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The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Self-Compassion
Abstract
This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one's experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as isolating; and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale is presented in a series of studies. Results indicate that self-compassion is significantly correlated with positive mental health outcomes such as less depression and anxiety and greater life satisfaction. Evidence is also provided for the discriminant validity of the scale, including with regard to self-esteem measures.
... Individuals who believe that stress can enhance stress-related outcomes cope better with stress (Crum et al., 2013;Kilby and Sherman, 2016). Self-compassion is a psychological construct that involves treating oneself with kindness, care, and understanding in the face of personal difficulties, mistakes, and failures (Neff, 2003). People who practice self-compassion are kind to themselves and avoid being overly self-critical, even when facing negative experiences (Neff, 2003). ...
... Self-compassion is a psychological construct that involves treating oneself with kindness, care, and understanding in the face of personal difficulties, mistakes, and failures (Neff, 2003). People who practice self-compassion are kind to themselves and avoid being overly self-critical, even when facing negative experiences (Neff, 2003). Sense of coherence is based on the belief that life events are predictable and manageable, and that one's life has meaning and purpose (Antonovsky, 1987). ...
... The SCS-SF consists of 12 questions across six domains: selfkindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification (Neff, 2003). All questions were rated on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). ...
Background
Music is well-known for its stress-reducing effects. Little is known about the potential effect of music interventions in fostering internal coping resources for stress management among undergraduate students in Hong Kong.
Objectives
This pilot study aimed to examine the efficacy of the Group-based Focus Music Imagery Program (GFMI) in promoting a stress-is-enhancing mindset, sense of coherence, and self-compassion among undergraduate students.
Methods
We used a two-arm parallel randomized controlled trial (RCT). The experimental arm received 6 weeks of GFMI with measures taken at two time points after completing baseline assessments (Weeks 6, 10). The control arm received 6 weeks of an active control program and completed the outcome measures at time points similar to the GFMI group. Data were collected using the Chinese versions of the Sense of Coherence Scale (C-SOC-13), the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (C-SCS-SF), the Stress Mindset Measure (C-SMM), the Perceived Stress Scale (C-PSS-10), and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (C-GAD-7).
Results
Sixty-four participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group ( n = 32) or the control group ( n = 32) between July 2021 and September 2022. The experimental group exhibited a retention rate of 71.9% at T1 (23 out of 32 participants), which slightly decreased to 65.6% (21 out of 32) at T2. The control group displayed a retention rate of 75% (24 out of 32) at T1, which dropped to 43.8% (14 out of 32) at T2. The GEE analyses showed insignificant differences between groups at any time point in C-SOC-13, C-SCS-SF, and C-SMM. Instead, the control group had a higher reduction in stress scores (C-PSS-10) at T1, and anxiety (C-GAD-7) at T2 than the experimental group.
Conclusion
The pilot trial provided valuable information in examining the feasibility of the trial design and intervention. Future studies with larger samples are needed to validate if GFMI can reliably promote coping resources to manage stress and anxiety in undergraduate students.
Trial registration number
https://www.researchregistry.com/ , researchregistry8209.
... It entails mindfully addressing the adverse emotions arising from challenging circumstances while recognizing that one's suffering is not an isolated experience. 1 There is a mounting body of evidence suggesting a positive correlation between the practice of SC in response to one's shortcomings and failures, and a variety of advantageous health-related consequences. SC is positively correlated with a reduction in physical symptoms, 2,3 a decrease in perceived stress, [4][5][6] and a moderating effect on physiologic responses to stress. ...
... The SCS has been observed to exhibit a favorable degree of validity concerning both convergence and discriminant aspects, with prior research revealing excellent test-retest reliability of 0.93 (Cronbach's alpha). 1,35 The Cronbach's alpha (0.91) value for SC showed greater reliability. ...
... Several scholars have argued that the measurement of SC through the SCS should consider the positive (SC) and negative (self-criticism) aspects as distinct and separate constructs, rather than treating them as a singular entity. 1,54,55 In a notable demonstration, an extensive meta-analysis incorporating eighteen distinct analyses revealed that the negatively rated items within the SCS exhibited a more robust association with psychopathology in comparison to the positive items. Consequently, this prompted the researchers to propose that the utilization of an overall scale score may exaggerate the connections between SC and negative affective disorders. ...
Purpose
The present research aims to investigate the potential correlations between self-compassion and bedtime procrastination, a significant behavior related to sleep. In this research, we put forward the hypothesis that a reduction in negative affect and the implementation of adaptative emotion regulation strategies can elucidate the established connections between self-compassion and a decreased tendency for bedtime procrastination.
Methods
Two cross-sectional online surveys (Survey I: n=241 and Survey II: n=546) were carried out via a convenient sampling method. Prior to their inclusion, all participants underwent a thorough assessment to confirm no evidence of clinical insomnia. The study participants in both survey investigations were asked to complete various psychometric assessments, including self-compassion, positive and negative affect, and bedtime procrastination; however, the study participants in Survey II additionally underwent the administration of a cognitive reappraisal assessment.
Results
In Survey I, a multiple mediation analysis was conducted to examine the mediating effects of self-compassion on reducing bedtime procrastination through a reduction in negative affect. The results supported the hypothesized relationships, indicating that self-compassion had the expected mediated effects by mitigating negative affective states. However, contrary to expectations, higher positive affect did not mediate the relationship between self-compassion and reduced bedtime procrastination. The findings of Survey II were confirmed through the utilization of path analysis. Moreover, this analysis provided additional evidence to suggest that the mechanism of cognitive reappraisal could account for the observed decrease in negative affect associated with self-compassion. The present study found a notable and sustained impact of self-compassion on reducing instances of delaying bedtime activities.
Conclusion
The present research contributes novel empirical evidence suggesting a negative association between self-compassion and the propensity to engage in bedtime procrastination. This relationship can be attributed partly to the implementation of an adaptative emotion regulation mechanism that effectively alleviates negative affect.
... Thanks to Kristin Neff (2003a), this concept became a permanent fixture in psychology and psychiatry. Self-compassion can be defined as understanding or kindness towards oneself, connected with the ability to understand one's own suffering, one's limitations, failures, and negative emotions (Neff, 2003a(Neff, , 2003b. Self-compassion is also described as being open to and sensitive toward one's own suffering, accompanied by a feeling of caring and kindness towards oneself by adopting understanding and a non-judgmental attitude about one's own imperfections (Neff, 2003a). ...
... Self-compassion can be defined as understanding or kindness towards oneself, connected with the ability to understand one's own suffering, one's limitations, failures, and negative emotions (Neff, 2003a(Neff, , 2003b. Self-compassion is also described as being open to and sensitive toward one's own suffering, accompanied by a feeling of caring and kindness towards oneself by adopting understanding and a non-judgmental attitude about one's own imperfections (Neff, 2003a). A fundamental aspect of self-compassion is awareness of the fact that all people are imperfect and make mistakes, all people sometimes fail and experience life problems. ...
... The third element is mindfulness, whose negative counterpart is over-identification. The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003a), developed to measure six dimensions of self-compassion, is one of the most frequently used measures in the field (Muris & Otgaar, 2022). ...
Objectives
The goal of the present study was to investigate the hypothesized complex interactions between dimensions of self-compassion and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCD) in a non-clinical sample.
Method
Four hundred and twenty-four individuals (273 women) ranging in age from 18 to 83 years ( M = 41.00; SD = 14.50) participated in the cross-sectional survey. The participants completed the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) and the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory—Revised (OCI-R).
Results
Certain dimensions of self-compassion were found to be associated with specific OCD symptoms, with positive dimensions (except Common humanity) correlating with reduced Obsessing, Hoarding, and Ordering, and negative dimensions correlating with all OCD symptoms. Canonical correlation analysis indicated three significant linkages: (1) between Isolation, Over-identification, and Obsessing, (2) between Self-judgment, Over-identification, Ordering, and Checking, and (3) between Self-judgment and Neutralizing. Exploratory graph analysis challenged the structure of the SCS and the OCI-R, suggesting two dimensions of self-compassion, compassionate self-reference and uncompassionate self-reference; and two dimensions of OCD, obsessing and other OCD symptoms. The Obsessing subscale appeared as a bridge between uncompassionate self-reference and OCD symptoms. Compassionate self-reference was negatively correlated with uncompassionate self-reference and obsessing, whereas uncompassionate self-reference was positively correlated with obsessing and OCD symptoms.
Conclusions
Investigation of the associations between self-compassion and psychopathology should avoid aggregating the uncompassionate and compassionate dimensions of self-compassion. The significant associations in the network of self-compassion and OCD symptoms were between uncompassionate self-reference, obsessing, and OCD symptoms.
Preregistration
This study is not pre-registered.
... While compassion has had a long history of development, there is no theoretical consensus on the development of compassion scales. Kristin D. Neff [25] developed the concept of self-compassion from the Buddhist philosophy, and created the self-compassion scale, which is thought as the first popular measurement tool related to compassion. Due to differences in population and context, many measurements based on the self-compassion scale were developed. ...
... After searching ten Chinese and English databases for a total of 15,965 articles and identifying three papers through references, 36 scales were eventually included in this study after literature extraction. The first scale was published by Kristin D. Neff [25], although only three scales were established prior to 2013, the majority of scales were developed in the previous ten years. More than half (19) of the scales came from the United States, 6 from the United Kingdom, and the rest came from Canada, South Korea, Spain, New Zealand, China, and other countries. ...
... The scale was initially designed and validated among college students in order to test one's compassion level. It was then primarily used to examine self-compassion among teenagers [25]. Several research shown that self-compassion may be acquired from childhood; thus, a number of measures were established for the young population [40,62]. ...
Background
Compassion is closely linked to psychological well-being, and several assessment tools have been developed and studied to assess the level of compassion in different populations and for more precise measurement. There is currently a scarcity of comprehensive knowledge about compassion-related assessment tools, and our research provides an overview of these tools.
Aims
To identify scales used to measure compassion from different flows, and to assess their measurement properties and quality.
Methods
Focusing on compassion assessment tools, the authors conducted a thorough search of 10 Chinese and English databases from their establishment until August 14, 2022. Data extracted included the author, year, country, objectives, target population, as well as the primary evaluation content. Using the COSMIN checklist, the methodological quality and measurement properties of the included studies were appraised. This scoping review was registered with the Open Science Framework and followed the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews) checklist.
Results
There were 15,965 papers searched, and 36 compassion-related measurement tools were identified in this study. None of the 36 studies provided possessed all nine psychometric properties, as outlined by the COSMIN criteria. On the basis of a systematic evaluation of quality, measurement qualities were ranked. The results for internal consistency and content validity were relatively favorable, whereas the results for structural validity were variable and the results for the remaining attributes were either uncertain or negative. A Venn diagram was used to illustrate the overlapping groups of compassion measurement tools based on the three-way flow of compassion. An overview of the reference instrument and theoretical basis for the included studies was provided, and half of them did not contain any theoretical or scale-based evidence.
Conclusion
In this study, 36 compassion-related measuring instruments were identified, and the methodological quality and measurement properties of the included studies were acceptable. The included measurements were consistent with flows of compassion. A further focus of further research should be on developing theories in the compassion domain and developing instruments for measuring compassion that are multidimensional, multi-populations, and culturally relevant.
... Finally, it is found that emerging adults who are categorized as adaptive perfectionists have better indices of mental health and mention lower levels of alcohol use [25]. Neff [26] defines self-compassion as the balance between enhanced positive and reduced negative self-responding during times of personal suffering, whether the reason of suffering is failure, inadequacy feelings, or general life challenges. Self-compassion consists of three basic components: kindness, a sense of common humanity, and mindfulness. ...
... The sense of common humanity refers to recognizing that all humans are characterized by imperfections and failures in their everyday life. Finally, being mindful involves facing unpleasant thoughts and feelings and accepting them as they are, without repressing or avoiding them [26,27]. Thus, self-compassion enables people to accept themselves as they are, including their limits and flaws that make them humans. ...
... Participants' levels of self-compassion were evaluated using the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) [26], a comprehensive 26-item instrument designed to measure various facets of global self-compassion. This scale encompasses six distinct subscales, each reflecting a different dimension of self-compassion: self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. ...
Perfectionism constitutes a multidimensional personality trait. According to the diathesis–stress model, perfectionism may predispose individuals to experience increased psychological distress during stressful periods. Since self-compassion is considered as a protective factor within the context of mental health difficulties, the primary objective of this study was to explore the mediating function of self-compassion in the relationship between positive (i.e., high standards and order) and negative (i.e., discrepancy) aspects of perfectionism and psychological distress among Greek emerging adults. The sample consisted of 410 university students (47.6% males and 52.4% females), with a mean age of 20.61 ± 1.88 years. The Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R), the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), and the General Health Questionnaire-28 (GHQ-28) were used to assess perfectionism, self-compassion, and psychological distress, respectively. The results indicated that self-compassion mediated the association between positive and negative aspects of perfectionism and different dimensions of psychological distress (i.e., somatic symptoms, anxiety/insomnia, social dysfunction, and severe depression). Specifically, discrepancy and increased levels of high standards were related to lower levels of self-compassion, thus leading to greater endorsement of psychological distress. In contrast, order was associated with higher levels of self-compassion, thus leading to lower levels of psychological distress. The findings of the present study highlight that self-compassion is an overall important area to examine in nonclinical populations. These findings have implications for the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in enhancing individuals’ self-acceptance and awareness of their perfectionistic tendencies, as well as compassion-focused therapy (CFT) in elevating self-compassion, mindfulness, and overall psychological well-being while reducing psychological distress.
... Self-compassion, an important component of certain cognitive therapeutic modalities, such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (Segal et al., 2002) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), describes the willingness to accept personal suffering with a kind and non-judgmental attitude, as well as a desire to alleviate this anguish (Neff, 2003a(Neff, , 2003b(Neff, , 2016. Expectedly, self-compassion has been positively associated with psychological well-being (Zessin et al., 2015) and inversely correlated with psychopathology in various populations (Kara & Ceyhan, 2017;Mac-Beth & Gumley, 2012). ...
... The SCS was developed to measure how people connect with themselves in the face of personal feelings of pain and/or inadequacy (Neff, 2003a). The SCS was originally thought to be measuring self-compassion through its 26 items and six sub-components (Neff, 2003a(Neff, , 2003b, but recent studies indicate that it comprises two 13-item subscales: selfcompassion and self-coldness (Brenner et al., 2018;Costa et al., 2016;López et al., 2015). The self-compassion subscale assesses the degree of relating to one's own self with empathy, compassion, and understanding in times of emotional pain and feelings of inferiority and is comprised of self-kindness (5 items), common humanity (4 items), and mindfulness (4 items) subscales. ...
Objectives
The literature indicates a need to better understand the psychological mechanisms underlying gifted adolescents’ stress and anxiety. This study aimed to reveal if the two distinct dimensions of the self-compassion construct, self-coldness, and self-compassion had mediating roles in the potential relationship between inferiority feelings and anxiety and stress experiences of gifted adolescents.
Methods
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted using the cross-sectional data including a Turkish sample of 644 gifted adolescents (334 females and 310 males) aged between 14 and 18 (M = 15.89, SD = 1.00).
Results
The results support that inferiority feelings are linked to greater anxiety through lower self-compassion and higher self-coldness. However, the indirect effect is much stronger through self-coldness than through self-compassion. Moreover, inferiority feelings are linked to higher stress levels only through higher self-coldness.
Conclusions
The findings not only emphasize that feeling inferior is associated with poorer mental health in gifted adolescents, but they also show that how gifted adolescents react to their feelings of inferiority, whether with self-compassion or self-coldness, plays an important role in the relationship between inferiority and mental health. By distinguishing between self-coldness and self-compassion, the results of this study can assist parents, researchers, and practitioners in improving their approach to addressing mental health issues among gifted adolescents.
Preregistration
This study is not preregistered.
... The exploration of human needs was initiated by Islamic Guidance and Counseling Journal Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 1-12, 2023 (Neff, 2003). Several studies have confirmed positive results, with Shepherd & Cardon (2009) finding that self-compassion serves as a shield against reacting negatively to unfulfilled psychological needs, allowing individuals to learnt from their disappointments and remain positive and motivated to keep trying (Ghorbani et al., 2012). ...
... Self-compassion Scale (SCS): The SCS developed by Neff (2003), consists of 26 items distributed across six dimensions: self-kindness (5 items, α = .88), self-judgment (5 items, α = .88), ...
Background of the study: Basic psychological needs and self-compassion have gained significant attention in the field. Numerous studies have explored these concepts and their correlation with various personal variables due to their importance and their impact on positive personality aspects and mental health outcomes. Aims and scope of paper: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between basic psychological needs and self-compassion, as well as to examine potential differences in the level of basic psychological needs and self-compassion based on gender and college affliction. Methods: The study included a sample of 528 undergraduate students from Hashemite University. Data were collected using the Basic Psychological Needs Scale and Self-Compassion Scale. Result: The results indicated no gender-based differences in the level of basic psychological needs and two dimensions (competence and autonomy) due to gender, while males had higher level of relatedness compared females. Additionally, there were no significant differences in the level of basic psychological needs and two dimensions (competence and relatedness), between students' form scientific and humanities colleges. However, students from scientific colleges exhibited higher level of autonomy. The study also found that females had higher levels of self-compassion compared to males, with no differences based on college affiliation. Furthermore, positive correlations were observed between basic psychological needs and self-compassion, as well as and between psychological needs and self-compassion subscales (self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness). Conversely, a negative correlation was identified between basic psychological needs and self-compassion subscales (self-judgment, isolation, and over-identified). Conclusion: The basic psychological needs are of paramount importance in human development, and they serve as fundamental requirements throughout an individual's growth. The study revealed a positive correlation between basic psychological needs and self-compassion. These findings have valuable implications for the development of training and guidance programs aimed at enhancing basic psychological needs and self-compassion, which can ultimately contribute positively to the learning process.
... However, a component of the chemsex questionnaire incorporated self-care and compassion, where levels had increased throughout the delivery of MBCI. Since participants have voiced self-compassion, using a standardised mindful compassion assessment tool (e.g., Neff, 2003) might better capture the self-compassion participants experienced. Whilst speculative, increased self-compassion suggested by participants in this study, in turn, might have regulated participants' emotions, such as shame, which supported the reduction in chemsex. ...
Objectives
Chemsex is a term used to describe sex acts using psychoactive substances to enhance the sexual experience/arousal and predominates among men who have sex with men (MSM). Chemsex drugs predominantly include γ‐hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and analogues, methamphetamine, mephedrone and erectile dysfunction agents (e.g., Sildenafil). Mindfulness ‐based cognitive therapy (MBCT) combines cognitive therapy and mindfulness and has been shown to help support both sexual functioning and methamphetamine use. However, limited clinical trials have evaluated the use of cognitive mindfulness for chemsex in MSM. The present study assessed the effectiveness of an online mindfulness‐based cognitive intervention (MBCI) among 29 MSM aged 18–30 years engaged in chemsex.
Design and Setting
A mixed methods approach consisted of a randomised waitlist‐controlled trial and a content analysis reviewing participants' feedback on MBCI. The design of the intervention was based on a behavioural taxonomy mapped to selected behaviour change techniques (BCTs) to support the reliability of MBCI in its delivery.
Main Outcome Measures
Participants completed assessments measuring levels of chemsex, mindfulness, sexual self‐efficacy and well‐being, taken at Weeks 0, 8 and 12 (follow‐up).
Results
Participants reported lower levels of chemsex and higher levels of cognitive mindfulness, sexual self‐efficacy and well‐being postintervention and at the 12‐week follow‐up. The content analysis feedback responses yielded favourable outcomes, suggesting that participants developed a sense of self‐compassion, confidence and positive identity.
Conclusions
The MBCI effectively reduced chemsex; however, this study warrants replication with a larger, more diverse group of participants.
... The Self-Compassion Scale was used to measure the extent to which the participants understand and accept themselves in a holistic way (Neff, 2003). A Chinese version of the scale was used in the current study (Gong et al., 2014). ...
... The Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003) includes 26 items answered on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = almost never to 5 = almost always). Six compassions dimensions are assessed: self-kindness, self-judgement, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. ...
The cross sectional study investigates differences in perceived digital skills and positive orientation towards the use of learning technologies in two generations (Millennials and Centennials), explores generational differences in terms of cognitive component of hedonic well-being, career adaptability, self-compassion, perceived social support, and sensory processing sensitivity.
This study improves our understanding of the relative effectiveness of different factors in predicting intentions to use technology enhanced tools and approaches in learning, and consolidates evidence on the characteristics, preferences and needs of Gen Y and Gen Z learners and how these needs can be supported, thereby dispelling myths about digital natives. It explores for the first time the correlation of digital security and digital empathy with the sensitivity of sensory processing and its dimensions and the results have important implications for the study of the temperamental trait and individual differences.
Key words: microlearning; generation z; digital empathy; digital safety; digital skills; sensoring processing sensitivity
... All initial CFAs for all factor structures showed poor fits to the data, with the bifactor model showing the best fit based on AIC values. In accordance with Neff (2003), the analysis of MIs suggested the correlation of negative error measurements of the PYD subscales. The respecified bifactor model showed a better fit to the data: CFI = .904; ...
While validation of positive youth development (PYD) measures has increased considerably of late, validation of the Five C’s of PYD among emerging adults in non-WEIRD countries remains limited. The main objective of this study was to examine the factor structure, measurement invariance, and criterion-related validity of the Five C’s model of PYD through the use of the Positive Youth Development Inventory (PYDI). Data were collected from 436 university students in Malaysia, with a mean age of 21.19 (SD = 1.19). The findings supported a modified bifactor model of the PYDI, which demonstrated strong measurement invariance across gender and race, but not across age categories. Connection showed the strongest latent factor correlations with the other four C’s. Criterion-related validity was supported through its association with psychological hardiness. The findings demonstrate adequate psychometric properties and cultural applicability of a modified bifactor model of the Five C’s model of PYD among emerging adults in Malaysia.
... Participants' self-compassion was monitored using their responses on the 26-item SCS (Neff, 2003). While different subscales and factorial solutions have been proposed (Muris & Otgaar, 2020), only the total score was used in the current study as its focus was on overall change over time. ...
The persistence of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) can be debilitating. However, many people experiencing such symptoms may not qualify for or may not seek treatment. Potentially contributing to ongoing residual symptoms of PTSS is emotion dysregulation. Meanwhile, the research area of mindfulness and compassion has grown to imply emotion regulation as one of its underlying mechanisms; yet, its influence on emotion regulation in PTSS cohort is unknown. Here, we explored the potential effectiveness of an 8‐week Compassion‐oriented and Mindfulness‐based Exposure Therapy (CoMET) for individuals with PTSS using a waitlist control design. A total of 28 individuals (27 females, age range = 18–39 years) participated in the study (17 CoMET; 11 waitlist control). Following CoMET, participants reported significant decreases in PTSS severity (from clinical to non‐clinical levels), emotion dysregulation and experiential avoidance, as well as significant increases in mindfulness, self‐compassion and quality of life. Electroencephalogram‐based brain network connectivity analysis revealed an increase in alpha‐band connectivity following CoMET in a network that includes the amygdala, suggesting that CoMET successfully induced changes in functional connectivity between brain regions that play a crucial role in emotion regulation. In sum, the current study demonstrated promising intervention outcomes of CoMET in effectively alleviating the symptoms of PTSS via enhanced emotion regulation.
... Regarding the self-compassionate attitudes, the Compassion-Focused Therapy (Gilbert, 2010(Gilbert, , 2015Gilbert and Choden, 2014), suggests that patients with high self-compassion tend to present better mental health (Neff, 2003b;Neff et al., 2005Neff et al., , 2007Lantyer et al., 2016;Nonnenmacher and Pureza, 2019;Van Niekerk et al., 2022), less pain catastrophizing (Pulvers and Hood, 2013;Hanssen et al., 2014), and suffering compared to patients with less self-compassion (Lantyer et al., 2016;Nonnenmacher and Pureza, 2019;Van Niekerk et al., 2022). In addition, self-compassion is associated with mechanisms that regulate pain, such as heart rate variability, the oxytocin and endorphin regulation systems (Lanzaro et al., 2021). ...
Introduction
Low back pain is one of the most prevalent public health problems in the world, generating psychosocial impacts on quality of life and a high demand for medical care. Self-compassion may be beneficial for low back pain control, however, studies in the area are scarce. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to investigate the benefits of self-compassion-related interventions on low back pain and mental health in adults.
Methods
The review protocol was registered in PROSPERO and the method was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. Searches were conducted using the keywords “self-compassion” and “low back pain” in Portuguese, English, and Spanish in the following databases: PubMed, LILACS, SciELO, PePSIC, PsycInfo, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane. Additional searches were also conducted through the references of the included studies.
Results
Thirty-three articles were identified and analyzed by two independent reviewers using Rayyan. Four of these studies were included. RoB 2 was used to assess the risk of bias of each study. The main findings suggest that self-compassion-related interventions demonstrate benefits in the treatment of low back pain, as well as reduction in pain intensity, psychological stress, and improvement of pain acceptance.
Discussion
However, these positive data must be analyzed carefully, as only two studies presented a low risk of bias. Despite growing interest in this field, more research self-compassion-related interventions for low back pain are suggested, since biopsychosocial aspects associated with low back pain can impact the outcome of treatment.
Systematic review registration
https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/ , identifier (CRD42022376341).
... The Self-Compassion Scale -Short Form (SCS-SF) is a 12-item, self-report measure of an individual's level of self-compassionate behaviour (Raes et al., 2011). The SCS-SF conceptualises self-compassion as both the presence of positive self-responding and the absence of negative self-responding, with 6 items addressing each (Neff, 2003b). Participants report how often they commonly practise each self-response on a scale from 1 ('almost never') to 5 ('almost always'). ...
Objective
The aim of this study was to determine the unique and shared contributions of various positive psychology constructs (gratitude, optimism, hope, self-compassion, self-efficacy, and emotion regulation) to wellbeing and distress outcomes in young people living with a diverse range of chronic health conditions.
Methods and Measures
169 Australians (84.0% female, mean age = 21.2) who reported living with a chronic physical condition completed a cross-sectional survey assessing wellbeing, distress, and each positive psychology variable. Two multiple regressions were used to determine the unique and shared contributions of the positive psychology variables to wellbeing and distress outcomes.
Results
When considered alongside symptom severity, the variables explained 53.4% and 38.1% of variance in distress and wellbeing, respectively. Only optimism and self-efficacy accounted for unique and significant variance in the model predicting wellbeing, accounting for 6.1% and 4.6% of unique variance, respectively. For the distress model, optimism, self-compassion, and emotion regulation each accounted for significant variance. When considered alongside other variables, hope and gratitude did not contribute to either model.
Conclusion
Findings suggest that individual positive psychology variables differentially contribute to wellbeing and distress outcomes in young people with chronic conditions. Optimism appears to account for unique variance in both outcomes, suggesting it may be a parsimonious target to promote complete mental health in this population.
... For example, two recent studies (Oral and Arslan, 2017;Walker, 2017) used the Self subscale of the HFS as the measure of dispositional self-forgiveness and assessed personality factors. In addition to the Big Five factors, Walker (2017) included a measure of grit (Duckworth et al., 2007), whereas Oral and Arslan (2017) included measures of self-compassion (Neff, 2003) and ruminative tendencies for interpersonal offenses (Wade et al., 2008). Regression results indicated that the Self subscale of the HFS was uniquely predicted by only grit and neuroticism in the Walker (2017) study and by only selfcompassion and extraversion in the Oral and Arslan (2017) study. ...
Although the personality correlates of dispositional interpersonal forgiveness (forgiveness of others) have been well characterized, those of dispositional self-forgiveness are less well understood. Moreover, when the personality correlates are examined for both types of forgiveness, the comparison has been based on participants’ self-report ratings on questionnaires. The current study sought to address these gaps in the literature by adopting a scenario-based approach, which has been used less frequently, especially in self-forgiveness research. A total of 160 participants read six fictional scenarios, each describing a severe transgression, from the perspective of the transgressor (self-forgiveness, n = 78) or the victim (interpersonal forgiveness, n = 82) of the transgression, and then responded to several items assessing different facets of forgiveness (avoidance, revenge, and benevolence). Participants’ personality (Big Five) and explanatory style were also assessed. Consistent with prior literature, agreeableness and neuroticism generally predicted different facets of interpersonal forgiveness. These two personality traits also predicted facets of self-forgiveness, but, additionally, conscientiousness and one’s tendency to internalize failure (the personal component of explanatory style) uniquely predicted self-forgiveness, especially avoidance motivations. These results point to both similarities and differences in the personality correlates of interpersonal and self-forgiveness. As a secondary, more exploratory aim, the current study compared the results from our scenario-based assessment of forgiveness to those based on a commonly used questionnaire, the Other and Self subscales of the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). As expected, the Other subscale of the HFS were associated with levels of interpersonal forgiveness assessed with our transgression scenarios, but, surprisingly, the HFS Self subscale was more strongly related to interpersonal than self-forgivess assessed with scenarios. Moreover, the Self subscale was not associated with levels of self-forgiveness assessed with transgression scenarios, except for avoidance motivations. These results suggest that scenario-based and questionnaire-based methods may capture different facts of forgiveness and cannot be used interchangeably, especially for the assessment of self-forgiveness. More generally, the current study illustrates the importance of conducting direct within-study comparisons of interpersonal and self-forgiveness as well as of different assessment methods to better understand the similarities and differences between the two types of forgiveness.
Prior research suggests mindfulness-based interventions effectively reduce stress in trainee psychologists, enhance wellbeing and cultivate clinical skills and competencies. This study explored how trainee school psychologists perceived the effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on their development as psychologists. Forty trainee school psychologists participated in a 6-week online mindfulness-based intervention. They completed weekly written reflective journals throughout the programme which were later analysed using thematic analysis. Four core themes were identified: (1) changes in awareness and attention; (2) enhanced wellbeing; (3) commitment to ongoing personal practice and (4) cultivation and enhancement of professional development. Participants ( n = 24) who completed the mindfulness workshop during the COVID-19 pandemic indicated that mindfulness practice was particularly useful for managing uncertainty and other related stressors. It was concluded that practicing mindfulness supported trainee school psychologists’ personal and professional development, particularly related to compassion, resilience and therapeutic presence.
Purpose
The current study aims to examine the relationship between self-compassion and life satisfaction in Vietnamese adolescents and investigate the possibility that emotional and behavioural problems mediate this relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
Quantitative means of data collection and analysis were used to investigate the relationship between self-compassion and life satisfaction and the underlying mechanism of this relationship. A set of questionnaires was presented to a sample of 828 adolescents (M age = 14.61; SD = 1.08) aged 14–17 years from two secondary schools and two high schools in Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam. This helped to determine their self-compassion (self-compassion scale), emotional and behavioural problems (strengths and difficulties questionnaire) and life satisfaction (life satisfaction scale). Instruments reflected satisfactory reliability and validity.
Findings
The results show that self-warmth was positively associated with life satisfaction and that self-coldness was positively associated with emotional and behavioural problems and negatively associated with life satisfaction in Vietnamese adolescents. Emotional and behavioural problems fully mediated the negative relationship between self-coldness and life satisfaction.
Practical implications
It is implied that intervention programmes should be tailored to both promote self-compassionate behaviours and reduce self-coldness, to increase life satisfaction in adolescents.
Originality/value
The research available on the relationship between self-compassion and life satisfaction in adolescents, especially adolescents from Southeast Asia, is very sparse. More significantly, the underlying mechanisms behind this relationship are not yet fully understood.
Mitigating the effects of COVID-19 on child development involves understanding the impact of the pandemic on caregiver well-being and factors that protect against stress associated with the virus and measures used to reduce disease transmission. Mindfulness has become popularized in the West, with promising evidence that it may reduce caregiver stress. There is limited research examining the specific elements of mindfulness as it relates to caregiving instead of studying mindfulness as a singular construct. We examined whether the number of COVID-related stressors was related to caregivers’ stress, and whether this stress was reduced by their reported level of mindfulness. We examined whether four mindfulness processes: self-compassion, nonreactivity, nonjudging, and acting with awareness – buffered the impact of stressors on caregivers’ stress one month later in a sample of caregivers in the United States (N = 330). When accounting for other mindfulness processes, acting with awareness was the only significant moderator of COVID-related stressors and caregivers’ stress one month later. We discuss implications for recommendations to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 on caregivers’ stress through reducing stress and thus promoting well-being in caregivers.
Literature suggests that perfectionism is associated to self-compassion. However, the multiple relationships between the types of perfectionism (adaptive, maladaptive and non-perfectionists) and the multidimensional construct of self-compassion have not been thoroughly examined. To this end, the present study aimed (a) to examine the relationships between the types of perfectionism and the self-compassion components in an adult sample and (b) to check the effect of age on the relationship between the perfectionistic types and the self-compassion components. Participants were 509 adults aged 18 to 65 years. Self-report questionnaires were used to collect the data. Results indicated that High Standards positively predicted all self-compassion components while Discrepancy positively predicted Self-judgment and Isolation and overidentification and negatively predicted Self-Kindness and mindfulness and Common humanity. In addition, it was found that adaptive perfectionists and non-perfectionists reported higher levels on the positive components of self-compassion and lower levels on its negative components, compared to maladaptive perfectionists. With respect to age, participants in established (30-45 years) and middle (46-65 years) adulthood reported higher levels on the positive self-compassion components and lower levels on its negative components compared to young adults (18-29 years), while participants in emerging adulthood scored higher on both the dimensions of perfectionism (adaptive and maladaptive) compared to participants in established and middle adulthood. Finally, age moderated only the relationship between adaptive perfectionism and Isolation and overidentification. Future directions and implications are being discussed.
Evidence suggests that individuals with infertility are confronted with psychosocial challenges. This has led to a significant number of studies highlighting the subsequent negative effects on mental health. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) has already been established as having a beneficial effect on psychological issues related to other health conditions. Since infertility is a relevant stressor, ACT was also expected to have a protective effect on the mental health of individuals with this disease. A systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify studies assessing Infertility and ACT. Empirical and quantitative studies were considered when they assessed mental health variables and ACT hexagon model components in patients with infertility. Out of the 137 studies initially identified, six met the eligibility criteria and were included in the review. The samples were composed of women (three) and couples (three). Since ACT variables appear to be associated with better mental health outcomes, couples with infertility were expected to benefit from intervention addressing ACT components. Implications for future research include the need for a distinction between ACT variables, the use of validated assessment methods and the empirical examination of predictors of changes in ACT variables.
The purpose was to assess the impact of a mobile mental health literacy training on foster parents’ perceived stress, resilience, and self-compassion. Participants (n = 142) completed a baseline and post-intervention survey including a demographic questionnaire, brief resilience scale, self-compassion scale-short, and the perceived stress scale. Participants completed the 5-hour Sharpen® Mental Health Literacy training. There was a statistically significant correlation between self-compassion and resilience (r = 0.75), as well as a significant negative relationship between perceived stress and resilience (r = -0.40) and self-compassion (r = -0.36). There was not a statistically significant difference in outcome variables pre- to post-test. Although not statistically significant, there were decreases in stress and increases in self-compassion and resilience from pre- to post-test. Key themes from open-ended responses throughout the training included goals for participating in the training, impact of stigma, stress management practices, and key training take-aways.
Amaç: Bu çalışmada amaç, Watson İyileştirici Öz-Değerlendirme Ölçeği’nin (WİÖÖ) Türkçe geçerlik, güvenirlik ve psikometrik özelliklerini belirlemektir. Yöntem: Bu metodolojik araştırma, 2021-2022 eğitim öğretim yılında İstanbul’da bir devlet üniversitesinin hemşirelik öğrencileri ile yürütüldü (n=444). Türkçe’ ye uyarlama çalışması kapsamında ölçeğin dil uyarlaması çeviri-geri çeviri yöntemiyle yapıldı. Ölçeğin kapsam ve yapı geçerliği yapıldı. Güvenirlik çalışmasında Cronbach alfa katsayısı ve MacDonald’s Omega değerleri, test-tekrar test ve paralel form analizleri kullanıldı. Ekim-Kasım 2021 tarihinde 444 katılımcıdan toplanan veriler, test-tekrar test yöntemi için bu katılımcılar arasından seçilen 80 kişiden Ocak-Şubat 2022 tarihinde tekrar toplandı. Bulgular: Katılımcıların yaş ortalaması 20.29±2.32’tür. Ölçeğin kapsam geçerlik indeksi ortalama 3.65 ve % 91.36 olarak belirlendi. Doğrulayıcı faktör analizinde uyum indekslerinin yeterli uyum gösterdiği görüldü. Beş madde ve tek alt boyuttan oluşan yapı doğrulandı. Ölçeğin toplam Cronbach alfa değeri 0.84, MacDonald’s Omega Değeri 0.84 olarak bulundu. Paralel form güvenirliğinde, WİÖÖ puanları ile Öz Anlayış Ölçeği (ÖAÖ), Kısa Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği (KPSÖ) ve Sağlığı Geliştirici ve Koruyucu Davranışlar Ölçeği (SGKDÖ) puanları arasında orta düzeyde pozitif yönde ilişki saptandı. Ölçeğin test-tekrar test analizinde kullanılan Sınıf İçi Korelasyon Katsayısı (ICC) 0.75 olarak belirlendi (p
Some adolescents who live in orphanages may feel a lack of affection from their parents during their development; So, some orphanage adolescents experience a lack of guidance in dealing with problems in life, including mental health problems. To prevent this, it is necessary to have an attitude of self-compassion and self-disclosure of adolescents to their foster parents. In addition, it is necessary to strengthen the spirituality of orphanage adolescents to prevent adolescents from mental health disorders. This study aims to find a match and habit of the model of the influence of self-compassion and self-disclosure through spirituality on the mental health of orphanage adolescents. This research uses a survey method with a quantitative descriptive approach to correlational models. The study subjects were orphanages as many as 165 samples were taken randomly at 3 orphans in Yogyakarta. Research data were obtained from observations, interviews, and research questionnaires. Analyze the research data using SmartPLS version 3 software with a two-stage embedded second-order approach. The results of this study show that a match of the research model was found between structural results and empirical data. This study implies that strengthening mental health for adolescents living in foster care can be done by consistently instilling the value of spirituality and improving self-compassion attitudes.
In times of global pandemics, making sure that individuals adhere to proper health behaviors and official recommendations presents a pressing challenge. To define the root causes of this challenge, our study aims to determine the intricate relationship between mindfulness, self-compassion, and self-control. We hope to aid the process of finding a potential solution for improving compliance with health behaviors by shedding light on the role of lesser-known factors. In this correlational study, we measured the compliance of 268 students from the University of Tehran with COVID-19 health behaviors through a seven-item questionnaire. We also assessed the participants’ mindfulness, self-compassion, and self-control using the five-factor mindfulness questionnaire, Neff’s short self-compassion scale, and brief self-control scale. The questionnaires were electronically available at a surveying platform and were distributed among the students through social media channels. In addition, we performed bootstrapping to identify intermediary effects of self-control and tested our hypothesis using the path analysis method. After checking for multivariate normality and noncollinearity, our bootstrapping results revealed that mindfulness (β = 0.033) and self-compassion (β=-0.010) did not directly predict compliance with COVID-19 health behaviors, but self-control did (β = 0.181). However, mindfulness (b = 0.024, P < 0.05) and self-compassion (b = 0.033, P < 0.05) predicted health behaviors through self-control as a mediator. Our findings demonstrate that the core cause of this challenging problem is self-control, therefore, in the context of studying these three factors, self-control should be considered as the main determining factor. However, our findings also elucidate how self-compassion and mindfulness contribute to this problem through self-control as an intermediary.
Alongside the recognized potential negative repercussions of working as a psychological therapist, there is growing interest in the potential positive impacts of engaging in such work. The current study used a cross‐sectional online survey design to explore the impact of a range of demographic, work‐related, and compassion‐related factors on levels of secondary traumatic stress (STS) and vicarious posttraumatic growth (VPTG) in an international sample of 359 psychological therapists. Hierarchical multiple regressions demonstrated that burnout, lower levels of self‐compassion, having a personal trauma history, reporting a higher percentage of working time with a trauma focus, and being female were the statistically significant contributors to STS scores, explaining 40.8% of the variance, F (9, 304) = 23.2, p <.001. For VPTG, higher compassion satisfaction, higher self‐compassion, higher STS, a higher percentage of working time with a trauma focus, fewer years qualified, being male, and having a personal trauma history were all statistically significant contributors, explaining 27.3% of the variance, F (10, 304) = 11.37, p <.001. The findings illustrate the potential risk and protective factors for developing STS and clarify factors that may increase the likelihood of experiencing VPTG. Implications for psychological therapists and the organizations and institutions for which they work are considered along with potential directions for future research in the discussion.
Racially minoritized adults lack equal representation in research and experience disparities in healthcare. Little is known about which trait-level factors may help mitigate negative and promote positive psychological health among adults from these communities. The aim of this study was to assess the differential impact of dispositional mindfulness, self-compassion, and resilience in predicting depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction in a sample of racially minoritized adults. This study is a cross-sectional analysis of 169 participants (37.3% female and 62.7% male) between the ages of 18 and 64 ( M = 37.05; SD = 11.94). Separate hierarchical multiple regression models examined the relative influence of mindfulness facets (acting with awareness (AA); nonjudging of inner experience (NJ), and nonreactivity of inner experience (NR)), self-compassion, and resilience in predicting depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction. Self-compassion, resilience, AA, and NR predicted depression; self-compassion, resilience, and NR predicted anxiety; self-compassion, resilience, and NR predicted stress; and self-compassion predicted satisfaction with life. Self-compassion, resilience, AA, NJ, and NR differentially predicted depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction; however, only self-compassion consistently predicted all outcomes. Future research may incorporate an intersectional methodology and account for differences among different racially minoritized groups.
Objectif : Cette étude a pour objectif de dresser une cartographie exhaustive de l’état actuel des connaissances sur l’efficience de l’autocompassion dans la prévention de la rechute de substances. Méthode : Deux recherches distinctes répondant chacune aux critères de la revue systématique Prisma ont été réalisées en utilisant les stratégies de coping comme variable médiatrice ; au total, 78 articles furent intégrés à l’étude. Résultats : Les résultats rendent compte d’un effet bénéfique de l’autocompassion dans la prévention de la rechute grâce à la diminution du recours aux stratégies de coping évitantes et au développement de stratégies de coping vigilantes centrées sur l’émotion. L’autocompassion semble aussi corrélée positivement aux autres types de coping adaptatifs, mais dépendrait davantage du contexte. Cet effet bénéfique est avant tout important à court terme car il permettrait de protéger l’individu des facteurs précipitant la rechute de substances tels que les affects négatifs et de développer d’autres stratégies plus efficaces sur le long terme. Conclusion : Ces résultats paraissent pertinents dans le développement de nouveaux moyens de prévenir la rechute de substances mais nécessiteraient d’être approfondis par des études supplémentaires mettant en lien direct l’autocompassion à la prévention de la rechute de substances.
This study explores relationships between experiences of embodiment and intuitive eating, and with the psychological resources of life satisfaction, affect, optimism, and self-compassion. A central aim is to increase understanding of positive dimensions of embodiment, eating behaviour, and wellbeing beyond a deficit-based framework and is the first to quantitatively explore experiences of embodiment and intuitive eating. Experience of embodiment describes phenomenological experiences regarding existing within a body within socio-cultural environments. Intuitive eating represents a positive relationship with eating on the opposite side of the spectrum to disordered eating. A community sample of women (n = 278; mage 34.9 ± 11.8 years; 81% Caucasian) completed measures of experiences of embodiment, intuitive eating, life satisfaction, positive and negative affect, optimism, and self-compassion. Experiences of embodiment were significantly correlated with intuitive eating and all psychological resources. Only intuitive eating, satisfaction with life, positive and negative affect, and pessimism contributed to a significant unique portion of the variance when intuitive eating, satisfaction with life, positive and negative affect, optimism and pessimism, self-compassion, and age were included in a model predicting experiences of embodiment. All intuitive eating subscales were significantly correlated with experiences of embodiment. Two intuitive eating subscales uniquely predicted experiences of embodiment in multiple linear regression modelling: Eating for Physical Rather than Emotional Reasons and Body-Food Choice Congruence. This greater understanding of relationships between embodiment, intuitive eating, and psychological resources expands our understanding of women’s embodied realities and strengthens the argument for integrating an embodiment lens in psychology, public heath, and social discourse.
Background
Poor body image is prevalent among adolescents and associated with several negative outcomes for their physical and psychological health. There is a pressing need to address this growing public health concern, yet there are few evidence-informed universal programmes for older adolescents that address contemporary body image concerns (i.e., social media). BodyKind is a four lesson, school-based, teacher led, universal body image programme that incorporates empirically supported principles of cognitive dissonance, self-compassion, compassion for others and social activism, to support positive body image development. Building on previous pilot trials in the USA, this paper outlines the protocol for a cluster randomised control trial (cRCT) and implementation evaluation of the BodyKind programme which was culturally adapted for the Irish cultural context.
Methods
We aim to recruit 600 students aged 15-17 years in Transition Year (4th year) across 26 second-level schools in Ireland. Using minimisation, schools will be randomly assigned to receive BodyKind (intervention condition, n=300) or classes as usual (waitlist control, n=300). Teachers in intervention groups will receive training and deliver the programme to students over four weeks, at a rate of one lesson per week. Primary outcomes of body appreciation, body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing and secondary outcomes of self-compassion, compassion for others, body ideal internalisation, social justice motives and appearance-based social media use will be assessed at pre-, post- and 2 month follow up. Mediation and moderation analyses will be conducted to identify how and for whom the intervention works best. An implementation evaluation will assess the quality of programme implementation across schools and how this may influence intervention outcomes. Waitlist control schools will receive the programme after the 2-month follow up.
Conclusion
This study will be the first to implement a cRCT and an implementation evaluation to assess the impact of this multicomponent school-based body image programme designed to support healthy body image development. If shown to be effective, BodyKind will have the potential to improve adolescent body image and wellbeing and inform efforts to implement sustainable and scalable programmes in schools.
Trial registration
The trial was retrospectively registered on 10/10/2023 on ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06076993.
"Introduction. Previous findings show that self-compassion is an important resource for athletes, being associated with less fear of failure and better adaptation to obstacles. Objective. The study examines the role of self-compassion in predicting student athletes’ negative and positive affect after recalling a negative, shameful experience of physical training. It examines the extent to which self-compassion can predict the different types of positive (soothing and activating) and negative affect in this context. Method. In a correlational design, self-compassion levels were measured in N = 62 student-athletes using the Self-Compassion Scale- Short Form. After remembering a training-related setback, levels of soothing and activating positive affect were measured using the Types of Positive Affect Scale, and levels of negative affect were assessed with the Emotional Distress Profile. Results. Results indicated that self-compassion is a significant positive predictor of both types of positive affect and a negative predictor of negative affect after recalling a negative shameful experience related to physical training. Conclusion. Confirming previous findings, self-compassion was a relevant construct in the sport context, predicting students’ affect. These results suggest that interventions to improve self-compassion may be adaptive for athletes, and may improve their affect, probably leading to more optimal sport motivation, however, interventional studies are needed to investigate the effectiveness of self-compassion interventions in optimizing athletes’ affect and motivation. Keywords: self-compassion, athletes, affect, exercise. "
In recent decades, attitudes towards appearance comparison, and self-disapproval have rapidly increased, and these are attitudes strongly associated with psychological disorders. The present study aims to investigate the underlying patterns of depression, appearance-based stress, dietary constraints, and social and celebrity appearance comparison among young adults. It also examines the role of self-compassion in moderating the relationship between psychological dysfunctions and appearance comparison as well as the criteria and influences contributing to appearance comparison. Data on BMI, the measures of depression, appearance-based stress, eating restraints, appearance comparison, self-compassion, and predictors of peers and celebrity appearance comparison were collected from 434 college students (Age: Mean = 22; SD = 2.36; Male = Female = 217) in Sialkot, Pakistan. The data was analyzed by using the Hierarchical Regression Model. The results revealed that respondents who compared their appearances to peers and celebrities had increased depression and appearance-based stress while eating constraints didn’t affect the appearance-based comparison, stress, and depression. Moreover, self-compassion significantly moderated the relationship between depression, appearance-based stress, and appearance comparison whereas an insignificant moderation effect is observed between eating restraints and self-compassion. Despite psychological distresses such as depression, appearance-based stress, and eating restraints, appearance comparisons are connected to appearance-based victimization, media appearance pressure, social-cultural appearance pressure, appearance conversation, and self-consciousness.
Introduction
Mindfulness and mindfulness-based constructs (e.g. self-compassion and mindful eating) have been negatively associated with problematic eating and body-related issues in general and other specific populations. Exploration of mindfulness-based concepts in relation to problematic eating would provide novel insight into the relationships of these elements among gay and bisexual men. The present research aimed to identify the role of body acceptance in exploring previous relationships between mindfulness-based constructs and eating behaviours.
Methods
Participants completed an online questionnaire, comprising measures assessing mindfulness, self-compassion, mindful eating, body acceptance, grazing, emotional eating, restrained eating and external eating (data collection occurred in 2022). Correlation and further mediation analysis was employed to assess the relationships of these constructs within the present sample (n = 164).
Results
Positive associations between body acceptance and mindfulness-based concepts and negative associations to problematic eating (grazing; emotional, restrained, and external eating) were found within a sample of self-identified gay and bisexual men. Mediation analysis showed the importance of body acceptance in exploring relationships between mindfulness, self-compassion, and mindful eating to grazing, emotional, restrained and external eating.
Conclusions
Findings highlight the importance of body acceptance when considering the development of mindfulness- and/or compassion-based interventions to attenuate problematic eating among gay and bisexual men.
Policy Implications
This research consolidates the importance of mindfulness and related constructs when considering problematic eating, which should be reflected in policy aiming to attenuate unhealthy eating in specific populations.
This study aimed to identify the impact of the first UK COVID-19 lockdown on individuals’ weight management attempts (WMA). A self-regulation theoretical framework was used to identify predictors of continuing with a WMA, and weight change during the lockdown. An online retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted after the first UK COVID-19 lockdown. The sample consisted of 166 UK adults (M:31.08, SD:12.15) that were trying to manage their weight before the lockdown started. The survey assessed changes in WMA and practices, and measured perceived stress, flexible/rigid restraint, uncontrolled eating, craving control, and self-compassion. Results showed that 56% of participants reported disruption to their WMA during the lockdown. Participants with lower levels of perceived stress and higher flexible restraint were more likely to continue their WMA. Flexible restraint was a significant predictor of weight change. Interventions that promote flexibility in weight management may be beneficial for at-risk individuals under lockdown conditions.
Objectives: The present study aimed at assessing psychological flexibility, the core construct of the Acceptance and Commitment Therapy model, in the context of chronic illness. More specifically, the present study aimed at validating the 18-item Portuguese CompACT measure of psychological flexibility in a chronic illness sample (total n = 419; 83.8% women; 16.2% men) collected via online survey. Method: Specifically, we studied the internal structure of the scale employing Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), gender-based invariance, and associations with conceptually relevant constructs (shame, anxiety, depressive symptoms, insomnia severity, and self-compassion). Results: All items from the Openness to Experience subscale were removed due to low loading values on the EFA. The CFA confirmed the adequacy of an 8-item Portuguese CompACT with two subscales, Behavioral Awareness (α = .87) and Valued Action (α = .86). Both subscales correlated negatively with shame, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and insomnia severity. The Valued Action subscale additionally correlated positively with self-compassion. Conclusion: An 8-item version of the Portuguese CompACT, with two subscales, seems to be well suited for application for clinicians with clients with chronic illness.
Chinese immigrant survivors of men’s violence experience both significant mental health impacts from abuse and barriers to formal services. Therefore, we examined the preliminary efficacy of an innovative mobile-based empowerment-based intervention (self-compassion, health, and empowerment; SHE) that specifically focuses on abused Chinese immigrant women in the US. This pilot study used a two-arm randomized controlled design with repeated measures. A convenience sample ( N = 50) of Chinese immigrant women who experienced past year intimate partner violence (IPV) were recruited online and randomly assigned to the intervention or control group (25 per group). We assessed IPV exposure, safety behaviors, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and self-compassion at baseline, post-intervention, and 8-week follow-up. Of 95 eligible participants, 50 (52.6%) agreed to participate and completed baseline data collection; intervention completion rate was 64%. We found a significant group and time interaction for self-judgment (a self-compassion component), with a significant reduction seen in the intervention group compared to the control group. Despite no other significant group differences observed over time, the intervention group showed consistent trends toward improvements in most outcome measures, including specific types of IPV (i.e., negotiation, psychological aggression, and sexual coercion), depressive and PTSD symptoms, self-compassion, and certain components of self-compassion (i.e., isolation and over-identification) when compared to the control group. Our findings suggest that the SHE intervention shows promise in improving the mental health well-being of Chinese immigrant survivors. However, a fully powered randomized controlled trial is warranted to determine its efficacy. Our intervention has the potential to be translated in the Chinese immigrant populations with the necessary organizational support.
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
A meta-analysis examined the relation between self-esteem and ingroup bias. The project focused on effects of ingroup bias strategy and measurement of self-esteem. Results indicated that high-self-esteem individuals exhibited more ingroup bias than did low-self-esteem individuals. Bias strategy and self-esteem measurement moderated this relation. When using “direct” ingroup bias strategies, high-self-esteem individuals showed more bias than did low-self-esteem individuals. When using “indirect” strategies, groups exhibited comparable amounts of bias. Results were comparable for collective and personal self-esteem measures. Examination of specific collective measures indicated that self-esteem defined by the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) did not predict differences in ingroup bias, whereas group identification measures did predict differences in ingroup bias. Results are interpreted as indicating that both high and low-self-esteem individuals exhibit ingroup bias; however, expression of ingroup bias by individuals with low self-esteem is constrained by situational factors. Furthermore, individual-level factors such as personal self-esteem may be useful in predicting collective enhancement.
Two independent types of experiences of depression have been identified among normals—dependency and self-criticism. Using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, this study investigates their utility in differentiating depression in patients. 197 patients (mean age 34 yrs) and 262 normal controls (mean age 26.7 yrs) also completed the MMPI, Beck Depression Inventory, and Self Rating Depression Scale. There were consistent differences among patients as a function of whether their experiences of depression focused primarily on issues of dependency and/or self-criticism or an absence of these issues. The subjective experiences around which an individual's depression focuses seem to provide a valid basis for differentiating among types of depression. Judges using case records were able to differentiate patients who were high on dependency or self-criticism, on both, or on neither of these dimensions. The distinction between these 2 different foci of depression may provide valuable differentiations for clinical research, and have important implications for the therapeutic process with different types of depressed patients. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines the classroom learning environment in relation to achievement goal theory of motivation. Classroom structures are described in terms of how they make different types of achievement goals salient and as a consequence elicit qualitatively different patterns of motivation. Task, evaluation and recognition, and authority dimensions of classrooms are presented as examples of structures that can influence children's orientation toward different achievement goals. Central to the thesis of this article is a perspective that argues for an identification of classroom structures that can contribute to a mastery orientation, a systematic analysis of these structures, and a determination of how these structures relate to each other. The ways in which interventions must address the independency among these structures are discussed in terms of how they influence student motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examines the relationships among hostility, grandiosity, dominance, narcissism, and self-esteem in samples of 84, 57, and 300 Ss. The intercorrelations among various self-report and observer ratings of these constructs suggest that (1) hostility, grandiosity, dominance, and narcissism are substantially intercorrelated and form a coherent system of constructs and (2) the common variance in this system of constructs significantly predicts variations in Ss' self-esteem. The notion that some people use grandiosity, dominance, and a more generalized narcissistic personality style to manage their hostility and maintain a sense of positive regard was evaluated using hierarchical analyses. The results of these analyses were consistent with this model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Four studies demonstrate the psychometric adequacy and validity of scales designed to assess coping through emotional approach. In separate undergraduate samples, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of dispositional (Study 1) and situational (Study 3) coping item sets yielded 2 distinct emotional approach coping factors: emotional processing (i.e., active attempts to acknowledge and understand emotions) and emotional expression. The 2 scales yielded high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as convergent and discriminant validity. A study (Study 2) of young adults and their parents established the scales' interjudge reliabilities. Longitudinal (Study 3) and experimental (Study 4) research supported the predictive validity of the emotional approach coping scales with regard to adjustment to stressful encounters. Findings highlight the utility of functionalist theories of emotion as applied to coping theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined both employee and supervisor reports of motivational and work adjustment variables, in the context of a psychiatric rehabilitation program, as correlates of program participation and independent ratings of readiness for competitive employment. Ss were 80 employees (aged 21–75 yrs) in a sheltered workshop and transitional employment program affiliated with a state psychiatric hospital. Program participation and work-readiness were associated with both employee and supervisor ratings of motivation after controlling for employee benefit plan, residential status, and social adjustment. Additionally, the degree of supervisor–employee discrepancy in these ratings was negatively correlated with program participation, work-readiness, and estimates of premorbid social competence. The role of motivational factors in vocational rehabilitation and the dynamics of supervisor and employee perceptions of work motivation and adjustment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the literature on sex differences in empathy (defined as vicarious affective responding to the emotional state of another) and related capacities (affective role taking and decoding of nonverbal cues). The literature is discussed according to method used to assess empathy and affective role taking. Where appropriate, meta-analyses were also computed. In general, sex differences in empathy were found to be a function of the methods used to assess empathy. There was a large sex difference favoring women when the measure of empathy was self-report scales; moderate differences (favoring females) were found for reflexive crying and self-report measures in laboratory situations; and no sex differences were evident when the measure of empathy was either physiological or unobtrusive observations of nonverbal reactions to another's emotional state. Moreover, few sex differences were found for children's affective role taking and decoding abilities. (156 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Responds to comments by A. C. Bohart and T Greening, S. B. Shapiro, G. Bacigalupe, R. Walsh, W. C. Compton, C. L. McLafferty and J. D. Kirylo, N. Abi-Hashem, A. C. Catania, G. K. Lampropoulos, and T. M. Kelley (see records
2002-15384-010,
2002-15384-011,
2002-15384-012,
2002-15384-013,
2002-15384-014,
2002-15384-015,
2002-15384-016,
2002-15384-017,
2002-15384-018, and
2002-15384-019, respectively) on the January 2000, Vol 55(1) special issue of the
American Psychologist dedicated to positive psychology. M. E. P. Seligman and M. Csikszentmihalyi expand on some of the critical themes discussed in the commentaries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Social connectedness and its relationship with anxiety, self-esteem, and social identity was explored in the lives of women. Social connectedness was negatively related to trait anxiety and made a larger unique contribution to trait anxiety than social support or collective self-esteem. Women with high connectedness also reported greater social identification in high, as compared with low, cohesion conditions. Women with low connectedness exhibited no difference in either condition. Social connectedness was also positively related to state self-esteem across both conditions but did not have an effect on state anxiety. Future research in gender and cultural differences, self-evaluation process, and intervention strategies are discussed in light of the findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses 3 distances from emotion: (1) Hysterical emotion is underdistanced, involving the "return of the repressed." (2) Overdistancing signals the success of repression; one acts as if one were merely an observer, not a participant, as in unresolved grief. (3) At optimal or aesthetic distance, one is simultaneously and equally a participant and an observer. The patient has a double vision; at this point, repression is lifted, and the emotion can be managed. Catharsis may occur. In psychotherapy influenced by psychoanalytic theory, the therapist does seem to actively modulate the patient's distance from her/his emotions, but generally on a session-to-session basis. It is proposed that the therapist modulate on a moment-to-moment basis to produce more rapid change and less interference in the patient's life. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The study developed 2 measures of belongingness based on H. Kohut's (1984) self psychology theory. The Social Connectedness Scale and the Social Assurance Scale were constructed with a split-sample procedure on 626 college students. Internal reliability estimates for the 2 scales were .91 and .82, respectively. Test-retest correlations revealed good test stability over a 2-week period (
rs = .96 and .84, respectively). Cross-validation for the 2 measures was achieved with confirmatory factor analysis with an incremental fit index greater than .90. Scale functions are described and results are discussed in light of current research and theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Mindfulness is proposed as a core psychotherapy process. It is defined as a state of psychological freedom that occurs when attention remains quiet and limber, without attachment to any particular point of view. It can be shown that this process is collaborativefy employed by psychotherapist and patient within all psychotherapy orientations, and also by the integrative psychotherapist when making optimal choices among orientations. This article addresses (1) the defining attributes of mindfulness, (2) relevant conceptual approaches that lend theoretical support for a mindfulness factor, (3) two attentional forms of mindfulness that seem to have particular correspondence with either psychodynamic or cognitive-behavioral therapy, (4) clinical applications, and (5) the role of mindfulness for the integrative decision-making process.
Two studies tested the hypothesis that women are more likely than men to focus on themselves and their mood when in a depressed mood, and that this leads them to experience longer periods of depressed mood. In both studies subjects were predominantly Caucasian college students. In our first study, a laboratory study, females chose to engage in an emotion-related task significantly more often than did males, even when this lead them to focus on an existing sad mood. In the second study, a prospective naturalistic study, females were more likely than males to evince an emotion-focused ruminative style of coping with their moods. A ruminative response style at Time 1 was a significant predictor of depression scores at Time 2, even after initial levels of depressed mood were taken into account. Furthermore, once rumination levels were controlled for, gender was no longer a potent predictor of depression outcome. The implications of these response styles for treatment are discussed.
The 3 major self-evaluation motives were compared: self-assessment (people pursue accurate self-knowledge), self-enhancement (people pursue favorable self-knowledge), and self-verification (people pursue highly certain self-knowledge). Ss considered the possession of personality traits that were either positive or negative and either central or peripheral by asking themselves questions that varied in diagnosticity (the extent to which the questions could discriminate between a trait and its alternative) and in confirmation value (the extent to which the questions confirmed possession of a trait). Ss selected higher diagnosticity questions when evaluating themselves on central positive rather than central negative traits and confirmed possession of their central positive rather than central negative traits. The self-enhancement motive emerged as the most powerful determinant of the self-evaluation process, followed by the self-verification motive.
This study was designed to determine the effectiveness of a group stress reduction program based on mindfulness meditation for patients with anxiety disorders.
The 22 study participants were screened with a structured clinical interview and found to meet the DSM-III-R criteria for generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. Assessments, including self-ratings and therapists' ratings, were obtained weekly before and during the meditation-based stress reduction and relaxation program and monthly during the 3-month follow-up period.
Repeated measures analyses of variance documented significant reductions in anxiety and depression scores after treatment for 20 of the subjects--changes that were maintained at follow-up. The number of subjects experiencing panic symptoms was also substantially reduced. A comparison of the study subjects with a group of nonstudy participants in the program who met the initial screening criteria for entry into the study showed that both groups achieved similar reductions in anxiety scores on the SCL-90-R and on the Medical Symptom Checklist, suggesting generalizability of the study findings.
A group mindfulness meditation training program can effectively reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic and can help maintain these reductions in patients with generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, or panic disorder with agoraphobia.
Measures of emotional health and styles of responding to negative moods were obtained for 137 students 14 days before the Loma Prieta earthquake. A follow-up was done 10 days again 7 weeks after the earthquake to test predictions about which of the students would show the most enduring symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress. Regression analysis showed that students who, before the earthquake, already had elevated levels of depression and stress symptoms and a ruminative style of responding to their symptoms had more depression and stress symptoms for both follow-ups. Students who were exposed to more dangerous or difficult circumstances because of the earthquake also had elevated symptom levels 10 days after the earthquake. Similarly, students who, during the 10 days after the earthquake, had more ruminations about the earthquake were still more likely to have high levels of depressive and stress symptoms 7 weeks after the earthquake.
Many prominent theorists have argued that accurate perceptions of the self, the world, and the future are essential for mental health. Yet considerable research evidence suggests that overly positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism are characteristic of normal human thought. Moreover, these illusions appear to promote other criteria of mental health, including the ability to care about others, the ability to be happy or contented, and the ability to engage in productive and creative work. These strategies may succeed, in large part, because both the social world and cognitive-processing mechanisms impose filters on incoming information that distort it in a positive direction; negative information may be isolated and represented in as unthreatening a manner as possible. These positive illusions may be especially useful when an individual receives negative feedback or is otherwise threatened and may be especially adaptive under these circumstances.
We examined the internal and external validity of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI). Study 1 explored the internal structure of the NPI responses of 1,018 subjects. Using principal-components analysis, we analyzed the tetrachoric correlations among the NPI item responses and found evidence for a general construct of narcissism as well as seven first-order components, identified as Authority, Exhibitionism, Superiority, Vanity, Exploitativeness, Entitlement, and Self-Sufficiency. Study 2 explored the NPI's construct validity with respect to a variety of indexes derived from observational and self-report data in a sample of 57 subjects. Study 3 investigated the NPI's construct validity with respect to 128 subject's self and ideal self-descriptions, and their congruency, on the Leary Interpersonal Check List. The results from Studies 2 and 3 tend to support the construct validity of the full-scale NPI and its component scales.
The tendency for people with high self-esteem to make inflated assessments and predictions about themselves carries the risk of making commitments that exceed capabilities, thus leading to failure. Ss chose their performance contingencies in a framework where larger rewards were linked to a greater risk of failure. In the absence of ego threat, Ss with high self-esteem showed superior self-regulation: They set appropriate goals and performed effectively. Ego threat, however, caused Ss with high self-esteem to set inappropriate, risky goals that were beyond their performance capabilities so they ended up with smaller rewards than Ss with low self-esteem. The results indicate the danger of letting egotistical illusions interfere with self-regulation processes.
This study evaluated mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), a group intervention designed to train recovered recurrently depressed patients to disengage from dysphoria-activated depressogenic thinking that may mediate relapse/recurrence. Recovered recurrently depressed patients (n = 145) were randomized to continue with treatment as usual or, in addition, to receive MBCT. Relapse/recurrence to major depression was assessed over a 60-week study period. For patients with 3 or more previous episodes of depression (77% of the sample), MBCT significantly reduced risk of relapse/recurrence. For patients with only 2 previous episodes, MBCT did not reduce relapse/recurrence. MBCT offers a promising cost-efficient psychological approach to preventing relapse/recurrence in recovered recurrently depressed patients.
The authors provide a definition of positive psychology and suggest that psychologists should try to cultivate a more appreciative perspective on human nature. Examples are given of a negative bias that seems to pervade much of theoretical psychology, which may limit psychologists' understanding of typical and successful human functioning. Finally, a preview of the articles in the special section is given.
A science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions promises to improve quality of life and prevent the pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. The exclusive focus on pathology that has dominated so much of our discipline results in a model of the human being lacking the positive features that make life worth living. Hope, wisdom, creativity, future mindedness, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and perseverance are ignored or explained as transformations of more authentic negative impulses. The 15 articles in this millennial issue of the American Psychologist discuss such issues as what enables happiness, the effects of autonomy and self-regulation, how optimism and hope affect health, what constitutes wisdom, and how talent and creativity come to fruition. The authors outline a framework for a science of positive psychology, point to gaps in our knowledge, and predict that the next century will see a science and profession that will come to understand and build the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
Raymond M. Bergner offers the first comprehensive reference to address the highly prevalent and debilitating forms of self-criticism. This resource features an extensive array of strategies for assessing these patterns as well as the factors maintaining them. In addition, the volume is complete with therapeutic intervention strategies to help patients abandon pathological self-critical practices. The author desribes a therapeutic relationship that greatly enchances the efficacy of the interventions mentioned throughout the book.
Over and over, investigators have found self-esteem to be central in a broad network of constructs associated with motivation, performance, and well-being. Esteeming oneself—thinking well of oneself—has often been found to relate to more effective behavior and better adjustment than has low self-regard.
The difficulties inherent in obtaining consistent and adequate diagnoses for the purposes of research and therapy have been pointed out by a number of authors. Pasamanick12 in a recent article viewed the low interclinician agreement on diagnosis as an indictment of the present state of psychiatry and called for "the development of objective, measurable and verifiable criteria of classification based not on personal or parochial considerations, but on behavioral and other objectively measurable manifestations."Attempts by other investigators to subject clinical observations and judgments to objective measurement have resulted in a wide variety of psychiatric rating scales.4,15 These have been well summarized in a review article by Lorr11 on "Rating Scales and Check Lists for the Evaluation of Psychopathology." In the area of psychological testing, a variety of paper-and-pencil tests have been devised for the purpose of measuring specific
This article presents a framework for emotional intelligence, a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one's life. We start by reviewing the debate about the adaptive versus maladaptive qualities of emotion. We then explore the literature on intelligence, and especially social intelligence, to examine the place of emotion in traditional intelligence conceptions. A framework for integrating the research on emotion-related skills is then described. Next, we review the components of emotional intelligence. To conclude the review, the role of emotional intelligence in mental health is discussed and avenues for further investigation are suggested.
There is growing interest in positive aspects of the stress process, including positive outcomes of stress and antecedents that dispose individuals to appraise stressful situations more as a challenge than as a threat. Less attention has been given to the adaptational significance of positive emotions during stress or to the coping processes that sustain positive emotions. We review evidence for the occurrence of positive emotions under conditions of stress, discuss the functional role that positive emotions play under such conditions, and present three types of coping that are associated with positive emotion during chronic stress. These findings point to new research questions about the role of positive emotions during stress and the nature of the coping processes that generate these positive emotions.
A practical difficulty with the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (SDS) is its length. Preferring a shorter measure of social desirability, researchers have devised a number of short forms of the SDS. The present study used confirmatory factor analysis to establish the adequacy of these subscales in measuring social desirability. Results showed that (a) of the six short forms of SDS considered two models (XI and X2) provide the best measures of social desirability, (b) improved measures of all of the models can be constructed, and (c) improved measures of the dimensions, denial and attribution, thought to measure the latent construct of social approval can also be constructed.
This article defines and examines the construct of self-compassion. Self-compassion entails three main components: (a) self-kindness—being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical, (b) common humanity—perceiving one's experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as separating and isolating, and (c) mindfulness—holding painful thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Self-compassion is an emotionally positive self-attitude that should protect against the negative consequences of self-judgment, isolation, and rumination (such as depression). Because of its non-evaluative and interconnected nature, it should also counter the tendencies towards narcissism, self-centeredness, and downward social comparison that have been associated with attempts to maintain self-esteem. The relation of self-compassion to other psychological constructs is examined, its links to psychological functioning are explored, and potential group differences in self-compassion are discussed.
Achievement behavior in schools can be understood best in terms of students' attempts to maintain a positive self-image. For many students, expending effort is scary because a combination of effort and failure implies low ability. Students have a variety of techniques for avoiding failure, ranging from cheating to setting goals that are so easily achieved that no risk is involved. Although teachers usually reward achievement and punish lack of effort, for many students risking the sense of defeat that comes from trying hard and not succeeding is too daunting. In "Making the grade," Martin Covington extracts powerful educational implications from self-worth theory and other contemporary views that will be useful for educators, parents, and all people concerned with the educational dilemmas we face. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors factor analyzed 4 self-report parental attachment (PA) inventories (the PBI, IPPA, PAQ, and CAS) designed for use with young adults to examine the construct validity of scores from these instruments and the overall factor structure of the attachment scales. The aim was to replicate the G. E. Heiss et al (1996) findings with a more specific focus on PA as opposed to general attachment style. The authors also evaluated whether factors derived from the 4 attachment measures were related to measures of emotional functioning, specifically, measures of confidence in coping with negative mood, awareness of one's own mood regulation strategies, and levels of perceived stress. Data were collected from 200 undergraduates (mean age 21.6 yrs; 60% female). The exploration of the relationships among the attachment measures showed several dimensions of attachment in young adults, including maternal attachment, paternal attachment, and parental overprotection. Preoccupation with one's parents was also assessed by 1 of the attachment measures and was reflected as a distinct dimension of attachment. The findings that these dimensions of PA were related to emotional functioning and levels of perceived stress provide evidence of the role of attachment in the well-being of young adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
review evidence regarding experiences during childhood contributing to the development of an orientation that might predispose an individual to depression / emphasis is on early dysregulation of the "moral" emotions, particularly in females / concentrate on sex differences in empathy and guilt in children, as well as research on the socialization of these phenomena / by adopting a developmental perspective, it may be possible to identify characteristics of girls, along with familial and cultural pressures and practices directed toward them (especially related to sex role characteristics) that enhance their vulnerability to internalizing problems [i.e., depression]
theories pertaining to gender differences in depression / sex differences in moral patterns / socialization of moral patterns (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A traditional view holds that low self-esteem causes ag- gression, but recent work has not confirmed this. Although aggressive people typically have high self-esteem, there are also many nonaggressive people with high self-esteem, and so newer constructs such as narcissism and unstable self- esteem are most effective at predicting aggression. The link between self-regard and ag- gression is best captured by the theory of threatened egotism, which depicts aggression as a means of defending a highly favorable view of self against someone who seeks to under- mine or discredit that view. vided strong empirical evidence that low self-esteem causes aggres- sion. Ironically, the theory seemed to enter into conventional wisdom without ever being empirically es- tablished. The view of low self-esteem that has emerged from many research studies does not, however, seem easily reconciled with the theory that low self-esteem causes aggres- sion. A composite of research find- ings depicts people with low self- esteem as uncertain and confused about themselves, oriented toward avoiding risk and potential loss, shy, modest, emotionally labile (and having tendencies toward de- pression and anxiety), submitting readily to other people's influence, and lacking confidence in them- selves (see compilation by Bau- meister, 1993). None of these patterns seems likely to increase aggression, and some of them seem likely to dis- courage it. People with low self- esteem are oriented toward avoid- ing risk and loss, whereas attacking someone is eminently risky. People with low self-esteem lack confi- dence of success, whereas aggres- sion is usually undertaken in the expectation of defeating the other person. Low self-esteem involves submitting to influence, whereas aggression is often engaged in to resist and reject external influence. Perhaps most relevant, people with low self-esteem are confused and uncertain about who they are,
This diary study examined the proposal that satisfaction of two psychological needs, competence and autonomy, leads to daily well-being. Between-subjects analyses indicated that participants higher in trait competence and trait autonomy tended to have "better" days on average. Independently, within-subject analyses showed that good days were those in which participants felt more competent and autonomous in their daily activities, relative to their own baselines. Other predictors of daily well-being included gender, whether the day fell on a weekend, and the amount of negative affect and physical symptomatology felt the day before. Although past diary studies have tended to focus on threats to daily well-being, the authors suggest that psychological need concepts offer promise for understanding its positive sources.
This paper describes the development and validation of a general causality orientations scale. Causality orientations are conceptualized as relatively enduring aspects of people that characterize the source of initiation and regulation, and thus the degree of self-determination, of their behavior. Three orientations—autonomy, control, and impersonal—are measured by the three subscales of the instrument. Individuals are given a score on each orientation, thus allowing the use of the theoretically appropriate subscale (or, in some cases, a combination of subscales) to predict affects, cognitions, and behaviors. The scale was shown to have internal consistency and temporal stability. The orientations were shown to fit appropriately into a nomological network of constructs and to relate to various behaviors that were hypothesized to be theoretically relevant.
Research studies focusing on the psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) with psychiatric and nonpsychiatric samples were reviewed for the years 1961 through June, 1986. A meta-analysis of the BDI's internal consistency estimates yielded a mean coefficient alpha of 0.86 for psychiatric patients and 0.81 for nonpsychiatric subjects. The concurrent validitus of the BDI with respect to clinical ratings and the Hamilton Psychiatric Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD) were also high. The mean correlations of the BDI samples with clinical ratings and the HRSD were 0. 72 and 0.73, respectively, for psychiatric patients. With nonpsychiatric subjects, the mean correlations of the BDI with clinical ratings and the HRSD were 0.60 and 0.74, respectively. Recent evidence indicates that the BDI discriminates subtypes of depression and differentiates depression from anxiety.
Investigated depression as a normal affect state that could have continuity with types of clinical depression. A 66-item Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) was constructed to assess a wide range of experiences that, though not direct symptoms of depression, are frequently associated with it. The DEQ, the Wessman-Ricks Mood Scale, a version of the semantic differential, and the Death-Concern Questionnaire were administered to 500 female and 160 male college students. In another sample, 128 college students were given the DEQ and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale. Three highly stable factors emerged from the DEQ: Dependency, Self-Criticism, and Efficacy. These factors had significant differential correlations with other measures, which support the interpretation of the factors derived from the items. These data indicate the need to consider dependency and self-criticism as 2 primary dimensions of depression and the value of investigating the continuity between normal mood states and the clinical phenomena of depressions. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several questions concerning the relation between self-focused attention and depressed mood were examined: (a) Does the association involve global negative affect, rather than sadness per se? (b) is self-focus associated with specific negative affects other than sadness? and (c) does the association occur at the between-subjects or within-subject level? Also hypothesized was that self-focus is associated with coping responses that may perpetuate negative mood. In an idiographic/nomothetic design, 40 male community residents completed daily reports for 30 days. Results suggest that self-focus is linked with global negative mood as well as specific negative affects other than sadness and that the association occurs on a between-persons, rather than a day-to-day within-person, basis. In addition, highly self-focused men reported using passive and ruminative coping styles, which in turn were associated with distressed affect.
The rate at which medical patients physician-referred to an 8-week stress reduction program completed the prescribed intervention was measured and predictors of compliance sought. Seven hundred eighty-four consecutive patients who enrolled in the program over a 2-year period were studied. Of these, 598 (76%) completed the program and 186 (24%) did not. Multiple regression analysis showed that (1) among chronic pain patients, only sex discriminated between completers and noncompleters, with females more than twice as likely to complete the program as males (odds ratio = 2.4; 95% CI = 1.2, 4.4); (2) among patients with stress-related disorders, only the OC scores of the SCL-90-R discriminated between completers and noncompleters (odds ratio = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.2, 3.4). Completion rates for specific diagnoses are reported and discussed. The high rate of completion observed for this intensive program in health behavior change is discussed in terms of the design features and therapeutic modalities of the intervention.
Self-reported narcissism, self-esteem, and perceptions of parents as nurturing were examined in a sample of 459 undergraduates. In zero-order and partial correlations, dimensions from the Narcissistic Personality Inventory displayed inter-relationships and linkages with self-esteem and parental nurturance that conformed with the hypothesis that indices of narcissism fall along a continuum of mental health. Partial correlations controlling for self-esteem also indicated that at least some data for the more adaptive aspects of narcissism were mediated by healthier self-functioning. These results support recent suggestions that narcissism must be conceptualized within frameworks that include healthy self-esteem.
We conducted several tests of the idea that an inclination toward thought suppression is associated with obsessive thinking and emotional reactivity. Initially, we developed a self-report measure of thought suppression through successive factor-analytic procedures and found that it exhibited acceptable internal consistency and temporal stability. This measure, the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI), was found to correlate with measures of obsessional thinking and depressive and anxious affect, to predict signs of clinical obsession among individuals prone toward obsessional thinking, to predict depression among individuals motivated to dislike negative thoughts, and to predict failure of electrodermal responses to habituate among people having emotional thoughts. The WBSI was inversely correlated with repression as assessed by the Repression-Sensitization Scale, and so taps a trait that is quite unlike repression as traditionally conceived.
The White Bear Suppression Inventory [WBSI; Wegner, D.M. & Zanakos, S. (1994), Journal of Personality, 62, 615-640] is a self-report questionnaire measuring people's general tendency to suppress unwanted negative thoughts. The current article describes two studies investigating the reliability, factor structure, validity, and correlates of the WBSI. Study 1 (n = 172) showed that the WBSI is a reliable instrument in terms of internal consistency and test-retest stability. Factor analyses of the WBSI revealed a 1-factor solution. Furthermore, the WBSI was found to correlate positively with measures of emotional vulnerability and psychopathological symptoms. In Study 2 (n = 40), the relationship between WBSI and levels of intrusive thinking was examined in more detail, using a thought suppression task. In general, results of this thought suppression experiment provided evidence for the validity of the WBSI. That is, subjects with high WBSI scores exhibited higher frequencies of unwanted intrusive thoughts than subjects with low WBSI scores.
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.