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Should the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae be of wider concern for veterinary and medical science?
Abstract and Figures
The poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae is best known as a threat to the laying-hen industry; adversely affecting production and hen health and welfare throughout the globe, both directly and through its role as a disease vector. Nevertheless, D. gallinae is being increasingly implemented in dermatological complaints in non-avian hosts, suggesting that its significance may extend beyond poultry. The main objective of the current work was to review the potential of D. gallinae as a wider veterinary and medical threat. Results demonstrated that, as an avian mite, D. gallinae is unsurprisingly an occasional pest of pet birds. However, research also supports that these mites will feed from a range of other animals including: cats, dogs, rodents, rabbits, horses and man. We conclude that although reported cases of D. gallinae infesting mammals are relatively rare, when coupled with the reported genetic plasticity of this species and evidence of permanent infestations on non-avian hosts, potential for host-expansion may exist. The impact of, and mechanisms and risk factors for such expansion are discussed, and suggestions for further work made. Given the potential severity of any level of host-expansion in D. gallinae, we conclude that further research should be urgently conducted to confirm the full extent of the threat posed by D. gallinae to (non-avian) veterinary and medical sectors.
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... Emerging concerns associated with avian mites include their ability to act as vectors of viral (such as avian influenza) and bacterial diseases (such as salmonella), but current evidence for this remains inconclusive. 14,15,17,40,41 Following the bites of haematophagus avian mites, human skin lesions may present as pruritic urticarial papules with a central punctum that may develop into a central vesicle. These skin lesions can occur in groups or in a linear configuration. ...
... 43 The differential diagnosis of gamasoidosis includes bites from other biting arthropods (eg, insects such as mosquitoes or fleas), scabies, pediculosis or delusional ectoparasites. 41,42 The lack of burrows, and the sparing of interdigital web spaces and genitalia, differentiates gamasoidosis from scabies (mites burrow under the skin and do not bite). 32 Akhoundi 40 and De Waal 44 attempt to provide distinguishing skin manifestations of bites from various causes, but specific clinical information to correctly identify the biting arthropod is lacking. ...
... Microscopic identification of the mite, usually sampled from the environment rather than the skin, is confirmatory. 4,33,41 It is therefore important for clinicians to be aware of the clinical manifestations of human acariasis and other arthropod-related dermatoses. ...
Introduction: Among the occupational skin diseases bird mite dermatitis (gamasoidosis) is an infrequent and under-reported condition.
Case Presentation: A report is presented of a group of workers employed in a habitat restoration centre, that developed episodes of pruritus and skin rashes associated with bird mites. The mite bites resolved approximately 2 weeks after each episode, without specific medical intervention and despite ongoing work activities. A workplace health risk assessment and microscopic analysis of “swabs” of the work environment aided the identification of bird mite as the causative agent. The source of the bird mites was infested red-winged starlings nesting in the roof of the workplace facility. Incidents of gamasoidosis as described, are considered occupational dermatoses since they were acquired in the workplace and the diagnosis was based on clinical-parasitological analysis.
Conclusion: When diagnosing gamasoidosis, the clinical history and physical examination provide useful clues, but the clinical features of skin lesions of arthropod or other insect bites are very similar. Microscopic detection of the mite is confirmatory.
... D. gallinae is considered the most prevalent mite in poultry farms around the world, with emphasis on European breeding models [29,[36][37][38]. It is estimated that approximately 83% of European laying, pullet, and breeder farms, are infested with D. gallinae [39][40][41] with losses ranging between USD 130 million and USD 231 million per year [17,22,31,[42][43][44][45]. all the maintenance costs of the farms. ...
... [47], and Listeria monocytogenes [58]. In cases of infestation, these mites cause in the animals a state of anemia, lower feed conversion and weight loss, psychogenic behavior or somatic stress (irritation, pecking, and cannibalism), dermatitis, decreased immunity, and, in extreme cases, death by exsanguination [6,29,31,39,40,59,60]. In addition, mite-infested hens suffer from a reduction in egg laying, and the eggs laid lose their quality (fragile shells and smaller size) [8,29,30,48,51,54,61]. ...
... In the intensive meat production systems, the chickens remain on the farm for 40-50 days [73], and following their slaughter, the environment and all materials and instruments are thoroughly cleaned and sanitized. The short amount of time that the animals remain in the environment, combined with constant cleaning of the facilities and sanitizing of the areas, does not allow mites to reach concentrations to be considered as an infestation: >100,000 mites/poultry for O. sylviarum [25,38] and 500,000 mites/poultry for D. gallinae [8,39]. ...
Simple Summary
The mites that infest laying hens and broiler chickens in poultry farms have caused great inconvenience to the industry due to the difficulty of controlling or eliminating their populations within the production systems. Dermanyssus gallinae and Ornithonyssus spp. are the mites that mainly interfere with the health of the poultry, damaging the production and quality of the end product, with special emphasis on Ornithonyssus sylviarum and Ornithonyssus bursa. The objective of this article is to analyze the impact of hematophagous mites that infest commercial egg and meat production systems and the consequences of this form of parasitism, and discuss the chemical and non-chemical methods of control associated with the use of plants, entomopathogenic fungi, and products based on diatomaceous earth and synthetic silica, and new lines of research aimed at developing vaccines as a new way of controlling these pests.
Abstract
The blood-sucking mites Dermanyssus gallinae (“red mite”), Ornithonyssus sylviarum (“northern fowl mite”), and Ornithonyssus bursa (”tropical fowl mite”) stand out for causing infestations in commercial poultry farms worldwide, resulting in significant economic damage for producers. In addition to changes in production systems that include new concerns for animal welfare, global climate change in recent years has become a major challenge in the spread of ectoparasites around the world. This review includes information regarding the main form of controlling poultry mites through the use of commercially available chemicals. In addition, non-chemical measures against blood-sucking mites were discussed such as extracts and oils from plants and seeds, entomopathogenic fungi, semiochemicals, powder such as diatomaceous earth and silica-based products, and vaccine candidates. The control of poultry mites using chemical methods that are currently used to control or eliminate them are proving to be less effective as mites develop resistance. In contrast, the products based on plant oils and extracts, powders of plant origin, fungi, and new antigens aimed at developing transmission-blocking vaccines against poultry mites provide some encouraging options for the rational control of these ectoparasites.
... The presence of D. gallinae away from the hens is explained by their nocturnal habits, remaining guarded during the day and taking a blood meal at night, possibly also during the day (Flechtmann 1985;Morrone et al. 2001). In high populations, this species negatively influences the development and posture of birds (Morrone et al. 2001;Jofré et al. 2009;Faleiro et al. 2015), and when in large populations, they decrease the values of hemoglobin and erythrocytes, possibly causing anemia which may lead to death; they may also transmit bacteria of the genus Salmonella and viruses responsible for the disease of Newcastle and avian pox (Proctor and Owens 2000;Nadeem et al. 2007;Valiente et al. 2009;George et al. 2015). ...
Due to the high density of chickens housed within the same space in aviaries, a large volume of organic matter accumulates on the floor. This large supply of available resources allows the development of arthropods, including organisms that affect poultry productivity and health. This study aimed to evaluate the composition of the mite community associated with organic matter in poultry houses with different rearing systems and the verification of potential predators to be evaluated in clean management techniques, such as biological control. The study was carried out in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) in a total of six poultry houses, two of the ‘Californian’ system (SIG) and four of the ‘cage free’ system (SIF). In total, 839,459 specimens were collected, of which 358,044 were collected from SIF and 481,415 specimens from SIG. Fifty-two species/morphospecies were found and we observed a grouping of aviaries from the same rearing model. Species of medical veterinary importance were found, such as Dermanyssus gallinae, Megninia ginglymura, Ornithonyssus sylviarum and Tyrophagus putrescentiae. The results demonstrate that the organic matter present in the aviaries harbors a high diversity of mites of medical-veterinary importance and predators, which are influenced by the rearing system.
... Particular attention should be paid to the dust and bacterial content of the air, because their high levels are a cause for concern in terms of human and animal health, especially if they stay in such places for a long time, because the smaller particles of dust can be inhaled into the lungs, and the even smaller ones can also get into the bloodstream (Lonc and Plewa, 2010). The appearance of the blood-sucking chicken mite (poultry red mite) is unpleasant, not only for birds but also as a nuisance for people (George et al., 2015). ...
Livestock farming is considered one relevant cause of global warming. The aim of this article is to show that the environmental footprint of broilers and laying hens is small among farmed animal species. Author examines the increase in the production of broilers and laying hens over the past decades as a result of genetic selection, and as a consequence their greenhouse gas emissions, land, water and energy use have decreased. It was evidenced that with the increase of production the environmental footprint per unit of product decreases. On the other hand, in alternative housing systems, especially in free-range and organic production, all indicators deteriorate. Supplying the Earth's ever-growing population with a sufficient amount of high-quality food of animal origin, in such a way that the environmental footprint of poultry farming is reduced, can be achieved with intensive production taking into account animal welfare. New tools and methods such as genomic selection, gene editing or precision poultry breeding will help in this.
... The same is true for the poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, the most important ectoparasite of laying hens causing more than 200 million euro economic losses in Europe alone (Sigognault Flochlay et al., 2017;Sparagano et al., 2014). In addition to direct feeding damage, D. gallinae can also transmit several diseases resulting in weight loss and a reduction of egg productivity (George et al., 2015;Sleeckx et al., 2019;Sparagano et al., 2014). Last, ticks also act as vectors of diseases (Dantas-Torres et al., 2012;Kiss et al., 2012) and the southern cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus is recognized as a major threat to livestock production and causes economic losses up to billions of dollars (Grisi et al., 2014;Rodriguez-Vivas et al., 2018). ...
The Arachnida subclass of Acari comprises many harmful pests that threaten agriculture as well as animal health, including herbivorous spider mites, the bee parasite Varroa, the poultry mite Dermanyssus and several species of ticks. Especially in agriculture, acaricides are often used intensively to minimize the damage they inflict, promoting the development of resistance. Beneficial predatory mites used in biological control are also subjected to acaricide selection in the field. The development and use of new genetic and genomic tools such as genome and transcriptome sequencing, bulked segregant analysis (QTL mapping), and reverse genetics via RNAi or CRISPR/Cas9, have greatly increased our understanding of the molecular genetic mechanisms of resistance in Acari, especially in the spider mite Tetranychus urticae which emerged as a model species. These new techniques allowed to uncover and validate new resistance mutations in a larger range of species. In addition, they provided an impetus to start elucidating more challenging questions on mechanisms of gene regulation of detoxification associated with resistance.
... The survival time of D. gallinae without a blood meal is 9 months and it affects the egg quality of hens (Kirkwood et al., 1968;Helena et al., 1999;Kilpinen et al., 2005;Nunn et al., 2019). D. gallinae not only infects poultry, but also infects mammals (Sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo) and wild animals (Zebus and Turkeys) accidentally (Mignon and Losson, 2008;George et al., 2015;Ciloglu et al., 2020). Conclusively, D. gallinae causes vascular damage, loss of blood, and skin rashes in the host, and in some cases leads to the death of poultry birds (Kilpinen et al., 2005;Tabari et al., 2020). ...
AB S T RA C T Dermanyssus gallinae (Poultry red mite) is known to be the most dangerous ectoparasite of poultry. Specifically, it causes vascular damage, loss of blood, skin rashes in the host, and sometimes leads to death. D. gallinae has animal health and welfare issues but it mainly affects eggs-production industry. Global annual loss due to D. gallinae is 3.92 billion USD. Different chemical compounds and pesticides are used to control poultry red mites in poultry farms. However, the emergence of drug resistance against different chemical compounds and harmful drug residues in meat and eggs limit chemical control. In this scenario, there is a dire need to find alternatives to chemical control. This review mainly highlights the alternates of chemical control i.e. volatile compounds, pheromones, and kairomones. Pheromones and kairomones attract D. gallinae and hamper the parasite growth. While certain volatile compounds and plant extracts exert repellent effects on D. gallinae leading to decreased or no growth. Finally, effective treatments against D. gallinae are required to control infestation in poultry. In the future, different devices that have been tested on species of the Acari genus can be used to control poultry red mites.
... During blood-feeding, D. gallinae mites can transmit several significant animal pathogens to their hosts 6 , including some that are zoonotic 7 . Although a large number of viruses and bacteria have been found associated with D. gallinae, its capacity to act as a vector or reservoir has been supported experimentally for only a few pathogens [8][9][10] . This is especially alarming for transmission of Salmonella spp. 10 , causing egg-associated salmonellosis and fowl typhoid disease 11 , as well as the spread of avian influenza A virus 12 . ...
Dermanyssus gallinae is a blood-feeding mite that parasitises wild birds and farmed poultry. Its remarkably swift processing of blood, together with the capacity to blood-feed during most developmental stages, makes this mite a highly debilitating pest. To identify specific adaptations to digestion of a haemoglobin-rich diet, we constructed and compared transcriptomes from starved and blood-fed stages of the parasite and identified midgut-enriched transcripts. We noted that midgut transcripts encoding cysteine proteases were upregulated with a blood meal. Mapping the full proteolytic apparatus, we noted a reduction in the suite of cysteine proteases, missing homologues for Cathepsin B and C. We have further identified and phylogenetically analysed three distinct transcripts encoding vitellogenins that facilitate the reproductive capacity of the mites. We also fully mapped transcripts for haem biosynthesis and the ferritin-based system of iron storage and inter-tissue trafficking. Additionally, we identified transcripts encoding proteins implicated in immune signalling (Toll and IMD pathways) and activity (defensins and thioester-containing proteins), RNAi, and ion channelling (with targets for commercial acaricides such as Fluralaner, Fipronil, and Ivermectin). Viral sequences were filtered from the Illumina reads and we described, in part, the RNA-virome of D. gallinae with identification of a novel virus, Red mite quaranjavirus 1.
In a poultry house housing 60,000 egg layers, extremely numerous Dermanyssus gallinae populations developed in June 1998. Significant decrease in egg production was recorded (95 % - 70 %), and the amount of dead chickens increased from 5 to 52. Macrocytic and hypochrom anaemia was diagnosed clinically. The cause of this red poultry mite invasion was the persistence of 20° -30°C temperature inhouse for three weeks, which allowed rapid evolution of generations and offsprings survival near to biological potential of Dermanyssus gallinae species.
The poultry red mite, D. gallinae has been involved in the transmission of many pathogenic agents, responsible for serious diseases both in animals and humans. Nowadays, few effective methods are available to control the ectoparasite in poultry farms. Consequently, this is an emerging problem which must be taken into account to maintain good health in commercial egg production. This paper addresses the vector capacity of the ectoparasite with special emphasis on salmonellae, pathogenic agents responsible for many of the most important outbreaks of food-borne diseases worlwide. It has been experimentally shown that D. gallinae could act as a biological vector of S. enteritidis and natural carriage of these bacteria by the mite on poultry premises has also been reported. It was also found that D. gallinae carried other pathogens such as E. coli, Shigella sp., and Staphylococcus, thus increasing the list of pathogenic agents potentially transmitted by the mite. © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009. All rights reserved.
Ordinary human scabies is caused by an arthropod (insect) of the order Acarina, a member of the family Sarcoptidae known as Sarcoptes (or Acarus) scabiei de Geer (var. hominis). As is well known, this burrowing mite is an obligatory human parasite which is specifically adapted to one host—man. In human beings the mite burrows into and within the horny layer, reaches the less cornified epidermal cells, and there derives the nutrient substances which enable it to live and to propagate. The mating and the entire life cycle of the insect take place on the human host. The result of this parasitism is the disease called scabies.
The severity both of the objective manifestations and of the itching varies greatly from person to person. This variation must be due in a great measure to the fact that the degree of reaction is dependent to some extent on variations in the host's
Studies of rodent parasites are very important in relation to human and veterinary medicine and biology. Previous studies have demonstrated that the rate of infestation with ectoparasites and infection with nematodes, cestodes, and trematodes differs among locations. We surveyed the ectoparasites and endoparasites of 77 Mus musculus (house mice) collected from 41 poultry houses between April and December 2010 in northwest Iran. The rates of infection with ectoparasites and gastrointestinal helminths were 23.4 and 55.8%, respectively. We collected the ectoparasites Dermanyssus gallinae (prevalence 78%), Ornithonyssus bacoti (prevalence 11%), Polyplax serrate (prevalence 6%), and Myocoptes musculinus (prevalence 5%). We collected the gastrointestinal helminths Syphacia obvelata (prevalence 42%), Aspiculuris tetraptera (prevalence 19%), Syphacia muris (prevalence 18%), Cysticercus fasciolaris (prevalence 15%), and Hymenolepis diminuta (prevalence 5%). The chicken mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, and the tropical rat mite, Ornithonyssus bacoti are potential vectors of zoonotic pathogens. Hymenolepis diminuta can infect humans, and highlights the importance of house mice in certain zoonoses and suggests a more robust need for mouse control in the poultry houses.