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The current study adds to our understanding of the nomological network associated with equity sensitivity by examining its relations with the Dark Triad traits. Participants were 829 university students who completed the Equity Preference Questionnaire and two recently developed measures of the Dark Triad the Dirty Dozen and the Short Dark Triad. It was hypothesized that Machiavellianism and psychopathy would both be negatively correlated with - and predict unique variance in - equity sensitivity, whereas narcissism would be uncorrelated. Results of correlational and multiple regression analyses supported the hypotheses. Furthermore, it was found that the Short Dark Triad predicted incremental variance in equity sensitivity unaccounted for by the Dirty Dozen.

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... Responding to unfair treatment, people experience distress and endeavour to restore justice. Different dispositional traits have been linked to reactions towards equity (Bourdage et al., 2018;Woodley et al., 2016;Woodley and Allen, 2014). Individuals react to equity, or perceptions of fairness, based on their personality traits (Macenczak et al., 2021). ...
... For instance, Chou and Ramser (2023) investigated the influence of narcissism on perceived negative inequity, revealing a negative association between narcissism and perceptions of fairness. In contrast, Woodley and Allen (2014) reported different findings, suggesting that narcissism, as one of the traits in the dark triad, does not significantly affect perceptions of equity; their study led them to posit that narcissistic individuals, characterized by grandiosity, may actually be inclined towards equity, combining a demonstrable tolerance for imbalance in their interpersonal relationships with a willingness to contribute without feeling of unfairness. Given the potential impact of narcissism upon individual behaviour and organizational effectiveness, it is essential for research and practice to better understand the circumstances that are more likely to cause perceived inequity. ...
... The perception of inequity may result from an overestimation of the quality and extent of their own contributions and unrealistic expectations of rewards. Woodley and Allen (2014) found that narcissism was unrelated to equity sensitivity and argued that narcissistic individuals tend to exhibit grandiosity, which makes them perceive themselves as equity benevolent, believing they are contributing their greatness to the workplace. Our results within the Omani context indicate that narcissistic individuals do feel entitled to equity, which counters the effect of grandiosity and leads to perceptions of inequity. ...
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Purpose This study aims, firstly, to investigate the relationship between narcissism and perceived inequity, and secondly, to explore the mediating role of the sense of entitlement in this relationship. Design/methodology/approach A total of 150 local employees in Oman completed self-report questionnaires assessing narcissism, sense of entitlement and perceived inequity. A two-step structural equation modelling approach was used to examine the proposed model. Both procedural and statistical remedies were used to account for common method bias. Findings The results of the study indicate a positive relationship between narcissism and the sense of entitlement, both of which contribute to a negative impact on the perception of equity. The study suggests that narcissistic individuals perceive inequity due to an overestimation of their contributions (i.e. entitlement). Research limitations/implications This study is limited by its cross-sectional design and self-reported data, which could introduce bias. Additionally, the use of convenience sampling may restrict the generalizability of the findings to the broader population. Practical implications Organizations should consider individual personality differences, especially in dealing with narcissistic individuals. It is advisable for organizations to implement structured and formal policies, procedures and processes to improve the perception of equity. This may involve revising reward and promotion systems with clearly defined and transparent criteria. Additionally, managers can engage narcissistic employees through team-based activities and promote collaboration to enhance team dynamics. Originality/value This study adds to the existing literature on narcissism by shedding light on the complex relationship between narcissism, sense of entitlement and perceived inequity. It is particularly noteworthy for focusing on the Middle East context, an area that has been understudied in the realm of narcissism research within work environments.
... Overall, adolescents with high dark triad tend to be antisocial, vulgar, and academically disengaged (Zhang et al., 2015). Specifically, adolescents with high Machiavellianism show emotional problems such as lack of sympathy (Sutton and Keogh, 2000) and behavioral problems (Zhu et al., 2021), including aggression, a higher tendency toward antisocial practices, lower altruistic concerns (Swami et al., 2010), and equity sensitivity (Woodley and Allen, 2014). Psychopathy is also negatively related to prosocial practices (Papageorgiou et al., 2020) and different social skills such as communication, group collaboration (Anwar and Zubair, 2021), altruistic prosociality (White, 2014), and equity sensitivity (Woodley and Allen, 2014). ...
... Specifically, adolescents with high Machiavellianism show emotional problems such as lack of sympathy (Sutton and Keogh, 2000) and behavioral problems (Zhu et al., 2021), including aggression, a higher tendency toward antisocial practices, lower altruistic concerns (Swami et al., 2010), and equity sensitivity (Woodley and Allen, 2014). Psychopathy is also negatively related to prosocial practices (Papageorgiou et al., 2020) and different social skills such as communication, group collaboration (Anwar and Zubair, 2021), altruistic prosociality (White, 2014), and equity sensitivity (Woodley and Allen, 2014). Regarding narcissism, research emphasized a positive association (Papageorgiou et al., 2020), revealing that to increase the admiration of others, narcissists intentionally distort the memory of events to increment their self-esteem (Hart et al., 2018), and, in turn, accommodate their grandiose image as altruistic people (Palmer and Tackett, 2018). ...
... However, some studies revealed that this trait was positively related to antisocial and aggressive behaviors and, thus, negatively associated with prosociality: through aggressive behaviors, narcissists can dominate over peers and reinforce their grandiose self-image (Fanti and Henrich, 2015). Notably, narcissism was also found uncorrelated to prosocial behavior, such as equity sensitivity (Woodley and Allen, 2014). ...
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Adolescence involves a profound number of changes in all domains of development. Among others, adolescence yields an enhanced awareness and responsibility toward the community, representing a critical age to develop prosocial behaviors. In this study, the mediation role of Trait Emotional Intelligence (TEI) was detected for the relationship between the dark triad and prosocial behavior based on altruism and equity. A total of 129 healthy late adolescents filled in the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen, measuring Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism; the Altruistic Action Scale, evaluating behaviors directed at helping others; the Equity Scale, assessing behaviors directed at equity in different forms; and the TEI Questionnaire-Short Form. Results showed that TEI mediated the negative effects of the three dark triad traits on both altruism and equity. This finding suggests that TEI, which relies on a set of dispositions (e.g., emotional management of others, social competence, and empathy), might reduce the malevolent effects of the dark triad on altruism and equitable behavior in late adolescence. This led to assume that intervention programs focused on improving emotional skills, also in late adolescence, can promote prosociality.
... They are always pursuing their own interests, and they are not so restricted by moral restrictions. They are determined to break the rules of conduct if they expect to gain material gain (Woodley & Allen, 2014). In general, they are not interested in principles such as impartiality, retaliation and commitment. ...
... They are free to distrust and deceive others. Machiavellian empathy can be viewed in two ways (powerful and sensible empathy), but scholars say that Machiavellians are wrong only in their active empathy (emotional sharing) and not in showing empathy (awareness and understanding) (Routhman & Will, 2011;Weselka et al., 2010;Woodley & Allen, 2014). ...
... They always pursue their advantage, and they are not particularly deterred by moral prohibitions. They are willing to break the rules of morality when they expect material gain (Woodley & Allen, 2014). In general, they are not interested in terms such as fairness, reciprocity and responsibility. ...
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Family-owned businesses (FOBs) are seen as a major contributor to economic growth and development in the global economy. It has nothing to do with the important role they continue to play in job creation, the growth of business enterprises in communities, and the growth of gross domestic product (GDP). Sadly, in addition to their national development efforts, only a small percentage of these family-owned businesses survive the second and third generations. This astonishing practice worries many scholars who claim that these failures are embedded in poor asset systems, incompetence of the management team, poor transformation plans, etc. CEOs and the survival of these family-owned businesses was limited. This multidisciplinary study examined the personality traits of CEOs in Machiavellianism in the southern region of Nigeria and the survival of family-owned businesses. This study is tied to the Sustainable Family Business Theory (SFBT). The study consisted of 628 people, with 289 participants from hotels in the southern region of Nigeria. A structural model used for data analysis, CEO Machiavellianism points out that personality traits are negatively related to the survival of family-owned businesses. IJSB
... Equity sensitivity is a personality variable that denotes that individual differences exist in how people react to inequity (O'Neill et al. 2011). Individuals who are high on equity sensitivity prefer to give more than they receive in comparison to relevant others in the workplace (Woodley and Allen 2014). Thus, they are more tolerant of situations in which their output to input ratio is lower than that of relevant others (Huseman et al. 1987). ...
Article
Prior research has placed perceived organizational injustice as the main precursor of police corrupt tendencies. However, this line of research has largely ignored the role of equity sensitivity in the relations between organizational injustice and police corrupt tendencies. This is imperative because individuals’ preferences for equal ratio of inputs to outcomes are not the same as the equity theory claimed. Therefore, the current study expanded previous research by examining the impact of equity sensitivity on police corrupt tendencies on one hand, and its moderating role in injustice-corrupt tendencies relationship on the other hand. A sample of 236 police officers in Nigeria participated in the study. Results of the hierarchical regression analysis indicated that corrupt tendencies were lower in police officers with higher equity sensitivity (i.e., benevolents) than those with low equity sensitivity (i.e., entitleds). Furthermore, the negative impact of perceived organizational injustice on corrupt tendencies was weaker for police with higher equity sensitivity. These findings have important implications for managerial practices.
... Our use of the FFNI allowed us to take a more fine-grained look at how the dimensions of narcissism uniquely impact justice orientation. Prior research in the justice space (e.g., Woodley & Allen, 2014) found significant effects between narcissism and equity sensitivity when using the unidimensional narcissism subscale of the Short Dark Triad (Jones & Paulhus, 2014) and non-significant effects of narcissism on equity sensitivity when using the unidimensional narcissism subscale of the Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010). These unidimensional short form measures have made huge contributions to the psychological and organizational sciences, but their brevity is not without drawbacks. ...
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We examine the role of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism on individuals’ justice orientation. Using multiple linear regression, we found that grandiose narcissism was significantly negatively related to internalization and overall justice orientation. Vulnerable narcissism was significantly positively related to internalization but was not significantly related to overall justice orientation. Directions for future research directions are discussed. We also discuss directions for future research, such as an integration of psychopathy and Machiavellianism, an examination of the differences between the existing narcissism measures, and the use of experimental methods.
... Even if equity sensitivity still had a significant relationship with counterproductive work behaviors after the model controlled for the Big Five personality traits, the explained percentage of variance in counterproductive work behaviors was so small, that, from an economic utility point of view, the financial cost associated with this measure in combination with the Big Five is not worth it. However, extreme scores on equity sensitivity measure could be an indicator for the risk of counter-productive work behaviors (Woodley & Allen, 2014). ...
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One individual difference that emerged over the years is equity sensitivity. It was posited that this construct may be a central factor in predicting work outcomes in reactions to inequity. However, its conceptual overlap with already established dimensions of personality has been insufficiently taken into consideration so far. The present study examines the incremental validity of equity sensitivity in predicting counterproductive work behaviors and perception of organizational justice over the Big Five personality traits. The study sample consisted of 223 Romanian working adults. Results showed that, although equity sensitivity had a significant relationship with counterproductive work behaviors after controlling for the Big five personality traits, its incremental validity was small, with little practical utility. Moreover, the incremental validity of equity sensitivity in predicting justice dimension above the Big-Five personality dimensions was not supported. Theoretical and practical implications of equity sensitivity for personnel selection are discussed.
... narcissism and psychopathy: .23. The current version of the Dark Triad has been used in recent studies (e.g., [60][61][62][63][64]). ...
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Despite Allport’s early call to study personality as a coordinated system of traits within individual rather than separate traits, researchers often assume personality variables are largely distinct, independent characteristics. In the current research, we examined the usual assumption that Dark Triad traits (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) are best studied using a variable-centered (dimensional), rather than a person-centered (taxonic), approach. Results showed that a variable-centered approach is appropriate in understanding the Dark Triad, and yet individuals scoring high on one Dark Triad dimension also tend to score high on other dimensions. Based on these results, we concluded that it is appropriate to study individual differences in the Dark Triad (inferences based on persons) by capturing the common variance among the three traits using a variable-centered approach, rather than treating these traits as independent or uncoordinated characteristics.
... Individuals who are low on Honesty-Humility have little hesitation in this regard. In support of these theoretical arguments, recent research has found that the Dark Triad personality traits are strong predictors of equity sensitivity (Woodley and Allen, 2014). This is particularly relevant given that (low) Honesty-Humility has been found to be the trait underlying the Dark Triad variables (Lee et al., 2013). ...
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The construct of equity sensitivity describes an individual's preference about his/her desired input to outcome ratio. Individuals high on equity sensitivity tend to be more input oriented, and are often called “Benevolents.” Individuals low on equity sensitivity are more outcome oriented, and are described as “Entitleds.” Given that equity sensitivity has often been described as a trait, the purpose of the present study was to examine major personality correlates of equity sensitivity, so as to inform both the nature of equity sensitivity, and the potential processes through which certain broad personality traits may relate to outcomes. We examined the personality correlates of equity sensitivity across three studies (total N = 1170), two personality models (i.e., the Big Five and HEXACO), the two most common measures of equity sensitivity (i.e., the Equity Preference Questionnaire and Equity Sensitivity Inventory), and using both self and peer reports of personality (in Study 3). Although results varied somewhat across samples, the personality variables of Conscientiousness and Honesty-Humility, followed by Agreeableness, were the most robust predictors of equity sensitivity. Individuals higher on these traits were more likely to be Benevolents, whereas those lower on these traits were more likely to be Entitleds. Although some associations between Extraversion, Openness, and Neuroticism and equity sensitivity were observed, these were generally not robust. Overall, it appears that there are several prominent personality variables underlying equity sensitivity, and that the addition of the HEXACO model's dimension of Honesty-Humility substantially contributes to our understanding of equity sensitivity.
... Although the abovementioned traits and behaviors are often studied separately, they tend to be conceptually and empirically related to one another, which is not surprising given their shared emphasis on self-interest at the expense of others. For instance, research has linked low equity sensitivity to all three dark triad traits (Woodley & Allen, 2014) and entitlement is considered a core component of narcissism (see Campbell, Hoffman, Campbell, & Marchisio, 2011, for a review). Likewise, careerism has been linked to psychopathy (Chiaburu, Mun˜oz, & Gardner, 2013), and all three dark triad traits have been shown to be meta-analytically associated with one another (O'Boyle et al., 2012). ...
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For work organizations and their members, establishing and maintaining mutually satisfying employment relationships is a fundamental concern. The importance that scholars attach to employment relationships is reflected in research streams that explore the optimal design of strategic human resource management systems, the nature of psychological contract fulfillment and violation, and the factors associated with achieving person-environment fit, among others. Generally missing from theory and research pertaining to employment relationships is the perspective of individuals who reside at the employee-employer interface-managerial leaders. We argue that, for managerial leaders, a pervasive concern involves the tangible and intangible resource requirements of specific employees. We then provide the groundwork for study of the leader's perspective on employment relationships by proposing a model that identifies how employees come to be perceived as low versus high maintenance and how these perceptions, in turn, influence leader cognition, affect, and behavior. Copyright © 2015 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
... The Dark Triad traits are heritable (Vernon, Villani, Vickers, & Harris, 2008) and are associated with numerous undesirable individual differences and behaviors including vengeance (Giammaco & Vernon, 2014), anger (Veselka, Giammarco, & Vernon, 2014), aggressive humor (Martin, Lastuk, Jeffery, Vernon, & Veselka, 2012), scholastic cheating (Williams, Nathanson, & Paulhus, 2010), social dominance orientation (Jones & Figueredo, 2013), prejudice (Hodson, Hogg, & MacInnis, 2009), and short term mating strategies (Jonason, Li, Webster, & Schmitt, 2009). Moreover, individuals who possess the Dark Triad traits experience psychosocial costs (Jonason, Li, & Czarna, 2013) due to a lack of self-control (Jonason & Tost, 2010), emotional intelligence (Petrides, Vernon, Schermer, & Veselka, 2011), and equity sensitivity (Woodley & Allen, 2014). ...
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Purpose This study aims to clarify the ambiguous nature of equity sensitivity and understand the associations between equity perceptions and the personality domain in organizational behaviour. Design/methodology/approach The study reviews 56 articles that rendered associations between different HEXACO personality domains and equity sensitivity and proposed a possibility of equity sensitivity being a situation-activated trait. Findings The domains of Honesty-humility, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness are predominantly associated with equity sensitivity. The domain of Emotionality is also associated but not as significant as the aforementioned domains. Unexpectedly, Extraversion, the domain of social interactions, and Openness to experience showed little to no associations. The transient nature of equity sensitivity has been proposed that postulates that such nature might help predict an individual’s personality characteristics in a given context. Originality/value This review is one of the first, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, to describe the associations between equity sensitivity and the HEXACO personality domains. Additionally, the situational nature of equity sensitivity and relationship with the personality traits is proposed.
Article
The present study sought to utilize an equity based approach to understand the relationships between broad personality traits (i.e., Honesty-Humility, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness) and two important workplace behaviors: organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and workplace deviance (WD). We hypothesized that the relationships between these traits and OCB/WD could be somewhat accounted for by the association between these traits and individual differences in equity sensitivity – one's input/output orientation. Using two samples (Ns = 182 and 206) we found evidence that (a) Honesty-Humility and Conscientiousness are associated with equity sensitivity, (b) equity sensitivity predicts levels of OCB and WD, and (c) Honesty-Humility and Conscientiousness predict OCB and WD through their association with equity sensitivity. Although equity sensitivity provided clarity as to these relationships, direct effects remained for Conscientiousness on WD in one of the samples, and Honesty-Humility retained a direct effect on WD in both samples. Agreeableness was not robustly associated with equity sensitivity, but did have a direct negative effect on WD, indicating additional important mechanisms linking traits to WD. Overall, however, evidence emerged that individual differences in equity sensitivity (Benevolence versus Entitledness) can help to understand the associations between broad personality traits and workplace behavior.
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The term dark triad refers to the constellation of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Over the past few years, the concept has gained momentum, with many researchers assuming that the dark triad is a prominent antecedent of transgressive and norm-violating behavior. Our purpose in this meta-analytic review was to evaluate (a) interrelations among narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy; (b) gender differences in these traits; (c) how these traits are linked to normal personality factors; and (d) the psychosocial correlates of the dark triad. Our findings show that dark triad traits are substantially intercorrelated, somewhat more prevalent among men than women, predominantly related to the Big Five personality factor of agreeableness and the HEXACO factor of honesty-humility, and generally associated with various types of negative psychosocial outcomes. We question whether dark triad traits are sufficiently distinct and argue that the way they are currently measured is too simple to capture the malevolent sides of personality. Because most research in this domain is cross-sectional and based on self-reports, we recommend using a cross-informant approach and prospective, longitudinal research designs for studying the predictive value of dark triad features.
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Since its emergence 14 years ago the dark triad (DT), composed of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism, has become an increasingly popular research focus. Yet questions remain over whether the DT components are sufficiently distinct from another. We examined the nomological networks of each DT component through a meta-analysis of the available literature on the DT. We conducted 3 separate analyses—an examination of the average intercorrelations among the DT components (k = 156), an examination of similarities in each DT component’s nomological network (k = 159), and an examination of the effect sizes between DT components and 15 outcome categories (k range = 7 to 42). Our results indicate that the nomological networks of psychopathy and Machiavellianism overlap substantially while narcissism demonstrated differential relations compared with psychopathy and Machiavellianism. These results remained relatively constant after controlling for DT assessment approach. We argue that the current literature on Machiavellianism may be better understood as a secondary psychopathy literature. Future directions for DT research are discussed in light of our meta-analytic results.
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What has been denominated as the Dark Triad of Personality - Triad (machiavellianism, subclinical narcissism and subclinical psychopathy is addressed here from an evolutionary look. The objective or this research is to review and revise the evidence submitted by evolutionary theorists with regard to the Triad, from an approach to the evolutionary scrutiny. For this purpose, the main characteristics in each one of these features are examined, as well as the instruments having been used to assess them, and the major areas where they have been studied. The evolutionary look states that the Triad features are dimensional and vary according to the diverse strategies employed by subjects to adapt themselves to the socioenvironmental characteristics surrounding them while they develop. These features are characterized by evidencing psychological violence, moral inhibition, manipulation, low kindness, selfishness, and difficulties to become aware or psych up in interpersonal and social interaction contexts.
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This study examines the relationship between the equity sensitivity orientation of individuals and their exhibition of organizational citizenship behaviors in a team setting. Equity sensitivity theory posits that individuals differ in their equity orientation. Individuals on the benevolent end of the scale do not mind if they are giving more than they are receiving. Conversely, individuals at the entitled end of the spectrum prefer to be in a situation where they are receiving more than they are giving. Participants were administered the Equity Sensitivity instrument (ESI) at the beginning of a team project to determine their equity orientation. At the conclusion of the team project, participants were asked to evaluate their teammates' citizenship behaviors. Through a regression analysis, a significantly positive relationship was found between equity sensitivity scores and team citizenship behaviors. Those participants holding a more benevolent orientation were significantly more likely to exhibit citizenship behaviors as reported by their teammates.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide an analysis of the factor structure of the equity preference questionnaire (EPQ). Design/methodology/approach Individual level data are collected from two samples ( n 1 =382, n 2 =455) and subjected to confirmatory factor analysis of an a priori two‐factor structure for equity sensitivity. Sample two is randomly split and one half subjected to structural equation modeling. Findings Superior fit in both samples is found for a two‐factor structure compared to a one‐factor structure. Additionally, in sample two empathy, positive affectivity, and feminine gender role identity related differentially to the factors of entitlement and benevolence. Research limitations/implications Samples are comprise of college students. However, the average level of full‐time work experience (sample one 45.6 percent > 1 year, sample two mean 23.57 months) is large and the racial groups in sample two are diverse (76 percent non‐white). Additionally, the data are collected cross‐sectionally so causality cannot be inferred. Practical implications Entitlement and benevolence seem to be two different components of equity sensitivity. Thus, people can be high or low on one or both by choosing different comparison others in different situations. Originality/value Previous research has not used a confirmatory framework to analyze the EPQ, but rather it focuse on the relationship between scores on the EPQ and other variables or used exploratory factor analysis.
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A theory of social inequity, with special consideration given to wage inequities is presented. A special case of Festinger's cognitive dissonance, the theory specifies the conditions under which inequity will arise and the means by which it may be reduced or eliminated. Observational field studies supporting the theory and laboratory experiments designed to test certain aspects of it are described. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This study explores equity sensitivity as an explanation for the differences in individuals’ organizational citizenship behaviors in response to their perceptions of organizational justice. The concept of equity sensitivity recognizes three categories of individuals: benevolents, entitleds, and sensitives. As predicted, benevolents perform more OCBs than entitleds regardless of the level of perceived justice. However, sensitives did not react as hypothesized and instead reacted similarly to benevolents. Entitleds were the most sensitive to perceived justice, responding consistently with Adam’s (1963, 1965) equity theory.
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We reviewed studies of the Dark Triad (DT) personality traits--Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy-and meta-analytically examined their implications for job performance and counterproductive work behavior (CWB). Relations among the DT traits and behaviors were extracted from original reports published between 1951 and 2011 of 245 independent samples (N = 43,907). We found that reductions in the quality of job performance were consistently associated with increases in Machiavellianism and psychopathy and that CWB was associated with increases in all 3 components of the DT, but that these associations were moderated by such contextual factors as authority and culture. Multivariate analyses demonstrated that the DT explains moderate amounts of the variance in counterproductivity, but not job performance. The results showed that the 3 traits are positively related to one another but are sufficiently distinctive to warrant theoretical and empirical partitioning.
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Accuracy and bias in self-perceptions of performance were studied in a managerial group-discussion task. Ss ranked their own performance and were ranked by the 5 other group members and by 11 assessment staff members. Although the self-perceptions showed convergent validity with the staff criterion, Ss were less accurate when judging themselves than when judging their peers. On average, Ss evaluated their performance slightly more positively than their performance was evaluated by either the peers or the staff; however, this general self-enhancement effect was dwarfed by substantial individual differences, which ranged from self-enhancements to self-diminishment bias and were strongly related to four measures of narcissism. Discussion focuses on issues in assessing the accuracy of self-perceptions and the implications of the findings for individual differences in self-perception bias and the role of narcissism.
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The psychometric properties of the Equity Sensitivity Instrument (Huseman, Hatfield, & Miles, 1985, 1987) and Equity Preference Questionnaire (Sauley & Bedeian, 2000) are compared. 173 undergraduate business majors completed several work attitude and personality measures. Results suggest that the Equity Preference Questionnaire may be a better measure of the equity sensitivity construct than the Equity Sensitivity Instrument which is typically used in research. Reliabilities for the scores on the Equity Sensitivity Instrument and Equity Preference Questionnaire were equivalent (coefficient alphas of .85 and .86, respectively); however, evidence for convergent and content validity was greater for the Equity Preference Questionnaire. Understanding individual differences in perceptions of equity and how best to measure these differences can affect workplace outcomes (e.g., turnover, employee engagement.
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The process of exchange is almost continual in human interactions, and appears to have characteristics peculiar to itself, and to generate affect, motivation, and behavior that cannot be predicted unless exchange processes are understood. This chapter describes two major concepts relating to the perception of justice and injustice; the concept of relative deprivation and the complementary concept of relative gratification. All dissatisfaction and low morale are related to a person's suffering injustice in social exchanges. However, a significant portion of cases can be usefully explained by invoking injustice as an explanatory concept. In the theory of inequity, both the antecedents and consequences of perceived injustice have been stated in terms that permit quite specific predictions to be made about the behavior of persons entering social exchanges. Relative deprivation and distributive justice, as theoretical concepts, specify some of the conditions that arouse perceptions of injustice and complementarily, the conditions that lead men to feel that their relations with others are just. The need for much additional research notwithstanding, the theoretical analyses that have been made of injustice in social exchanges should result not only in a better general understanding of the phenomenon, but should lead to a degree of social control not previously possible. The experience of injustice need not be an accepted fact of life.
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Psychological research involving scale construction has been hindered considerably by a widespread lack of understanding of coefficient alpha and reliability theory in general. A discussion of the assumptions and meaning of coefficient alpha is presented. This discussion is followed by a demonstration of the effects of test length and dimensionality on alpha by calculating the statistic for hypothetical tests with varying numbers of items, numbers of orthogonal dimensions, and average item intercorrelations. Recommendations for the proper use of coefficient alpha are offered.
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Despite suffering from content ambiguity, a sample-specific scoring procedure, and the inappropriate use of cut scores, the Equity Sensitivity Instrument Hunter and Schmidt 1990 and Huseman et al 1985 has been the primary measure used in equity sensitivity research. The purpose of the present undertaking was to propose and evaluate a new measure of equity sensitivity based on systematic item-development procedures that are crucial in both constructing a reliable and content-valid measure and for gaining an unbiased understanding of the nomological network linking equity sensitivity to other theoretically relevant constructs. The design and evaluation of the 16-item Equity Preference Questionnaire (EPQ) occurred in six studies. Two pilot studies were initially conducted to purify the EPQ and assess its reliability. Two validity assessment studies were then undertaken to examine the EPQ’s construct validity. A laboratory experiment was performed next to determine the EPQ’s validity for predicting satisfaction with different reward conditions. Finally, a test-retest reliability study was conducted to provide evidence regarding the consistency of the measurements yielded by the EPQ across time. Possible study limitations aside, the EPQ seems to be both psychometrically sound and useful for advancing equity sensitivity research. Various areas in equity sensitivity research that merit further examination are also addressed.
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Organizational theorists have advanced models of individuals' determination of equitable payment for work. Current demands by minority and women's groups stress equitable treatment by formal organizations. This article reviews primary areas in which the concept of equitable treatment has centered, notes findings, and discusses significant theoretical/methodological issues. The relationship of the equity concept and behavioral models is discussed, and frameworks for future research are presented.
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For 880 persons in management and professional positions mean satisfaction for those classified as Benevolent, Equity Sensitive, and Entitled when under-equitably or over-rewarded showed main effects of sensitivity to equity and perceptions of equity, but no interactions. Further work is suggested.
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We introduce a personality inventory designed to measure six major dimensions of personality derived from lexical studies of personality structure. The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) consists of 24 facet-level personality trait scales that define the six personality factors named Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). In this validation study involving a sample of over 400 respondents, all HEXACO-PI scales showed high internal consistency reliabilities, conformed to the hypothesized six-factor structure, and showed adequate convergent validities with external variables. The HEXACO factor space, and the rotations of factors within that space, are discussed with reference to J. S. Wiggins' work on the circumplex.
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This paper presents and empirically tests five hypotheses concerning Equity Sensitivity, a new construct proposed by Huseman, Hatfield, and Miles (1985, 1987). Equity Sensitivity proposes that not all individuals conform to the norm of equity. Huseman, et al. have proposed three Equity Sensitivity groupsBenevolents, Equity Sensitives, and Entitleds. The findings show that Benevolents are inclined to work harder for less pay than Equity Sensitives or Entitleds. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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This research presents a conceptual framework for determining how people evaluate their pay. The data indicate that people use multiple referents in evaluating their pay. Three classes of referents (Other, System, and Self) are identified, and these referents are significantly associated with feelings about pay satisfaction. Factors affecting the selection of referents are also presented. Level of professionalism and salary relate to the selection of different types of referents. Location in an organizational boundary (vs inside) role did not directly affect the selection of referents.
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The present study compares the ability of three widely used personality inventories to predict averaged acquaintance ratings. Scores from 135 individuals on the California Psychological Inventory (CPI; Gough, 1987), Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI; Hogan and Hogan, 1992) and NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa and McCrae, 1992) were correlated with four sets of acquaintance ratings representing four variants of the Five-Factor Model. Validity coecients for the NEO-PI-R primary domain scales equalled or surpassed the CPI and HPI validity coecients. Across all inventory scales and subscales, the magnitude of validity coecients was moderated by the congruence between a predictor's and criterion's secondary factor loading.
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This study integrated measures of equity sensitivity and self-efficacy in an effort to better understand how these variables may affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intent to leave. Equity sensitivity denotes how sensitive people are to overreward and underreward situations and has recently enhanced the accuracy of equity theory in predicting job satisfaction in social exchange situations. Self-efficacy, or task-specific self-confidence, is a central component of Bandura's social cognitive theory, and its influence on individuals' goals, efforts, and task persistence is well documented. Results from a field study of 242 employees in a health care firm support the moderating role of equity sensitivity in relations between self-efficacy and job satisfaction and between self-efficacy and intent to leave, but not between self-efficacy and organizational commitment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The influences of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and workplace deviant behavior (WDB) on business unit performance were investigated using data from branches of a fast food organization. Data included measures of WDB and OCB obtained from staff, ratings of performance provided by supervisors, and objective measures of performance. It was found that WDB was negatively and significantly associated with business unit performance measured both subjectively and objectively. OCB, however, failed to contribute to the prediction of business unit performance beyond the level that was achieved by WDB. It appeared, therefore, that the presence of deviant employees among business units impinges upon the performance of the business unit as a whole, whereas OCBs had comparatively little effect. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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This article advocates for the wider use of relative importance indices as a supplement to multiple regression analyses. The goal of such analyses is to partition explained variance among multiple predictors to better understand the role played by each predictor in a regression equation. Unfortunately, when predictors are correlated, typically relied upon metrics are flawed indicators of variable importance. To that end, we highlight the key benefits of two relative importance analyses, dominance analysis and relative weight analysis, over estimates produced by multiple regression analysis. We also describe numerous situations where relative importance weights should be used, while simultaneously cautioning readers about the limitations and misconceptions regarding the use of these weights. Finally, we present step-by-step recommendations for researchers interested in incorporating these analyses in their own work and point them to available web resources to assist them in producing these weights. KeywordsRelative importance–Predictor importance–Relative weight analysis–Dominance analysis–Multiple regression
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According to traditional Equity theory, the injustices that an individual encounters in one relationship should not affect his other relationships. By definition, the equitableness of one relationship (say the AB relationship) depends entirely on how much Participants A and B contribute to the relationship and how much they get out of it.Austin, in Austin and Walster (1973), however, argues that Equity theory must make transrelational predictions. He argues that persons attempt to maintain both “Person-specific Equity” and “Equity with the World” (e.g., Equity with others in general). The authors predicted (and found) that whether a person focuses on “Person-specific Equity” or “Equity with the World” depends on whether or not he feels “accountable” for his behavior. When participants knew they could not be held accountable for their actions, they routinely sacrificed Person-specific Equity in order to maintain Equity with the World. However, when they knew they would have to confront their second partner eventually, they rarely sacrificed Person-specific Equity. (Evidently, they assumed their partners would not sympathize with their desire to maintain transrelational equity.)In this experiment, we predicted (and found) that such pessimism (by persons wishing to restore “Equity with the World”) is not justified. Inequitably treated partners' dissatisfaction and hostility were markedly blunted when individuals believed that their “unfair” partner was attempting to restore “Equity with the World“.