-states and the bounds of the private sector and the public sphere.
... Too often, seemingly generalisable market-based solutions which require entire ecosystems to succeed stumble at the myriad obstacles along the fault lines of socioeconomic disparities (Rodríguez and Urbanos-Garrido, 2016). To design workable solutions to new crises rooted in intractable problems, contextual intelligence must be added to sound strategies and scientific management (Khanna et al, 2010;Khanna, 2014). ...
The special edition Public Policies in times of Pandemics constitutes a special anniversary edition of the European Scientific Journal (ESJ). The outbreak of the pandemic caused by the new coronavirus COVID-19, threatened the life and health of individuals and especially the vulnerable groups of the population. In the face of this threat, governments have designed and implemented public policies to halt the development of the pandemic and to adapt individuals to the new strict labor and social requirements. These policies have been implemented in a wide range of activities in the fields of health, economy, travel, research against the pandemic, public awareness as well as fight against misinformation and solidarity among states. These policies have been implemented with specific measures aimed at ensuring acceptable results in terms of epidemiological indicators. The modification of the process of providing health services by the primary and secondary units of the health sector, the restriction of the movement of the citizens, distance work, the modification of the budgets, the acceleration of the research for the forthcoming vaccine, the information provision and the treatment of the opposers’ movement, are some of the measures taken in accordance with the policies for the combat of the pandemic. The implementation of the measures that have been taken in accordance with the health policies has caused specific results in tackling the pandemic, but has also caused a wide range of potentially adverse effects on work and social activities.
The special edition intends to study in detail the public policies designed and implemented by governments to tackle the pandemic. In this context, it intends to study the history of these policies in similar cases, the discussion and decisions leading to these policies and the comparative study of these policies among different countries or groups of countries. Both the beneficial results of these policies as well as their side effects.
The methods that will be used in the papers of the special edition, can be extended in a wide range. The topics that will be studied and for which manuscripts will be submitted, indicative and not exhaustive can be the following:
1) Health policies employed by governments to face the pandemic.
2) Economic policies implemented by governments to address the particular economic conditions that occur under the influence of the pandemic.
3) Policies that affect the travel and movement of individuals (including refugee groups) to limit the spread of the coronavirus.
4) Policies that affect the work landscape (distance working, protection of special groups of the population) for the prevention of the coronavirus infection.
5) Health research policies as modified under the particular conditions created by the pandemic.
6) Information provision policies applied to inform the public and ensure that appropriate measures are taken to prevent the coronavirus.
7) What are the public policies during the pandemic and how are the procedures for their design and implementation modified.
8) Public policy analysis and pandemic conditions.
9) Policies to combat misinformation.
10) Policies for supranational (European or International) solidarity.
... These learnings result in shared knowledge, which, in turn, helps network members explore and exploit internationalization opportunities (Johanson and Vahlne, 2009;Sarasvathy et al., 2014). As experiential knowledge is developed through long-time experience of working under specific conditions and enhanced with relevant skills and capabilities (Khanna, 2015), it provides a solid foundation for firms' successful performance (Johanson and Vahlne, 2009). Experiential knowledge also facilitates SMEs' adaptation to the international markets (Vahlne and Johanson, 2017) because reflections upon their direct experiences enable SMEs to handle uncertainty (Blomstermo et al., 2004;Cope, 2011) and to cope with failure (Politis and Gabrielsson, 2009) in the foreign contexts with insufficient information. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate the mediating role of founders/managers’ logic of control in transforming experiential knowledge and human capital into successful international performance of small- and medium-sized enterprises.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a quantitative methodology, this study used hierarchical regression analysis to test the hypotheses.
Findings
Drawing upon effectuation theory, the study proposed and found empirical evidence for the logic of control as an important mechanism that transforms experiential knowledge and human capital into international performance.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the international entrepreneurship (IE) research by investigating how the application of logic of control by SME founders/managers enables them to make use of their experiential knowledge and human capital as important intangible means to achieve successful international performance. The study tested the model in New Zealand wherein SMEs play a central role in economic development and depend heavily on international markets for survival and growth.
... The country in which the firm operates relates to its macroenvironment, determining the behavior of a firm ( Khanna, 2015 ). Different countries are associated with political and environmental differences ( Hansen and Coenen, 2015 ). ...
As industrial sustainability measures and interventions play a central role in enhancing the sustainability performance in industrial firms, it is of great importance to properly understand the factors that might influence the decision-making process leading to their adoption, namely barriers and drivers. However, there is scarce empirical literature discussing barriers and drivers to industrial sustainability as well as the effect of contextual factors or of the firm's approach towards sustainability issues. For this reason, we conducted an exploratory investigation in 26 small and medium enterprises operating in the chemical and metalworking manufacturing sectors across Germany and Italy. Our preliminary findings show that the sampled firms are mainly hindered by economic barriers and fostered by external drivers. The investigation highlighted the influence of the contextual factors sector, country, and size on the perception of barriers and drivers. Moreover, the presence of a dedicated manager for sustainability, the number of certifications held by a firm, and a holistic definition of sustainability, seem to affect the barriers and drivers perceived by the sampled industrial decision-makers. The paper concludes by offering insights to both theoretical and practical discussion over the adoption of industrial sustainability measures, while also providing additional knowledge to practitioners and policy makers on critical areas for the improvement of industrial sustainability.
... Context becomes essential for leaders to lead in a current complex global environment that relies on network systems. 54,60 Global leadership is supported by the surrounding ecosystem, and contextual intelligence increases the understanding of the relation between leaders and contexts, thus enabling leaders to define the dynamic of their environment. 61 Metacognitive strategies are important for leaders to conduct effective leadership. ...
The current and future of the healthcare system will face various problems, ranging from digitizing the health system, digital transformation and disruption of the health world or the problem of digital application during the Covid-19 pandemic in Health 4.0 and Community 5.0 and its leadership. The objective of the study is to explore digital information and the role of leadership in healthcare services in the future. This research is a narrative literature review and searched relevant articles from ProQuest and PubMed. Digital health is transforming healthcare delivery around the world to meet the evolving challenges of an aging population with a variety of chronic conditions. Digital transformation and disruptive innovation illustrate a comprehensive reorientation of the industry, including its business model due to the advent of digital technology in the form of digitizing products, services, and processes. Digital health products can be in the form of electronic health (eHealth), cellular health (mHealth), health information technology, teleconsultation (telehealth/telemedicine). All these digital products, if they cannot be applied now and in the future, will cause digital disruption in traditional healthcare services in hospitals. The current world of health also has an impact because of the COVID-19 pandemic, where this situation is a race for Health 4.0 and Society 5.0 (super smart people). Where Health 4.0 will relax and reflect digital health and implement it in Society 5.0. The leadership strategies that can be selected are systems thinking, contextual intelligence, and metacognitive strategies.
Leaders require a certain set of proficiencies to effectively lead organisations and to be aligned with the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Research has shown that women leaders recognise the need to be empowered in a rapidly changing technological environment. Compared to previous industrial revolutions, the 4IR is evolving at an exponential rather than a linear pace. It is important to shape the 4IR to ensure that it is empowering and life-centred instead of divisive and dehumanising. This is the work of leadership. To deal with the complex challenges of the twenty-first century, new ways of knowing and leading will be increasingly important. In the 4IR, leaders will need to be more agile, human-centric and adapted to a highly volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous world. Ultimately, the challenges of the 4IR may empower women leaders to connect more readily with the wisdom of knowledge and facilitate the change and transformation needed to ensure a sustainable future. The aim of the chapter is to explore the empowerment of women leaders in the 4IR. A qualitative approach was adopted and contemporary research on the competencies of women leaders and the 4IR has been systematically reviewed. This approach allowed the author to evaluate documented research on the topic. Empowered women leaders exhibit high levels of human intelligence, which are made up of the four types of intelligence (strategic, emotional, inspired, and somatic) that determine 4IR-Intelligence. Empowerment of women leaders in a VUCA world are highlighted that help build employees’ psychological capital as a reliable source of competitive edge during the 4IR.KeywordsWomen’s empowermentLeadershipTransformationWomen leadersFourth Industrial Revolution
This study was conducted to determine the domain of entrepreneurial orientation that best influences the risky financial behavior of small and medium enterprise managers. The study used quantitative, non-experimental research design employing the correlational technique. The respondents of the study were 106 managers or owners of small and medium enterprises selected through random approach. An adapted and contextualized structured questionnaires were deployed to measure and establish the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and risky financial behavior. Moreover, the mean, Pearson r, and regression were used as statistical tools. Results of the study showed that the levels of entrepreneurial orientation and risky financial behavior of managers were high. Also, the data revealed that entrepreneurial orientation has a significant relationship with risky financial behavior of SME managers. When regressed, it was found that observed variables of entrepreneurial orientation, innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking statistically influence the risky financial behavior of SME managers. Of the three, risk-taking best influences risky financial behavior.
This chapter examines the theoretical and empirical underpinnings of cognitive development in the management of wisdom towards unity. It begins with a landscape review of the change drivers impacting our world today. It then describes the need for transcendence and wisdom in the classic literature of the Bhagavad Gita and envisions the development of higher consciousness for higher order thinking towards wisdom and unity consciousness for a flourishing humanity. The mechanics of transcending are described in the metaphor of unfreezing from conventional, superficial, and narrow thinking. The layered nature of consciousness, thinking, values, and paradigms is described. The technique of Transcendental Meditation is proposed as being effective in the development of consciousness. The dissonance within human cognitive development is discussed towards resolution by the development of wisdom in unity in diversity which provokes pragmatic action in businesses and organizations. Examples of organizations in emerging countries that represent the value of unity consciousness operationalized in their vision and mission are described. These examples are selected as they are well known and insightfully represent the essential nature of the glimpses of unity consciousness in their founders to underpin their practical inclusivity of stakeholders in their environments as extensions of their own Being or Self. In conclusion, the pace of globalization, accelerating change, and increasing diversity today necessitate integrative thinking by unifying diversity, not by freezing or arresting change, nor by the top-down imposition of uniformity or sameness. The process of transcending, refining the intellect, and integrating with a clarity of experience seems ideal for the goal of cognizing unity in diversity.
Can accelerators pick the most promising startup ideas no matter their provenance? Using unique data from a global accelerator where judges are randomly assigned to evaluate startups headquartered across the globe, we show that judges are less likely to recommend startups headquartered outside their home region by 4 percentage points. Back‐of‐the‐envelope calculations suggest this discount leads judges to pass over 1 in 20 promising startups. Despite this systematic discount, we find that—in contrast to many past studies—judges can discern startup quality and are no better at evaluating local firms. These differences emerge because the pool of startups accelerator judges evaluate is both broader and less “local,” suggesting that judging ability depends on the composition of the companies they are tasked with evaluating. Accelerators often seek the most promising startup ideas. Yet, they can only do so if their judges can discern the quality of startups, both local and foreign to them, without systematic bias. We used unique data from a global accelerator where judges are assigned to evaluate startups headquartered across the globe and find that, while judges can detect the quality of both local and foreign startups, they discount startups foreign to them, hindering their ability to accept the best startup ideas. As venture capitalists increasingly source startups from accelerators, this foreign discounting can result in investors passing over promising ideas. However, simple measures like reducing the threshold for startups evaluated by foreign judges may help reduce judges’ foreign discounting and enable picking the best companies.
Psychological support for the emotions and concerns of school leaders needs to be
emphasized as the level of teacher commitment in some developing countries is still
not encouraging. Teachers need to be given trust and appreciation so that such work environment can trigger pleasure in the workplace despite facing various challenges. Thus, this study was conducted to identify the role of serial mediators, namely teacher empowerment and teacher’s workplace well-being to explain the indirect influence of contextual leadership of school principals towards teacher’s organizational commitment. This study is a quantitative research study that involves testing a model of structural equation modeling. Data were collected cross-sectionally through a modified questionnaire and constructed by the researcher. All instruments used were also tested for validity and reliability. The sample of the study is 371 teachers from fifteen secondary schools in the state of Kelantan, chosen by means of a multi-stage random sampling method. The analysis of the study involved Manova test through SPSS software version 25.0, structural path analysis, and structural equation model fit test using AMOS software version 24.0. The results of the study indicate that demographic factors, i.e. gender, age, and teaching experience are insignificant in differentiating the level of teacher empowerment, teacher well-being in the workplace, and teacher organizational commitment (p0.05). Model testing, on the other hand, showed that teacher empowerment and teacher well-being factors were significant serial mediators to explain the indirect influence of principals’ contextual leadership on teachers’ organizational commitment (β = 0.17, p = 0.00). Theoretically, this study provides empirical evidence for the integration of Theory Z to emphasize elements of well-being and empowerment, as well as Fiedler’s Contingency Theory, to support context-based leadership styles in an effort to increase teachers’ organizational commitment. Findings provide a novel comprehensive structural equation modeling of how the contextual leadership of school principals can be linked to teachers’ organizational commitment through serial mediator mechanisms.
Psychological support for the emotions and concerns of school leaders needs to be
emphasized as the level of teacher commitment in some developing countries is still
not encouraging. Teachers need to be given trust and appreciation so that such work environment can trigger pleasure in the workplace despite facing various challenges. Thus, this study was conducted to identify the role of serial mediators, namely teacher empowerment and teacher’s workplace well-being to explain the indirect influence of contextual leadership of school principals towards teacher’s organizational commitment. This study is a quantitative research study that involves testing a model of structural equation modeling. Data were collected cross-sectionally through a modified questionnaire and constructed by the researcher. All instruments used were also tested for validity and reliability. The sample of the study is 371 teachers from fifteen secondary schools in the state of Kelantan, chosen by means of a multi-stage random sampling method. The analysis of the study involved Manova test through SPSS software version 25.0, structural path analysis, and structural equation model fit test using AMOS software version 24.0. The results of the study indicate that demographic factors, i.e. gender, age, and teaching experience are insignificant in differentiating the level of teacher empowerment, teacher well-being in the workplace, and teacher organizational commitment (p0.05). Model testing, on the other hand, showed that teacher empowerment and teacher well-being factors were significant serial mediators to explain the indirect influence of principals’ contextual leadership on teachers’ organizational commitment (β = 0.17, p = 0.00). Theoretically, this study provides empirical evidence for the integration of Theory Z to emphasize elements of well-being and empowerment, as well as Fiedler’s Contingency Theory,
to support context-based leadership styles in an effort to increase teachers’
organizational commitment. Findings provide a novel comprehensive structural
equation modeling of how the contextual leadership of school principals can be linked to teachers’ organizational commitment through serial mediator mechanisms.
The institutional context of firm internationalization has become increasingly important to research and practice. Institutional influence and effects are well documented across diverse aspects of firm internationalization. However, less is known about the reciprocal interplay of relationships between institutions and internationalization, and how this may spur their asymmetric co-evolution over time – as differentially influenced by highly varying forces and factors. We contribute to the literature by unpacking these relationships, introducing a model with propositions to account for the simultaneous interactions of institutions and internationalization leading to asymmetric co-evolution over time, and by extending unique theoretical support for the co-evolution process.
Robotic process automation (RPA) is a technology that is presented as a universal tool that solves major problems of modern businesses. It aims to reduce costs, improve quality and create customer value. However, the business reality differs from this aspiration. After interviews with managers, we found that implementation of robots does not always lead to the assumed effect and some robots are subsequently withdrawn from companies. In consequence, people take over robotized tasks to perform them manually again, and in practice, replace back robots—what we call ‘re-manualization’. Unfortunately, companies do not seem to be aware of this possibility until they experience it on their own, to the best of our knowledge, no previous research described or analysed this phenomenon so far. This lack of awareness, however, may pose risks and even be harmful for organizations. In this paper, we present an exploratory study. We used individual interviews, group discussions with managers experienced in RPA, and secondary data analysis to elaborate on the re-manualization phenomenon. As a result, we found four types of ‘cause and effect’ narrations that reflect reasons for this to occur: (1) overenthusiasm for RPA, (2) low awareness and fear of robots, (3) legal or supply change and (4) code faults.KeywordsRobotic process automationRPASoftware robotInvestmentInformation systemsWork manualization
The main aim of this paper is to present the results of a process-project maturity assessment of large organizations in Poland. The paper consists of two main parts: a theoretical part, which primarily outlines the rationale supporting the prospects and the need for an orientation towards process and project organizations, and an empirical part, presenting an attempt to integrate the MMPM and PMMM maturity models, in order to assess organizational level of process-project maturity. The empirical research carried out on a sample of 90 large organizations shows that vast majority of the organizations surveyed are characterized by low levels of process and project maturity, and 13 of the entities examined can be described, based on the assumptions adopted, as a process-project organization (level 4 of process-project maturity). Further, the research conducted has led to an outline of the factors supporting the recognition of process management as a method fundamental to the designing a process-project organization. Maturity model integration has demonstrated the levels of process and project maturity as well as a statistically positive correlation between the degree of process maturity and project maturity. The original character of this paper primarily concerns the need to fill the literature gap, consisting in the scarcity of publications describing integration of process and project management methods and the deficit of works presenting process-project maturity results.KeywordsProcess-project oriented organizationBPMProcess managementProject managementMaturity
Companies require understanding the needs, wants, and preferences of customers and generating relevant customer insights to serve them well. Customer insights can be generated only when companies have processes in place to collect marketing information and marketing intelligence. Companies collect marketing information from many and varied sources. They handle big data and extract insights. Companies manage marketing information with the help of marketing information systems. Marketing information systems help companies in assessment of information requirements, in developing the information, and in analyzing the information to generate customer insights. Companies collect competitive marketing intelligence to have a better understanding of competitors. Companies should adhere to ethical practices while collecting and analyzing marketing intelligence. Proper coordination and utilization of marketing information, marketing information systems, and marketing intelligence will help companies generate relevant customer insights, serve customers well, and achieve business excellence.
As a result of emerging climate change trends, businesses and organizations are becoming more concerned about environmental sustainability. In this context, green supply chain management (GSCM) approaches are expanding globally. Based on institutional and sociotechnical systems theory, the conceptual model of this research highlights a mediation of two GSCM types, namely technological and behavioral practices, as well as the moderation of organizational pressure on institutional performance. The hypotheses were evaluated using the structural equation modeling (SEM) method, obtaining data from 563 Chinese firms. This study's categorization of technological and behavioral GSCM practices and results add to the literature on GSCM. The empirical findings indicate that the technological GSCM practices considerably affect behavioral practices. Moreover, GSCM technological and behavioral practices have a substantial effect on institutional performance. GSCM behavioral practices mediate the link between technological GSCM practices and institutional performance. The outcomes also reveal that organizational pressure moderates the association between GSCM technological GSCM practices and institutional performance. These results show that companies in emerging economies should prioritize the behavioral GSCM practices to successfully apply the technological GSCM practices to achieve compelling financial, social, and environmental performance.
Multinational companies focus on emerging markets and expand their businesses into such markets for better opportunities. Companies require collecting marketing intelligence to analyze emerging markets. Such markets have customer requirements which are different from that of developed markets. New approaches should be adopted to gather and to analyze the information to generate marketing intelligence in emerging markets. The study discusses the importance of generating marketing intelligence for emerging markets. Companies should treat and manage marketing intelligence as a strategic asset, organize differently for marketing intelligence in emerging markets, and apply a wide range of sources and methods to generate marketing intelligence in emerging markets. Corporate office and employees of companies in emerging markets should have shared responsibilities for marketing intelligence. Such strategies will allow multinational companies to generate adequate marketing intelligence, to establish themselves in emerging markets, and to achieve business excellence in fast-changing economies.
Multinational companies enter markets with emerging economies to expand their businesses. Multinationals need to obtain marketing intelligence to understand the emerging markets which have requirements different from that of developed markets. They require adopting new approaches to gathering and using marketing intelligence in emerging markets. The study discusses the importance of obtaining marketing intelligence in emerging markets. Multinationals require to treat and manage marketing intelligence as a strategic asset, organize differently for marketing intelligence in emerging markets, and use a wide range of sources and methods to obtain marketing intelligence. Multinationals should also ensure shared responsibility for marketing intelligence between corporate office and executives in the emerging markets. The above strategies will help multinational companies in obtaining adequate marketing intelligence and in growing in fast-changing economies.
Research Summary
We respond to calls in the strategy and international business literature for elucidating how multinational subsidiaries develop contextual intelligence in host countries and how they use the local context as a source of valuable opportunities for learning. Applying the theoretical lens of subsidiary absorptive capacity and building on a gravity model, we propose an approach that can distinguish and compare the influences of the host country context and headquarters over the subsidiary knowledge production. Some subsidiaries may become global second headquarters and innovation hubs, as evidenced qualitatively in the paper with the case of Cisco. Essentially, subsidiaries, characterized by higher stocks of knowledge and greater number of locally hired employees are likely to absorb relatively more knowledge from the local host country context.
Managerial Summary
Managers at multinational companies have to carefully balance acquiring knowledge from the headquarters, vis‐a‐vis acquiring knowledge from the local context of countries where the firm has subsidiaries. In contrast to a “headquarter‐centric” approach where most of the knowledge management activities are centered around the MNC headquarters, we argue that larger subsidiaries, often characterized by a large presence of local R&D workers, might disproportionately draw knowledge from the local context, rather than from the headquarters. In addition to developing theoretical propositions along these lines, we provide an illustrative example of how Cisco opened a “second headquarters” in India, to learn from the rich local context.
We take the multinational operational flexibility perspective to examine how human resource-based coordination allows multinational corporations to retain the flexibility value of multinationality in diverse cultures among host countries. We posit that home national expatriates, host country specialists, and cross-cultural training programs within the same company network promote cultural understanding, facilitate effective coordination, and consequently curb downside risks of multinationality. By employing the Tobit two-stage model on a large sample of Korean multinational corporations, we find that a broader existence of three human resource programs help curbing downside risks, and the downside risk reduction effect is stronger under high cultural diversification. These findings imply the positive roles of cross-cultural coordinative mechanisms in retaining the flexibility value of multinationality.
In the field of management science and business administration, the case method is gaining ground in research as well as in teaching. Case studies support on the one hand exploratory re-search and on the other hand problem-based teaching. However, we find that case research and case teaching remain unchained in management study programs and propose to close this gap. We identify an untapped potential of boosting the case method by integrating case-based re-search and teaching into a discovery and learning journey of applied science. We suggest em-bedding the ‘Integrated Case Method’ (ICM) in the ecosystem of universities to the end of en-hancing and intensifying the knowledge transfer between business and the higher educational sector better thereby achieving better learning objectives in higher education. As a result, this approach enables the development of a high level of contextual intelligence and thus helps to avoid the fallacies of teaching based on uniform theoretical content.
Companies collect customer information, store the information in databases, and analyze it to generate customer insights. The study focuses on the roles of customer relationship management (CRM) in making proper usage of the information, marketing analytics, and the marketing intelligence generated to develop fruitful customer relationships. Companies employ advanced marketing analytics and big data to understand customers and implement CRM effectively. The customer insights generated should be distributed and used properly. Although companies benefit from implementation of CRM, the implementation has its own drawbacks. Implementation of CRM will not solve all issues related to customers. It has its own drawbacks. However, proper implementation and effective utilization of CRM will help companies in developing customer relationships, in growing their businesses, and in achieving business excellence in the long run.
This paper examines the customer value creation framework and discusses the design of the key elements for product development in emerging markets. A scientometric/bibliometric scoping literature review identifies a clear gap in the current research in studying prerequisites for customer value creation in emerging market contexts. Observing experiences of Daikin and Renault in the context of India, the purpose of this paper is to identify value creation strategic choices following which comprehensive customer value offerings in products and services can be successfully created by firms across the four facets of the framework in emerging markets. Value creation strategies include having a nuanced understanding of the latent contextual needs to offer localized high-quality products that embody distinct functional attributes that provide a functional value and being responsive to specific emotional needs and epistemic experiences of the target customers in product and service offerings to deliver a greater experiential value. Furthermore, the products should adopt a localized operational excellence strategy throughout the value chain to reduce costs for competitive price offerings in order to deliver superior cost value and develop brand image and equity strategy, thereby allowing for the provision of a greater symbolic value. Experiences of successful firms demonstrate the need for extensive local research into the emerging market followed by localization of production and development of a distribution network to be able to offer customized products at competitive prices whilst maintaining the brand value. We thus extend the customer value creation framework by introducing localization as a necessary condition for successful organizational performance in emerging markets.
Research examining emerging economy inward and outward foreign direct investment (FDI) flows is on a significant upward trajectory. In this bibliometric analysis covering 806 articles published between 1994 and 2019, we map key aspects of its contours. Our analysis proceeds in two sequential phases involving a performance analysis, followed by a thematic analysis. Our performance analysis unveils fundamental elements of the structure of the knowledge base. Our subsequent thematic analysis identifies three focal topics arising from identifiable shared qualities characterizing this literature. Firstly, we distinguish scholarship focused on inward FDI into emerging economies formed by two particular classes, namely 'innovative FDI' and 'capital flows'. Our second theme covers outward FDI from these emerging economies and also comprises two specific classes referring to the 'institutional environment' and the 'theoretical framework deployed'. Our final theme relates to an integrated body of knowledge explicating aspects of the location choice decision. Building on this analysis, we isolate a number of opportunities for future research.
To improve our understanding of the strategic role of the board in emerging market firms (EMFs), we investigate the role of the board’s human capital resource in a firm’s internationalization. Integrating the monitoring role (to reduce agency costs) and the resource provisioning role (to augment strategic resource base) of the board, we propose that the board’s aggregate education and professional experience influence the degree of international expansion of EMFs. Further, the board’s knowledge heterogeneity and skill heterogeneity play a contingent role from a resource orchestration perspective. Based on a dataset of 906 firm-years drawn from 201 Indian firms (2008–2012), we find support for the proposed hypotheses that the board’s aggregate education and professional experience have a U-shaped effect on international expansion, and that this relationship flips to an inverted U-shaped relationship at higher levels of knowledge and skill heterogeneity, respectively, within the board.
This study aims to develop a model for the enablers, critical success factors (CSF) and barriers to frugal innovation (FI). A systematic literature review (SLR) conducted on 372 documentaries of five databases and semistructured interviews conducted with active industrial and academic experts in the innovation field. Then, factors obtained from SLR and interviews placed in two questionnaires with Likert spectrum and the questionnaires were submitted to 200 convenient samples to determine the importance of factors and then ranked through the Friedman test. Based on the findings, ‘optimization of energy consumption in industries, collaborating with local companies, management supports, paying attention to the needs of the local market and reducing the profit margin’ are among the enablers and CSFs of FI. ‘Lack of business acumen among local partners, senior management reluctances, challenging in R&D, challenges of prototyping in product development and currency fluctuations’ are among the barriers of FI.
From the Preface: The research journey for this book began fifteen years ago when we were teaching in a Harvard Business School Executive Program, Managing Global Opportunities in China and India. The program targeted Western multinationals and investors interested in business opportunities in the then rapidly growing Chinese market and the newly liberalizing Indian market. In Mumbai, as part of that executive program, we invited Ratan Tata, chairman of Tata Sons Limited, to share with the group Tata's strategy for the new Indian market. We were surprised to see Western executives' reaction to Tata's ambitious plans for exploiting the new ambient opportunities. Their experience in Western markets had convinced these executives that emerging market business groups like the Tata's, consisting of several dozen companies in disparate, seemingly unrelated businesses, were anachronisms, doomed to go the way of the dinosaurs unless they radically restructured and focused on one or two core businesses. The disconnect between how emerging market senior leaders like Ratan Tata and leaders of Western multinationals in our executive program thought about the strategic implication of emerging market opportunities was truly fascinating to us. The crux of this book is to advance a structural framework for thinking about the nature and extent of differences between emerging markets and mature markets on the one hand, and among emerging markets on the other. That is, the so-called BRIC economies—Brazil, Russia, India, and China—differ from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan on the one hand, but they also differ from each other quite extensively. We specify how. In particular, we articulate a framework to calibrate the differences in soft and hard institutional infrastructure— we refer to the absence in emerging markets of things we take for granted in our backyard in Boston as institutional voids—that permeate emerging markets, and then offer solutions for dealing with these. Tarun Khanna is the Jorge Paulo Lemann Professor at Harvard Business School and the author of Billions of Entrepreneurs: How China and India Are Reshaping Their Future and Yours (Harvard Business School Press, 2008).
The transfer of productive technologies from the industrial
nations of the North Atlantic to the rest of the world underlay dramatic
economic and social transformations in the 19th century. Technology
transfer has continued to play a central role in both international
economics and national development policy through the late 20th
century. Yet efforts to transfer novel technologies across national
borders have varied widely, with outcomes ranging from success, to
significant adaptation, to failure. This article offers a conceptual model
for examining cases of technology transfer, illustrated with examples
from Mexico's historical experience of 1870 through 1911. Although this
approach comes from an historian's perspective, it is broadly applicable
to interdisciplinary interest in technology transfer.
In this paper, I review the concept of "institutional voids" that provides a way to understand the structure of emerging markets. These voids impede would-be buyers from getting together with would-be sellers, and hence compromise the functioning of markets. Entrepreneurs must respond to these voids. Their endeavors, however, are also the means through which the voids are progressively removed. I review my work on the contours of such entrepreneurship in many emerging markets, with the greatest research emphasis on China and India. I conclude with a focus on attempts to circumvent a particularly insidious class of institutional voids, those that prevent the marginalized two-thirds of the world's population from participating in the economic mainstream. Cumulatively, my work calls for our profession to think more creatively and eclectically about our research and teaching in a way that displays greater contextual intelligence toward ubiquitous and socially costly voids.
It is now widely accepted that the lower castes have risen in Indian politics. Has there been a corresponding change in the economy? Using comprehensive data on enterprise ownership from the Economic Census of 1990, 1998 and 2005, this paper shows there are substantial caste differences in entrepreneurship across India. The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are significantly under-represented in the ownership of enterprises and the share of the workforce employed by them. These differences are widespread across all states, have decreased very modestly between 1990 and 2005, and cannot be attributed to broad differences in access to physical or human capital.
Purpose
Institutional voids – the lack of institutions that can facilitate the functioning of markets – are ubiquitous in emerging markets. Because of their newness, entrepreneurial ventures are especially susceptible to institutional vacuums. This research seeks to shed light on the role that business groups can play in the development of entrepreneurial ventures in emerging markets.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on detailed fieldwork, the study describes and analyzes the creation and evolution of two biotechnology start-ups that were affiliated to a major Latin American business group. The research cov ers the period between their foundation and later acquisition by a multinational company.
Findings
The article discusses the role that the business group affiliation had in terms of helping the start-ups to interact with multiple institutional voids. The analysis shows that the start-ups benefited from the group's reputation and connections, experience and know-how in managing different types of businesses in the country, strong resource base, long-term vision, and strong organizational culture.
Originality/value
The main contribution of this work is to show that business group affiliation can be an interesting solution that facilitates the development of entrepreneurial ventures in emerging markets.
Economic growth in the Western world increasingly depends on meaningful engagement with emerging markets, such as Brazil, China, India, South Africa, and Turkey. Business schools are responding in their research and curriculums with increased attention to these markets. However, to understand and leverage these opportunities for teaching and learning, it is apparent that students and executives require a major transformation of their mental models, not simply incremental adjustments or extensions. Institutional economics can help prospective and established managers recognize the role of formal and informal institutions and enable them to work around the "institutional voids" in emerging markets (Khanna & Palepu, 2010). We draw on this framework to identify critical shifts in mental models required for managing effectively in emerging markets and suggest core elements of the management learning process required to accomplish such a change.
This paper offers an analytical structure to pinpoint the behavioral roots of superior performance, where “behavioral” denotes “being about mental processes.” Such roots are identified in behavioral deviations from market efficiency. The causes of these deviations are behavioral factors that bound firms' ability to pursue and compete for superior opportunities. Because these bounds are systematic and diffused among firms, they ensure that latent opportunities are not competed away. In this setting, the behavioral bases of superior performance stem from a superior ability to overcome focal behavioral bounds. This analytical structure is used to identify the mental processes especially important to firm performance that strategic leaders can reliably manage. Its key insight is that superior opportunities are cognitively distant. They rarely correspond to common ways of thinking. The reason for this is that it is necessary to overcome strong behavioral bounds to pursue these opportunities. This insight contrasts with mainstream behavioral approaches to strategy, which focus on the virtues of local action, and it has two implications: the behavioral essence of superior performance corresponds to strategic leaders' superior ability to manage the mental processes necessary to pursue cognitively distant opportunities; and pursuing the cognitively distant implies a more expansive conception of strategic agency (e.g., the role of strategic leaders) than is acknowledged by mainstream behavioral approaches to strategy. The challenges posed by this conception require a model of human cognition that goes beyond the understanding of bounded rationality that is diffused in current behavioral strategy research. The second part of the paper assesses the traits of a model of human mind that can support the behavioral conception of strategic agency advocated and proposes a unified model of the human mind that centers on associative processes.
This paper offers an analytical structure to pinpoint the behavioral roots of superior performance, where "behavioral" denotes "being about mental processes." Such roots are identified in behavioral deviations from market efficiency. The causes of these deviations are behavioral factors that bound firms' ability to pursue and compete for superior opportunities.Because these bounds are systematic and diffused among firms, they ensure that latent opportunities are noLcompeted away.In this setting, the behavioral bases of superior performance stem from a superior ability to overcome focal behavioral bounds. This analytical structure is used to identify the mental processes especially important to firm performance that strategic leaders can reliably manage. Its key insight is that superior opportunities are cognitively distant. They rarely correspond to common ways of thinking. The reason for this is that it is necessary to overcome strong behavioral bounds to pursue these opportunities. This insight contrasts with mainstream behavioral approaches to strategy, which focus on the virtues of local action, and it has two implications: the behavioral essence of superior performance corresponds to strategic leaders' superior ability to manage the mental processes necessary to pursue cognitively distant opportunities; and pursuing the cognitively distant implies a more expansive conception of strategic agency (e.g., the role of strategic leaders) than is acknowledged by mainstream behavioral approaches to strategy. The challenges posed by this conception require a model of human cognition that goes beyond the understanding of bounded rationality that is diffused in current behavioral strategy research. The second part of the paper assesses the traits of a model of human mind that can support the behavioral conception of strategic agency advocated and proposes a unified model of the human mind that centers on associative processes.
The essence of strategy formulation is coping with competition. Yet it is easy to view competition too narrowly and too pessimistically. While one sometimes hears executives complaining to the contrary, intense competition in an industry is neither coincidence nor bad luck.
We demonstrate variation in the extent to which firms benefit from their affiliation with Chilean business groups in the 1988-1996 period. The net benefits of unrelated diversification are positive if group diversification exceeds a threshold level, though this threshold increases with time. We find evidence of non-diversification related group benefits, which atrophy over time. We conjecture that the evolution of institutional context alters the value creating potential of business groups, though it does so slowly.
Industrial Efficiency in Six Nations continues the pioneering research begun in Caves and Barton's Efficiency in U.S. Manufacturing Industries, extending it to the international sphere and laying the empirical groundwork for a deeper understanding of the sources of inefficiency and their cost in productivity. This extended project is the first to apply the stochastic frontier production function routinely, with results that are both meaningful and sophisticated. Of particular interest are substantive results concerning the effects of exposure to competition, both domestic and foreign, and of organizational factors such as corporate diversification and unionization on productive efficiency. Caves and his colleagues investigate the gaps between average and best-practice efficiency of plants in the manufacturing industries of the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, Japan, and Korea. They show that the resulting measures of industrial efficiency can be used to test many hypotheses about how efficiency differs from industry to industry. They confirm the generally favorable effects of competition on efficiency and also test many effects of organizational choices, while controlling for dynamic disturbances and sources of intrinsic diversity. They also explore what happens to the typical industry's efficiency over time, show how much and why the efficiency of large and small units differs, and probe the relation of the gap between an industry's average and best-practice efficiency and its international standing in average productivity.
We examine the effect of the institutional environment (IE) on the mortality of overseas subsidiaries. We develop hypotheses to study the impact of political openness and social openness, two dimensions of the institutional environment and how joint venture status moderates these relationships. We test our hypotheses using a sample of 12,000+ Japanese overseas investments from 1986–1997 in 25 countries, using Cox hazard models.
Our results suggest that the sociopolitical context has a strong influence on the mortality of overseas subsidiaries. We theorized a negative main effect for political and social openness and positive interaction effects with openness when the FDI is through a JV. The results are consistent with the hypotheses. However, political and social openness show significantly different influences on subsidiary mortality.
Behavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers - often implicitly - assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these "standard subjects" are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species - frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior - hence, there are no obvious a priori grounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges.
Includes bibliographical references (leaf [111]). Carbon-copy of original thesis. Thesis--Cambridge University.
We develop a model that, at the aggregate level, is similar to the one sector neoclassical growth model, while, at the disaggregate level, has implications for the path of observable measures of technology adoption. We estimate our model using data on the diffusion of 15 technologies in 166 countries over the last two centuries. We evaluate the implications of our estimates for aggregate TFP and per capita income. Our results reveal that, on average, countries have adopted technologies 47 years after their invention. There is substantial variation across technologies and countries. Over the past two centuries, newer technologies have been adopted faster than old ones. The cross-country variation in the adoption of technologies accounts for at least a quarter of per capita income differences.
Diversified business groups dominate the private sectors of most of the world's economies. Several of these economies have undergone sudden policy changes that significantly increase domestic competitive intensity. The authors demonstrate how the changes in corporate scope that accompany such 'competitive shocks' can be used to weigh the importance of different explanations for the existence of diversified business groups. The authors illustrate their reasoning by studying the restructuring of two of India's largest business groups following a comprehensive post-1991 package of policy reforms. The case studies also elucidate aspects of the restructuring process that should inform larger-sample empirical analyses. Copyright 1998 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Diversified business groups, consisting of legally independent firms operating across diverse industries, are ubiquitous in emerging markets. Groups around the world share certain attributes but also vary substantially in structure, ownership, and other dimensions. This paper proposes a business group taxonomy, which is used to formulate hypotheses and present evidence about the reasons for the formation, prevalence, and evolution of groups in different environments. In interpreting the evidence, the authors pay particular attention to two aspects neglected in much of the literature: the circumstances under which groups emerge and the historical evidence on some of the questions addressed by recent studies. They argue that business groups are responses to different economic conditions and that, from a welfare standpoint, they can sometimes be "paragons" and, at other times, "parasites." The authors conclude with an agenda for future research.
The structure of profitability around the world. Unpublished manuscript
- T Khanna
- J W Rivkin
Freedom from want: the remarkable success story of BRAC, the global grassroots organization that’s winning the fight against poverty
- I Smillie