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The Influence of Suggestion on Suicide: Substantive and Theoretical Implications of the Werther Effect
Abstract
This paper shows that suicides increase immediately after a suicide story has been publicized in the newspapers in Britain and in the United States, 1947-1968. The more publicity devoted to a suicide story, the larger the rise in suicides thereafter. The rise in suicides after a story is restricted mainly to the area in which the story was publicized. Alternative explanations of these findings are examined; the evidence indicates that the rise in suicides is due to the influence of suggestion on suicide, an influence not previously demonstrated on the national level of suicides. The substantive, theoretical, and methodological implications of these findings are examined.
... Specifically, after the reporting of celebrity suicides, suicide rates tend to increase by 13% in one to two subsequent months [4]. Imitation of suicidal behavior such as after celebrity suicide news is commonly referred to as the Werther effect [5]. Studies suggest that other types of media content may have a protective effect. ...
... The TF-IDF & SVM models can be downloaded from the github repository. BERT frequently been found to be associated with suicide [5], and although global efforts to reduce imitation suicide using media recommendations for safe portrayals have largely focused on news media [3]. In contrast, some research has been done on social media content. ...
... • Suicide death: The text includes information on one or several suicide death(s) as one of its focus areas. Stories about suicide death have sometimes been found to be positively associated with suicides [5]. ...
Suicide-related media content has preventive or harmful effects depending on the specific content. Proactive media screening for suicide prevention is hampered by the scarcity of machine learning approaches to detect specific characteristics in news reports. This study applied machine learning to label large quantities of broadcast (TV and radio) media data according to media recommendations reporting suicide. We manually labeled 2519 English transcripts from 44 broadcast sources in Oregon and Washington, USA, published between April 2019 and March 2020. We conducted a content analysis of media reports regarding content characteristics. We trained a benchmark of machine learning models including a majority classifier, approaches based on word frequency (TF-IDF with a linear SVM) and a deep learning model (BERT). We applied these models to a selection of more simple (e.g., focus on a suicide death), and subsequently to putatively more complex tasks (e.g., determining the main focus of a text from 14 categories). Tf-idf with SVM and BERT were clearly better than the naive majority classifier for all characteristics. In a test dataset not used during model training, F1-scores (i.e., the harmonic mean of precision and recall) ranged from 0.90 for celebrity suicide down to 0.58 for the identification of the main focus of the media item. Model performance depended strongly on the number of training samples available, and much less on assumed difficulty of the classification task. This study demonstrates that machine learning models can achieve very satisfactory results for classifying suicide-related broadcast media content, including multi-class characteristics, as long as enough training samples are available. The developed models enable future large-scale screening and investigations of broadcast media.
... The impact of mass media coverage of suicide on subsequent suicides has been studied extensively, dating back to the 1970s when the concept of the Werther effect was first introduced [8]. The Werther effect-an increase in suicides following media reports of suicide stories-is understood to be a form of social contagion whereby individuals imitate suicide-specific behaviors in reports. ...
... The Werther effect-an increase in suicides following media reports of suicide stories-is understood to be a form of social contagion whereby individuals imitate suicide-specific behaviors in reports. However, since the original publication of the Werther effect [8], studies have revealed more nuanced results. Evidence is strongest for the association between suicide rates and media coverage of celebrity suicides [9]. ...
The influence of media on self-injurious thoughts and behaviors, including self-harm and suicide, has received attention for decades. Research reveals mixed evidence on the relationship between media and self-harm and suicide. This is likely because media narratives differ, as do contemporary media formats, and the ways audience members consume and interact with media content and one another. This chapter summarizes what we currently know and do not yet know about the relationships between self-harm and suicide and (1) mass media coverage, (2) social media, and (3) video games. For mass media, evidence is strongest for the influence of media reports of celebrity suicides on subsequent suicide attempts. The effects of fictional suicide narratives have produced mixed results. Evidence regarding the influence of social media and video games often depends on the types of interactions people have and the content consumed. Most research is cross-sectional or correlational, limiting causal inference. Media platforms may also offer unprecedented opportunities to extend prevention efforts and support and educate young people. Effective strategies to reduce media harms, while enhancing their benefits, are critical. Based on existing evidence, we describe future research needs and make recommendations for youths, parents, schools, clinicians, media, and policymakers.
... Consequently, this compels the families to reconcile and put an end to their feud. In modern times most journalistic venues refrain from reporting on suicides in order to minimise contagion (Phillips, 1974). However, a few topical stories have been published in recent. ...
... It is difficult to reasonably infer the cause of a single suicide, but if many suicides occur under the same conditions, one may infer that these conditions play some causal role. Notably, those who share aspects of their social identity with previous suicides are more likely to contribute to an active suicide cluster by taking their own lives (Brent et al., 1989;Haw et al., 2013;Phillips, 1974;Sacks & Eth, 1981). ...
Psychological aposematism suggests that suicide operates as a conditioning mechanism for society. If bereavement and economic impacts from several suicides under similar contexts are experienced by a community, that community may be prompted to alleviate said contexts. This process may prove evolutionarily adaptive if translating into the relief of low-fitness contexts for suicidal individuals. A prediction of this theory is that geographical regions with higher suicide rates will exhibit higher reproductive fitness among those who suffer from suicidality or mental illness. This hypothesis is examined using limited data, from a combination of Statistics Canada data sources. The provinces of Canada (n = 10) were used across 2 time-points (2016 and 2021 Census cycles) to explore and calibrate possible statistical tests of the stated hypothesis. Suicide rates preceding Census years were used to predict changes in reproduction among those reporting a mental health condition versus those reporting no mental health condition. Several operationalisations of stated concepts were used, with favourability of results being judged by the degree of agreement between differential approaches (referred to as coherency). Some observed data patterns appear favourable towards the given hypothesis, though results are not statistically significant and are not always coherent with results observed under differential operationalisations. Results will receive continued re-evaluation as new Census and suicide rate data become available.
... Despite the severity of the issue of suicide in Spain, the traditional response of the media and journalists for decades has been to avoid reporting on suicides, with only a few exceptions. This media silencing is based on the conviction that some news about self-induced death can trigger contagion or provoke what has been proven in the scientific literature as the Werther effect (Phillips, 1974). But at the same time, this practice of silence ignores the potential for the mass media to educate the population on detection and prevention, known among researchers as the Papageno effect (Niederkrotenthaler et al., 2010) or the power of the press to exert pressure on public authorities to improve preventive policies (World Health Organization, 2012). ...
Every year, more than 700,000 people die by suicide worldwide, a quarter of whom are between 15 and 29 years of age. In Spain, suicide has surpassed road traffic accidents as the leading non-natural cause of death in this age group. Although its overall incidence remains low, the number of suicide attempts continues to rise, indicating an upward trend. Despite being recognized as a significant public health issue, the media often refrains from reporting on suicide to prevent the Werther effect, thereby avoiding the potential propagation of suicidal behavior. This is a form of self-censorship in the exercise of freedom of information, a right recognized by the Spanish Constitution, which also undermines the right of citizens to receive such content. The Spanish Constitutional Court has determined that public interest is a mandatory requirement to endorse the legitimacy of a news item in case of a clash with any of the rights that legally limit freedom of information. This article aims to analyze whether, in those exceptional cases in which the rule of silence is broken, the information on suicide in young people is in line with the jurisprudential concept of public interest, above privacy, honor or self-image and, especially, above the protection of children and adolescents. As a research method, this study analyzes a selection of news articles on suicides of minors, published in Spanish digital newspapers and compiled into a self-developed database. These articles are examined through the lens of the Spanish Constitutional Court’s doctrine on freedom of information. The findings indicate that public interest is unequivocally justified when news coverage focuses on aggregated data regarding suicide or suicide attempts among minors. However, when reporting on the suicide of an individual minor, the justification from the perspective of freedom of information depends on the specifics of each case, requiring a careful balance between public interest and the protection of fundamental rights.
... Partiendo de ello, diversos estudios, como el de EAAD (2022), han enfatizado que la cobertura de los medios de comunicación sobre el suicidio es un factor clave, pues los que se realizan por imitación pueden venir impulsados por noticias o narrativas inapropiadas, lo que se denomina «efecto Werther» (Phillips, 1974), por el que se planteó que el número de inmolaciones en Estados Unidos se incrementaba al mes siguiente de que el New York Times publicara en portada alguna noticia relacionada con estos, sobre todo cuando en la narrativa se exponían detalles sobre el método empleado, se presentaba como un acto de glamour o se narraban elementos personales que inspiraban compasión del lector y mensajes que sugerían que esta era una salida eficaz a los problemas del suicida. ...
La cobertura informativa sobre el suicidio debe tener especial tratamiento por parte de periodistas y medios de comunicación. Estudios previos confirman que la narrativa puede desencadenar imitadores e incluso pensamientos suicidas en personas con trastornos de salud mental. En este sentido, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) y la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) han brindado varias directrices para la cobertura de este tema. Esta investigación analiza la cobertura del suicidio en los principales medios de comunicación de 20 países iberoamericanos a partir de un análisis de contenido y de encuadre informativo de diseño cuanti-cualitativo. Los resultados arrojan que la explicación al suicidio más común es multicausal seguida por la ambiental o de contexto. En línea con las recomendaciones de la OMS-OPS, la mayoría de informaciones intentan educar al público, aunque todavía sigue siendo una materia pendiente indicar en las notas sobre cómo y dónde buscar ayuda. Se observó que en general la mayoría de las informaciones utilizan fuentes mixtas, tanto de expertos como familiares/amigos de las víctimas. Sin embargo, del análisis cualitativo se extrae que algunos encuadres están salpicados de tópicos y lugares comunes, recayendo en coberturas que se alejan de las directrices, informando sobre detalles del hecho o estableciendo relaciones causa-efecto imposibles de verificar. En los casos que se evidenciaron enfoques constructivos pesó más el tono narrativo explicativo, aportando datos con los que hacerse una idea clara de la complejidad del tema.
... [1,2] Like any contagious illness, frequent and prolonged exposure to irresponsibly done media reports on suicide, harms the community and aggravates its rates. [3,4] Suicide contagion is more likely when the method of suicide is specified in detail, portrayed dramatically and prominently, or when it is a celebrity suicide. [5,6] Similarity between the media report and the observer in terms of age, sex, and nationality could also be contributing factors. ...
Background
Media, with its power to influence the masses, is found to have an impact on how the readers perceive suicide, and evidence suggest that suicidal behavior is contagious. However, studies have shown that it is possible to intervene by implementing media guidelines for suicide reporting. Unfortunately, the guidelines are mostly not being adhered to by the media. The current study attempts to assess if there has been any change in reporting after the Press Council of India issued guidelines on suicide reporting in 2019.
Methodology
Content analysis of the newspaper articles reporting on suicide was done for 3 months (October 1, 2019, to December 31, 2019). Nineteen newspapers published in Bengaluru, Karnataka, were selected for the study based on the language and readership. These included six English, five Kannada, two Malayalam, two Hindi, two Tamil, and two Telugu newspapers. A total of 1198 reports were found and analyzed.
Results
The study found that the majority of the reports did not adhere to the guidelines. It was observed that the news reports on suicide mostly resorted to sensationalization. Majority of the reports portrayed suicide in a harmful manner by mentioning the suicide method and the site in detail and focused on monocausal explanations. The significant connection between suicide and mental illness was also overlooked.
Conclusion
Irresponsible reporting of suicide creates risks for the public and collaborative efforts should be designed to decrease the negative impact media can have on suicide prevention initiatives.
... 1 There is growing interest in the Werther effect, which refers to the spike in emulation of suicidal behaviours following their portrayal in news reporting. 2 Similarly, the Werther effect is also observed in response to fictional portrayals in television and movie dramas. Additionally, there is the Papageno effect that exposure to suicidal behaviour through social media may also play a key role in shaping behaviours, especially among youth, potentially promoting both suicidal and non-suicidal selfharm as well as alternative behaviours to suicide. ...
Background:
Pakistani television dramas often depict scenes involving suicide that may affect the psychological wellbeing of viewers. We aimed to examine the effects of suicide depiction in Pakistani television dramas on their viewers.
Methods:
In April 2023, we searched the YouTube website for Urdu-language television dramas released between 2011 and 2022 that contained scenes of suicidal behaviours (both attempts and completed suicides) using the keywords 'suicide in Pakistani dramas'. Data extracted included details of the characters involved including age group, sex, role, occupation, religion, and marital status, as well as details of the suicidal behaviours including method, reason/trigger, and place of suicide.
Results:
In total, 49 incidents of suicidal behaviours from 46 characters in 40 Urdu-language television dramas were included in the analysis. Of the 40 dramas, 42.5% were released in 2021 and 2022, and 57.5% were released between 2011 and 2020. Among the 46 characters with suicidal behaviour, 50.0% were male, 54.3% were young adults, 52.2% were married, 26.1% were housewives, 100% were Muslim, and 34.8% were in a leading role. Of the 49 incidents of suicidal behaviour, 29 were suicide, 19 were suicide attempts, and one was homicide-suicide. Common methods of suicidal behaviour depicted were gun shooting (30.6%), wrist cutting (18.3%), self-poisoning (12.2%), and jumping from height (12.2%). Common reasons for suicidal behaviour were failure in love (24.4%), familial issues (24.4%), and others (26.5%); 69.4% of suicidal behaviour occurred in home.
Conclusion:
Television dramas with scenes involving suicidal behaviours may negatively affect the general population, particularly adolescents. These scenes should be censored to prevent imitation or identification among vulnerable young people. Television dramas should provide psychoeducational messages to promote help-seeking rather than suicide for emotional problems.
... Safe media reporting has been shown to improve suicide rates following an event through the Papageno effect [14,16,53,65]. Conversely, irresponsible reporting can exacerbate suicidal behavior, known as the Werther effect [14,15,49,66]. ...
This review aims to systematically evaluate existing literature on reducing suicides along railroads, with specific focus on effectiveness, limitations, and research gaps in the current evidence base. Database searches were conducted in PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, Embase, and CINAHL covering studies published until 30 November 2024. After screening 623 studies and their references, 51 studies were included; 26 empirically assessed rail-related prevention interventions and 25 provided relevant qualitative insights. Physical barriers like removal of grade crossings, addition of fencing, and platform screen doors (PSDs) showed significant promise. Full-height PSDs eliminated all suicides and half-height PSDs significantly reduced suicide incidence. Fencing was found to be effective but raised concerns about feasibility and must be part of a comprehensive approach to mitigate potential displacement. Safe media reporting was linked to decreased suicides and a reduced risk of contagion, and CCTV monitoring and suicide pits also showed potential but had limited research. Other strategies showed mixed evidence and required additional evaluation. Some studies, particularly on physical barriers, showed possible displacement effects to other stations, highlighting the need for studies larger in geographic and temporal scope. Our findings support certain prevention interventions, but generalizability is limited by scope of research and methodological concerns. Overall, our findings highlight the need for broader, long-term studies to confirm efficacy and establish comprehensive, scalable approaches for policy implementation.
... We have seen a nationwide increase in suicides in the U. S. and in Great Britain after a suicide story is publicized. Indeed, after some suicide stories, like Marilyn Monroe's or Stephen Ward's, the increase in the suicide level is international"(Phillips, 1974). En efecto, durante la última década del siglo XIX y la primera mitad del siglo XX, la teoría de Émile Durkheim fue la imperó en torno al suicidio. ...
http://hdl.handle.net/10609/149413
En el presente siglo, el suicidio se ha convertido en una problemática de interés público a escala nacional y global. La Organización Mundial de la Salud, así como el Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador han desarrollado estrategias de trabajo para que la ciudadanía tome consciencia de que existen varios factores internos y externos para que una persona opte por esta vía, por lo cual no se puede tomar a la ligera esta situación. En este contexto, los medios de comunicación en el Ecuador comparten la responsabilidad de verdaderamente comunicar y no solo dar a conocer sobre el suicidio. Es por eso que, para el presente el trabajo, se eligieron los dos portales periodísticos con mejor posicionamiento en el ranking de Alexa hasta marzo del 2021: El Comercio y El Universo. Se eligieron 146 artículos publicados en los sitios web de ambas marcas, cuyos contenidos fueron analizados cualitativa y cuantitativamente tomando en cuenta parámetros como género, palabras que inducen al suicidio, narrativa del acto suicida, entre otros. Estos parámetros fueron establecidos con base en los manuales de periodismo sobre el suicidio creados por oenegés internacionales y otros medios de comunicación de prestigio mundial. Asimismo, el presente trabajo pone énfasis en que existe una correlación entre cómo se comunica el suicidio y el impacto que puede tener en las audiencias. Tal impacto puede ser positivo cuando el medio de comunicación tiene políticas de prevención y ayuda al lector con tendencias suicidas y su familia, o bien puede ser negativo si ofrece mucha información sobre el método que utilizó la persona que se suicidó.
... A second meta-analysis showed that fictional portrayals of suicides increased subsequent suicides by 18% and suicide attempts by 33%. 6 The phenomenon of increases in suicide following media presentations of suicide is called the Werther effect, 7 after the titular character in Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, who takes his life after a failed love affair. Some suicides occurring after the novel's release were found to have been influenced by it (eg, the novel was found with the deceased). ...
... When she saw the images of herself with a rope around her neck, the two worlds (the real and the unreal) violently merged, leading to the collapse of the protective walls that had been painstakingly erected until then. A second key to interpretation can refer to the Werther effect and in particular to the occurrence of a self-inflicted Werther effect (30), (31). From the moment the woman saw herself performing self-injurious behaviour, she fully understood the value of these gestures. ...
What can be the triggers for a suicidal action? Is there a way to “notice” it in time? Is the person who ultimately threatens is more likely to carry it out? In the proposed case report, the authors examine the issue by illustrating the case of a woman who was depressed due to her divorce with her husband. She repeatedly staged a suicide attempt by hanging herself in front of her sons, later denying what she had done. Her suicidal intentions were realised after she saw herself in a video filmed by her daughter, in which she simulated hanging herself. The study addresses the complexity of suicidal behaviour, examining existing theories and challenges in diagnosis and classification. The factors involved in the woman’s self-suppressive act are analysed, leading to the hypothesis that the “seeing herself again” forced her defence mechanisms, increasing her feelings of anger. Indeed, the viewing of the video may have induced a “self Werther effect”. This analysis highlights the urgent need for suicide prevention strategies with specialised and targeted interventions, especially in situations of family conflict. By understanding every aspect of suicidal behaviour, health professionals can implement preventive measures and support systems, while also educating family members to recognise the self-suppressive risk.
... Con posterioridad a la publicación de la obra, se sucedieron varias muertes por suicidio utilizando el mismo método, similar escena, vestimenta, etc. que el personaje de ficción. El término fue acuñado por Phillips (1974) tras observar que los fallecimientos por suicidio aumentaban al mes siguiente de que en el New York Times se publicaran noticias sobre el tema. ...
La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) viene reivindicando el papel fundamental de los medios de comunicación en la prevención del suicidio desde hace más de dos décadas. Como consecuencia, se han desarrollado en todo el mundo diversos manuales con recomendaciones para el tratamiento del suicidio en los medios. Sin embargo, se trata de un tema que siguen evitando los profesionales de la información, en parte tratando de ceñirse a las pautas señaladas en los libros de estilo y códigos éticos que les son propios. El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido el análisis del tratamiento informativo de noticias sobre suicidio en los principales medios de comunicación escrita en España, en función de las recomendaciones de la OMS y del Manual de apoyo para el tratamiento del suicidio por los medios de comunicación del Ministerio de Sanidad en España. Para ello se han analizado 451 piezas periodísticas de los cinco medios más relevantes: El País, ABC, El Mundo, La Vanguardia y El Confidencial. Los principales resultados señalan que más de la mitad de las piezas analizadas detallan el método y el lugar, siendo una minoría las que incluyen los recursos de ayuda. De todo ello se extrae la necesidad de formar a los profesionales de la comunicación en un adecuado tratamiento de los datos sobre suicidio, así como de la revisión de manuales y guías ya disponibles, para dar respuesta a las exigencias de los medios y a las demandas sociales, aprovechando la oportunidad de sensibilizar a la población en este tema y otros temas socialmente relevantes que necesitan el empuje y respaldo de los medios de comunicación. La forma y el contenido de las noticias sobre suicidio pueden tener un efecto preventivo a la vez que educativo.
... Napriek tejto metodologickej vyhranenosti záverečné konklúzie klinických štúdií odkazujú okrem iného na sociálne aspekty asistovaného umierania, v čom sa prekvapivo približujú k zdanlivo prekonanej sociologickej premise Émila Durkheima o takých silách v spoločnosti, ktoré môžu podporovať rozhodovanie o samovražde (Phillips 1974). Signifikantné môžu byť v tomto smere historicky sa meniace tzv. ...
... Se ha documentado que la difusión de información de casos de suicidio consumado (especialmente en aquellos casos referidos a figuras públicas), puede inducir a actos de imitación, los cuales son conocidos como efecto copycat o Werther, descritos desde 1974 por el sociólogo David Philips a partir de los suicidios reportados posterior a la publicación de la novela de Johan Wolfgang von Goethe denominada "Las penas del joven Werther" (13). La historia relatada por Goethe cobra relevancia, dado que para la época se precisa un aumento significativo en los casos de suicidio en población joven, encontrando entre sus pertenencias el libro y prendas de vestir similares al del personaje principal (chaqueta azul y chaleco) (14). ...
Esta guía va dirigida a comunicadores sociales y periodistas encargados de la formulación y divulgación de noticias de interés general que están relacionadas con temas de salud pública.
... El "efecto Werther" hace referencia a la capacidad de contagio que tienen las conductas suicidas por medio de la imitación y el modelado, y explica el aumento de suicidios en la población que en ocasiones sucede tras la transmisión por parte de los medios de comunicación del suicidio de personas públicas (39). Así, las dificultades para modular el abordaje del suicidio en redes sociales, ampliamente utilizadas por la población menor de edad, podrían estar contribuyendo a aumentar el riesgo suicida de los adolescentes y jóvenes durante sus crisis suicidas (40). ...
... Factors associated with the perception of suicide include depression, family or peer suicide, societal attitudes, and various media exposure [28]. In particular, exposure to celebrity suicides or suiciderelated works through the media can lead to an increase in suicide rates, which is known as the "Werther effect" or "copycat phenomenon" [29]. In Korea, after the suicides of three famous singers and actors, an increase in suicide rates was observed among individuals aged 10-29 years [30]. ...
Objectives
South Korea has the highest suicide rate among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries; there is an increasing trend in suicide attempts among middle and high school students. Various factors contribute to the risk of suicide among adolescents, and the perception of suicide prevention has emerged as a significant factor. This study aimed to investigate the association between emotional and behavioral difficulties among middle and high school students and their perceptions of suicide prevention and to explore differences in suicide perception according to age.
Methods
A survey was conducted among community middle and high school students, including 530 participants, between 2020 and 2021. Emotional and behavioral difficulties were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire-Korean version, and participants were asked to complete a questionnaire on the importance and possibility of suicide prevention. A correlation test and analysis of variance were used to examine the relationships between the variables, and suicide awareness was compared according to age.
Results
The participants who displayed higher strength or lower difficulty were more likely to respond positively to suicide prevention measures. They also exhibited high strength and low difficulty levels, thus agreeing with the importance of suicide prevention. Regarding age-related perceptions of suicide, adults aged 20–29 years reported the lowest probability of suicide prevention.
Conclusion
Suicide perceptions influence the incidence of suicide. Therefore, active societal engagement through suicide prevention campaigns and related education is essential to improve such perceptions. Continuous attention and support are required to address this issue.
... Asch's measurements showed that, in many cases, subjects showed conformity to obviously incorrect answers and followed the overruling majority. American sociologist Phillips (1974) studied imitative suicides and claimed that sui-cide rates generally increase when excessive suicidal behavior is observed only in the geographical region that receives media attention. This condition is known as the 'Werther effect'. ...
Social contagion is a pervasive phenomenon and an important social influence that involves the rapid dissemination (propagation) of behaviors, attitudes, emotions, or ideas from one person to another, often without conscious reflection or rational thought. This phenomenon is closely related to conformity, by which a person changes his/her original ideas and attitude and imitates certain behavior of others. Although some behavioral research has been carried out on contagion and conformity, there is very little neuropsychological understanding of these phenomena. Existing research on social influence and conformity has predominantly focused on tasks like mental rotation or rating tasks involving facial expressions, with fewer studies exploring risk preferences and temporal discounting. However, there is a notable gap in the literature when it comes to examining social influence and conformity using other‑regarding preferencemodels derived from heterodox economics. To address this research gap, the present study investigates the neuropsychological underpinnings of social contagion by utilizing event‑related potentials (ERPs) recorded while subjects engage in mini‑dictator games. The behavioral analysis revealed that contagion had an impact on the participants’ preferences, leading to a change in their choices. We observed a P300 component in the midline and right posterior during the time window of 200‑350 ms after stimulus onset, which showed a significant increase in mean amplitude when participants observed others’ behavior, compared to when they made decisions based on their own preferences. Moreover, the lack of late positive potential in the time window of 500‑650 ms suggests that the presence of P300 may indicate difficulty in making decisions. In summary, by analyzing both behavioral and ERP data, this study may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and neural processes that drive conformity and contagion behavior. Our analysis has the potential to inform policymakers in developing effective interventions for promoting positive social behaviors and reducing negative ones.
... The discussion of suicide methods and the potential for harm arising from those discussions are widely documented and arguably universally accepted across the literature with regard to suicide contagion (15), and the Werther effect (16). However dangerous and uncomfortable it may be to accept, suicide methods are currently being discussed in detail online and robust, disruptive research must be carried out to monitor and report on potential trends and insights. ...
Traditional approaches to suicide research often emphasise individual pathology, reinforcing conventional medical and religious narratives. Critical suicidology challenges these approaches, advocating for diverse voices and qualitative methodologies that consult and include first-person experiences.
Transdisciplinary approaches can deconstruct habitual
tendencies that lean toward clinical and statistical analyses, and in doing so highlight areas previously overlooked in academic literature. Research on suicide methods is often focused on the most common three to five methods globally, leaving clinicians, professionals and policymakers under-prepared while at the same time ignoring first-person experiences.
Night Night is one such method of suicide that, to our knowledge, has not yet been specifically highlighted in academic literature, underscoring the need for more innovative and progressive explorations of suicide.
... Several related processes lead to the spread of behavior from one person to another, ranging from relatively unconscious emotional contagion and behavioral mimicry to more deliberate social learning and imitation. Studies have identified imitation effects in a variety of different contexts, ranging from the mimicry of non-verbal behavior and language (Chartrand and Bargh 1999;Asch 1956) to copycat suicide (Phillips 1974). Social learning theory, which argues that people acquire and perform actions through their associations with other people who are performing them, contributes an related perspective on mechanisms involved in the adoption of deviant and conforming behavior, ranging from adolescent marijuana usage (Akers and Cochran 1985) to alcohol use among the elderly (Akers and La Greca 1991). ...
Interpersonal conflicts occur frequently in both offline and online groups, with conditions for conflict especially ripe online. This research attempts to understand the consequences of online group conflict and reporting it to group administrators, both for the protagonists in the conflict and observers. If group conflict is aversive, then group members should reduce their group participation after observing conflict. Theories of imitation and behavioral mimicry suggest that even onlookers will exhibit more conflict and negative language after observing conflict conversations in their group. In contrast, theories of deterrence suggest that both the instigator of the conflict and onlookers will reduce their conflict and onlookers might even increase their engagement if conflicts are reported to group administrators. The current study uses de-identified and aggregated data from Facebook group conversations and Mahalanobis distance matching to test these ideas. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that conflict in group conversations reduces engagement within the group and increases the amount of conflict and the negativity of language users express in the group. However, inconsistent with deterrence theories, conflict and language negativity increase and group engagement decreases when conflict is reported to group administrators.
... A summary of the news-reports that includes the time and location of the incidents, manner of death, sex, age and number of the victims While suicides can be influenced by various factors, including mental health problems and social factors, one important area of research examines the potential impact of media stories on subsequent suicidal behavior[5]. The rapid advancement of technology, the internet, and social media has significantly enhanced communication in recent decades. ...
Objectives: This paper focuses on the intentional deaths by cyanide that occurred in Turkey and aims to discuss the effect of internet and the media on these cases. Methods: Five highly circulated daily newspapers were selected and the term “siyanür”, which means “cyanide” in Turkish, were searched within their online search function between 2017-2021. A Google Trends analysis was performed with “siyanür+siyanur” as the keyword, “Turkey” as the region, and “1/1/2017-12/31/2021” as the custom time range. Results: Twenty different incidents and news reports of cyanide related suicides and/or homicides with 29 total deaths were found. In Google Trends analysis, seven out of total 8 periods of increased search interest coincided with the news reports related to cyanide deaths. Conclusions: The authors observed a surge in cyanide-related incidents following a highly publicized case in May 2019, with a peak in November 2019. The study highlights the influence of media coverage on subsequent incidents, with newspapers often using sensational headlines and providing detailed information on suicide methods. Reporting a news article on suicide requires great care and caution. Thus, the guidelines on reporting suicide related news should be implemented nationwide with a collaboration between media professionals and health-care experts.
... Online harassment against famous people also causes indirect negative effects. First, sensationalized coverage of the suicides of famous people increases suicide mimicry (Werther effect) (Phillips, 1974;Kim et al., 2013) because such coverage evokes increased negative emotions and feelings of social isolation than the coverage of suicides of other victims (Rosen et al., 2019). Second, observing online harassment encourages the aggressive behavior of observers (Bliuc et al., 2018;Ouvrein et al., 2018;Scott et al., 2019;Yokotani and Takano, 2021) and tempts them to justify their offensive behavior (Crandall and Eshleman, 2003), e.g., they believe that celebrities are socially strong (Lawson, 2017;Ouvrein et al., 2018;Lee et al., 2020). ...
Famous people, such as celebrities and influencers, are harassed online on a daily basis. Online harassment mentally disturbs them and negatively affects society. However, limited studies have been conducted on the online harassment victimization of famous people, and its effects remain unclear. We surveyed Japanese famous people (N = 213), who were influential people who appeared on television and other traditional media and on social media, regarding online harassment victimization, emotional injury, and action against offenders and revealed that various forms of online harassment are prevalent. Some victims used the anti-harassment functions provided by weblogs and social media systems (e.g., blocking/muting/reporting offender accounts and closing comment forms), talked about their victimization to close people, and contacted relevant authorities to take legal action (talent agencies, legal consultants, and police). By contrast, some victims felt compelled to accept harassment and did not initiate action for offenses. We propose several approaches to support victims, inhibit online harassment, and educate people. Our findings help that platforms establish support systems against online harassment.
... Media reports about suicide consistent with current media recommendations for suicide reporting are crucial to prevent imitation, also known as the Werther effect (Niederkrotenthaler et al., 2010;Phillips, 1974). Studies have shown accordingly that specific suicide-related media content is associated with subsequent increases in suicides (Niederkrotenthaler et al., 2020(Niederkrotenthaler et al., , 2021. ...
Background: Little is known about the quality of media reports on suicide and prevention targeting persons with sexual or gender minority identities (LGBTQ+). Aims: To assess the quality of suicide-related media reporting of LGBTQ+ people and its consistency with media guidelines. Method: We conducted a content analysis of 5,652 media items in two US states (Washington and Oregon) published within 1 year. Results: There were only few differences in the reporting about suicide in LGBTQ+ as compared to non-LGBTQ+ reports. LGBTQ+ media items more often portrayed suicide as monocausal [Oregon: OR = 1.75, 95% CI (1.03–2.98), p = .038; Washington: OR = 3.00, 95% CI (1.81–4.97), p < .001] and linked them to adverse life experiences [OR = 2.16, 95% CI (1.38–3.38), p < .001; OR = 2.09, 95% CI (1.30–3.38), p = .002] than non-LGBTQ+ items. They also more often featured mental health experts [OR = 1.79, 95% CI (1.04–3.10), p = .034; OR = 2.12, 95% CI (1.23–3.67), p = .006] and contacts to support services [OR = 2.22, 95% CI (1.41–3.48), p < .001; OR = 2.70, 95% CI (1.64–4.45), p < .001]. Limitations: Aspects possibly influencing the portrayal of LGBTQ+ suicide and prevention beyond the characteristics listed were not investigated. Conclusion: Suicide-related media reporting related to LGBTQ+ issues features potentially beneficial aspects but tends to overlook multifactorial causes of suicide. Diverse factors contributing to LGBTQ+ suicide and prevention warrant greater attention.
... Вопервых, это «распространение самоубийств» (англоязычный термин suicide contagion буквально переводится как «инфекция самоубийств»), явление, впервые описанное социологом Дэвидом Филлипсом в 1970 году, которое сводится к следующему: за са моубийством известной личности следует всплеск самоубийств среди простых членов общества [17]. В качестве примера приводится случай Бриттани Мейнард, американской активистки, которая стра дала от глиобластомы последней стадии, пропаган дировала «помощь в умирании» и добровольно ушла из жизни 1 ноября 2014 года в возрасте 29 лет. ...
This paper analyzes the problem of euthanasia, gives the history of this phenomenon, presents traditional ethical arguments for and against this practice, critically evaluates the practice of organ donation after euthanasia or euthanasia as a consequence of organ donation as established in some countries of the European Union, the US and Canada. The current status of this controversial practice is assessed.
... The study found that the number of suicide cases was increased due the methods shown the newspapers in the report as a person found similarities with the object, they tend to perform the same action to solve the problem (Phillips, 1974). According to World Health Organization reports one million suicides every year around the world, and while media does not directly promote suicidal behavior, its coverage could have a significant impact (Araujo, et all 2016). ...
... Unsafe news reporting is among many risk factors that contribute to suicide [9]. For example, studies have shown that sensationalized reporting, including that of celebrity suicides, is positively correlated with a rise in suicides [10,11]. Other research has shown that specific characteristics of news coverage, for example, descriptions of an epidemic or suicide myths, may also shape population-level effects on suicide [12]. ...
Background
Suicide is a leading cause of death worldwide. Journalistic reporting guidelines were created to curb the impact of unsafe reporting; however, how suicide is framed in news reports may differ by important characteristics such as the circumstances and the decedent’s gender.
Objective
This study aimed to examine the degree to which news media reports of suicides are framed using stigmatized or glorified language and differences in such framing by gender and circumstance of suicide.
Methods
We analyzed 200 news articles regarding suicides and applied the validated Stigma of Suicide Scale to identify stigmatized and glorified language. We assessed linguistic similarity with 2 widely used metrics, cosine similarity and mutual information scores, using a machine learning–based large language model.
Results
News reports of male suicides were framed more similarly to stigmatizing (P<.001) and glorifying (P=.005) language than reports of female suicides. Considering the circumstances of suicide, mutual information scores indicated that differences in the use of stigmatizing or glorifying language by gender were most pronounced for articles attributing legal (0.155), relationship (0.268), or mental health problems (0.251) as the cause.
Conclusions
Linguistic differences, by gender, in stigmatizing or glorifying language when reporting suicide may exacerbate suicide disparities.
One of sociology's defining debates centers on explanations of the geographic patterning of suicide. This classic debate is revisited using techniques of spatial analysis and data for two geographies: late nineteenth-century French departments, and late twentieth-century U.S. counties. Results of the French analysis contradict Durkheim's claim that “imitation” plays no role in shaping the geographic patterning of suicide. Suicide rates for northern and southern French departments cluster geographically even when the clustering of multiple dimensions of social integration is controlled. These findings are replicated in a contemporary analysis of nonwestern U.S. counties. Results for the American West, however, support the Durkheimian view that suicide clusters in geographic space only because important structural predictors of suicide, including measures of social integration, do so as well. These discrepant findings are reconciled and it is concluded that the geographic patterning of suicide is shaped by both social integration and imitation.
This study examined whether Australian media professionals agree with guidelines for reporting suicide (Mindframe guidelines) and the factors that may influence their level of agreement. Participants completed an online survey to assess their level of agreement with Mindframe guidelines and to explore factors that might be associated with guideline agreement. These factors included demographic variables, suicide stigma, exposure to suicide, perceived strength of the evidence, personal use of guidelines, organisational compliance with guidelines and prior exposure to Mindframe. In total, 262 Australian media professionals from broadcast, print, digital and other media were recruited. Participants agreed with 15 of the 16 guideline statements, with linear regression showing that prior exposure to Mindframe was a significant predictor of agreement as was the perceived strength of the evidence, personal application of guidelines and stigma. Guidelines for reporting suicide should be enhanced by an active implementation strategy informed by knowledge and views of media professionals.
Globalisasi membawa K-pop masuk ke Indonesia. Fenomena ini memberikan dampak negatif karena ada siswa Kristen tingkat SMA yang kecanduan K-pop . Gereja perlu menemukan solusi bukan hanya mencegah namun juga mengobati siswa-siswa Kristen yang kecanduan K-pop . Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membuat strategi bimbingan yang alkitabiah untuk melayani siswa Kristen tingkat SMA yang kecanduan K-pop . Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan metode penelitian eksegesis Alkitab dan studi kepustakaan. Penelitian ini mengumpulkan data tentang kecanduan pada Jemaat Efesus, prinsip-prinsip tentang menangani kecanduan dalam Efesus 5:1-21, strategi bimbingan terhadap kecanduan menurut para pakar, dan kondisi siswa Kristen yang kecanduan K-pop . Analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini melalui metode jalinan yaitu reduksi data, penyajian data dan penarikan kesimpulan. Penelitian ini menghasilkan strategi bimbingan ARMY. Globalization brought K-pop into Indonesia. This phenomenon has a negative impact because there are high school Christian students who are addicted to K-pop. The church needs to find a solution not only to prevent but also to treat Christian students who are addicted to K-pop. This study aims to develop a biblical guidance strategy to serve Christian high school students who are addicted to K-pop. This study uses a qualitative approach using the Bible exegesis research method and literature study. This research collects data that will be collected are addiction in the Ephesus Congregation, principles on dealing with addiction in Ephesians 5:1-21, addiction counseling strategies according to experts, and the condition of Christian students who are addicted to K-Pop. Analysis of the data used in this study through the interweaving method, namely data reduction, data presentation and drawing conclusions. This research resulted in an ARMY guidance strategy.
Objective
Evidence suggests that the media can play a role in preventing suicide, as well as contributing to suicide contagion. As such, the primary objective is to assess adherence to responsible reporting of suicide recommendations in news articles about suicide over time. A secondary objective is to assess whether reporting changed significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The tertiary objective is to assess overall patterns regarding types of suicide reported.
Methods
We collected news articles with the keyword “suicide” from 47 Canadian news sources between April 1, 2019, and March 31, 2023. Articles were coded for adherence to key responsible reporting of suicide guidelines. Frequency counts and percentages of adherence were calculated for all key variables. Time series analyses using a Generalized Linear Autoregressive Moving Average model assessed for adherence trends over time, including measuring for any changes during the COVID-19 years.
Results
Study procedures resulted in 3,232 coded news articles. Overall, the results indicate that adherence to the guidelines has moderately improved over the course of the 4-year period. This is especially true for recommendations regarding avoiding putatively harmful content, such as detailed descriptions of the suicide method. Similar improvements were seen in adherence to guidelines related to the inclusion of putatively helpful content, with significantly more articles providing help-seeking information. However, in the final year of the study, less than a third of articles included educational content about suicide, help-seeking information, or quotes from suicide experts. Reporting of suicide during the COVID-19 period showed some positive improvements; however, these were not sustained after the pandemic ended.
Conclusions
On the plus side, adherence to responsible suicide reporting guidelines improved over the 4-year period, especially for recommendations concerning putatively helpful content. However, there remains room for improvement regarding the inclusion of putatively protective content such as including help-seeking information, educating about suicide, and quoting experts.
Background: Although an important subset of mass shooters has admitted copying previous shooters, there has been almost no empirical research on the similarities between mass shooting role models and their copycats. Such analysis is essential for understanding who is most susceptible to the influence of high-profile mass shooters and what behaviors they are likely to copy.
Methods: We first compiled all documented instances we could find globally of public mass shooters and active shooters becoming a role model for a copycat from 1966 to 2022 (n = 205) and calculated how often their risk profiles and behaviors were similar. Next, we ran simulated matches (n = 2000) and used binary logistic regression to test whether copycats were significantly more similar to their role models than to a random shooter.
Findings: Compared to a random shooter, copycat attackers were significantly closer to their role models in age and more likely to share the same sex, race, country, incident location type, and offender outcome. Nearly 80% of copycats attacked more than one year after their role model, and the average temporal gap was approximately eight years. Copycats averaged significantly fewer victims killed and wounded than their role models.
Conclusions: The risk that high-profile mass shooters influence copycat attackers persists for many years, with the most susceptible individuals sharing characteristics of the role model shooters themselves. These findings could be used to make media coverage of mass shootings safer and to inform triage and case prioritization for threat assessment and violence prevention.
The goal of this essay is to investigate from a gender perspective, through articles in the local press, the phenomenon of female suicides in Trieste during the transitional phase following WWI (1918-1922). This was due to a period of abrupt changes: political, administrative, and economic. In addition, hope for a better future and anxiety had been dashed with the increase in poverty and the rampant violence that swept through the city. In Triste in 1920 for the first time the number of female suicides exceeded the number of male suicides. Based on the judgments made in the press, three macro categories have been identified into which we can place the suicides: the “comprese” (understood) that committed or attempted suicides were considered to be socially acceptable, or at least justified, in so far as that they related to economic reasons, health or familial grief; those considered to be linked to “frivolous motives” and condemned by bourgeois morality because they were connected to matters of romance and family conflict; and finally, those of sex workers (prostitute), about whom open criticisms were put forward, as they were seen as a natural and physiological consequence of life in the brothels.
There are multiple practices to marginalize voices in the media such as manipulated language or intentional nonappearance of certain topics. In the context of suicide, medicalization of the phenomenon and the process of suicide becoming a taboo topic can be understood as a silencing practice. Fraser (1971) seeks the roots of taboos in danger, irrespective of the real or imaginary. Suicide, in public in particular, is an extreme form of communication: at the same time it is a disrupting or perceivedly dangerous event that might create strong emotional responses by the audience. When we take into account the risk of copycat effects (Werther effect), reports about suicide can potentially harm the audience. In this vein media guidelines on coverage of suicide call for restraint and careful reporting and, with very few exceptions, for explanations on an individual level, without considering broader socio-economic conditions. This paper presents an overview of over 70 media guidelines worldwide and conceptualizes the suicide as a voiceless actor. The issue of voice is central for suicide survivors, as they lack space to articulate their pain, grief, and feelings of shame or guilt. To silence means to restrict the competence of an individual or a group to communicate. Due to the fact that recommendations tend to promote medical explanations of suicide as an outcome of mental health issues, they silence other dimensions, such as individuals’ societal backgrounds or additional disruptions that impact their behaviour.
Exposure to media reporting on suicide can be both a risk and a protective factor, as (ir)responsible reporting on suicide can have different effects on vulnerable people. Since online media are increasingly important in everyday life, this study aimed to examine how the three most widely read Slovenian online media report on suicide. 114 online media articles published between 1 January and 31 December 2017 were included in the study and assessed for compliance with recommendations on responsible media reporting on suicide, and inclusion of harmful and protective characteristics. Different articles included or adhered to different recommendations, and harmful and protective characteristics. The correlation between compliance with recommendations, and the inclusion of protective and harmful characteristics suggests that although articles comply with recommendations, they do not necessarily contain enough protective information. The study confirms patterns observed in other studies while providing a first insight into Slovenian online media reporting on suicide. Further research is needed to confirm our findings while considering different online media. Additionally, future studies should focus on other aspects of reporting on suicide, e.g., comments under online media articles, which might also impact readers.
Fenomena bunuh diri di Indonesia menunjukkan tren peningkatan tiap tahunnya. Studi ini ingin melihat bagaimana fenomena bunuh diri digambarkan di dua media siber: Kompas.id dan Detik.com pada Mei-Juni 2024 serta kepatuhannya pada Pedoman Pemberitaan Terkait Tindak dan Upaya Bunuh Diri yang dikeluarkan Dewan Pers. Hal ini penting mengingat publik perlu diedukasi bahwa bunuh diri bisa dihindari, apalagi media punya tanggung jawab sosial untuk memberitakan tanpa menimbulkan efek imitasi. Studi ini menggunakan metode analisis isi dengan pendekatan kualitatif deskriptif, menggunakan paradigma kritis. Temuannya, baik Kompas.id maupun Detik.com sama-sama belum mematuhi Pedoman Pemberitaan Terkait Tindak dan Upaya Bunuh Diri yang dikeluarkan Dewan Pers sejak 2019. Berita bunuh diri di Kompas.id masih ada yang menuliskan identitas korban, lokasi bunuh diri, serta foto yang dianggap akan menimbulkan perasaan traumatis. Artinya, melanggar poin ke-4, 5, 6, 9 Pedoman Dewan Pers. Sementara, pemberitaan bunuh diri di Detik.com secara kuantitas jauh lebih banyak. Namun bunuh diri digambarkan sebagai berita berbasis peristiwa tanpa ada upaya mengaitkannya dengan isu kesehatan jiwa. Selain itu, penelitian ini menemukan Detik masih mengabaikan isu identitas korban, foto yang tidak layak dimasukkan dalam berita serta kecenderungan menjadikan isu bunuh diri sebagai berita sensasional. Dalam hal ini, Detik.com melanggar poin ke-2, 5, 9 dan 12 Pedoman Dewan Pers.
Digital information gain, communication and entertainment through new media have become elementary parts of young people’s everyday lives. In 2018, series are the most popular media form of film presentation and the most popular entertainment medium amongst young people. Of the ten most popular series, eight can be found in the Netflix database, and five of them are Netflix’s own productions. It is striking that in all of these series, different forms of violence, usually depicted in a particularly explicit way, are integrated into the story and the course of the narrative. The phenomenon of the media’s portrayal of violence, aggression and suicide has been researched and controversially discussed for years, and is not only associated with more recent Netflix series. But why does medial film performance seem to offer such high entertainment value? And what influence do high-frequency depictions of violence and suicide exert on adolescent development and later bullying behaviour and consequences? In the following chapter, these questions will be analysed by looking at the underlying social and developmental psychological processes and research findings.
When a suicide or attempted suicide happens, many people wonder if any signs of the crisis were overlooked. Do all people who go into a suicidal crisis show signs? What signs would those be? This article addresses this issue through an analysis of the series “The 13 Whys” which deals with several controversial topics, including the justifications for young Hannah's suicide. From the series, is it possible to identify signs that someone is in a suicidal crisis? Is this series a form of suicide prevention? Or, on the contrary, can it even stimulate it? Through the analysis of scenes and dialogues from the series in the light of Jungian psychology and other references in suicidology, we present reflections relevant to the topic. Our analysis allows us to conclude that the series enabled in-depth reflections on the topic of suicide from several aspects, including the issue of signs, which usually make sense after the attempt. However, its format can also bring the romanticization of suicide, as well as being a stimulus for some spectator in a suicidal crisis.
The suicides of important kings are recorded in the Bible, and the chapter starts with an overview of the history of suicide. It then covers suicide verdicts, international suicide rates and methods, then the epidemiology of suicide is reviewed. This includes the effect of marital status, the elderly and the young, mental illness, the emotions of hopelessness and shame, as well as suicide in major mental disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and alcoholism. Economic influences such as poverty, occupation and unemployment, as well as worldwide financial crashes are covered. Can anything reduce the rates? Does religion help prevent suicide? Does suicide prevention and risk assessment help, or is this still just ’a work in progress’? Self harm has reached almost epidemic numbers in most parts of the world. The aetiology and why this should be is covered as well as what the later risk of completed suicides is.
Multiple studies from various countries have found evidence of suicide increases after media reports of suicide, which are known as the Werther effect, but responsible suicide reporting can contribute to suicide prevention, a phenomenon known as the Papageno effect. This study aims to assess adherence by the Portuguese media to the suicide reporting guidelines released by the World Health Organization (WHO) and to determine whether there are differences in reporting style between them and over time. News items about six suicides of public and non-public figures between 1996 and 2020 were collected from several Portuguese media-two newspapers, three radio stations, three television channels, and a few websites-in the periods following those deaths, and they were subsequently examined for adherence to the WHO guidelines. A total of 374 news items were analyzed. The majority of them complied with most of the WHO recommendations for suicide reporting, especially the 'don't do' guidelines. However, most of the news items that were analyzed did not follow the recommendations regarding putatively preventive information, notably the inclusion of support contacts and citation of mental health experts. The Portuguese media mostly adhered to the WHO suicide reporting guidelines and there was a positive evolution over time in the level of compliance with them. Nevertheless, there is room for improvement.
Objective
This study compared third molar angulation and eruption status in Class I and II malocclusions after orthodontic treatment with and without first premolar extractions.
Methods
The sample comprised 93 patients divided into four groups: Group 1, Class I malocclusion treated with first premolar extractions; Group 2, Class I malocclusion treated without extractions; Group 3, Class II malocclusion treated with first premolar extractions; and Group 4, Class II malocclusion treated without extractions. Panoramic radiographs were used to evaluate the third molar mesiodistal angulations at T1 (pretreatment), T2 (posttreatment), and T3 (long-term posttreatment). Third molar eruption status was assessed in dental casts. Intergroup angulations and eruption status comparisons were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s test and Kruskal-Wallis test, respectively.
Results
Significantly greater mesial angulation and percentage of erupted right maxillary third molars were observed in the Class I extraction group. Significantly greater eruption status of the right mandibular third molars was observed in the Class I and Class II malocclusion extraction groups.
Conclusion
Class I and II malocclusion extraction treatment exhibited more favorable angulations and a greater number of erupted third molars than non-extraction treatment. The non-extraction groups exhibited a greater percentage of unerupted third molars.
Statistical and graphic analyses of data from 40 U.S. cities indicate that President Kennedy's assassination in November 1963 and the Speck and Whitman crimes in the Summer of 1966 were followed by unusual increases in the number of violent crimes. Although we cannot exclude the possibility that only police actions (such as reporting violent crimes) were affected, the findings are suggestive of a contagion of criminal violence. Non-violent crimes did not appear to be affected. Some of the processe theoretically contributing to this kind of contagion aare discussed.
This paper presents evidence that there are fewer deaths than expected before three ceremonial occasions: the birthday, Presidential elections, and the Jewish Day of Atonement. The investigation of mortality before the birthday was based on biographical information on 1,333 famous persons; official vital statistics tables were used to study mortality before the other two occasions. Alternative explanations of our findings are examined; the evidence suggests that the dip in deaths before ceremonies results from some persons' postponement of death. These results are interpreted in terms of Durkheim's discussion of social integration and ceremonies.
Psychoanalytic literature has a number of references to suicidal acts taking place on the anniversary of the death of a loved person. Anniversaries of significant bereavements have been seen as likely to reactivate a depressive syndrome and as possible precipitants of suicide. Zilboorg (7) suggested that suicides might take their lives on the anniversary of a parent's death as though to expiate the death which they unconsciously perceived as the result of their own wishes. Others have seen the meaning of the suicide's act as a fantasied rebirth or new beginning with a lost love object, and the supposed occurrence of suicides on the anniversary of a death has again been instanced as support (Jackson (3)).
This report was stimulated by the fact that two middle-aged depressive male patients killed themselves in the same ward under identical circumstances within a fortnight. It was thought that it would possibly be instructive to examine the hospital records since its opening in 1866 to look at the available information about patients who had committed suicide whilst under inpatient care here. The total number of suicides to date has been 24 and in the years 1901, 1911, 1955, 1957 and 1965 there have been two suicides in each year. There was sufficient information available to suggest that there were certain similarities between those occurring in the years 1901, 1957 and 1965, so these cases are considered in greater detail in the following reports.