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Progress and prospects for event tourism research

May 2015
Tourism Management 52

DOI:10.1016/j.tourman.2015.03.007

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This paper examines event tourism as a field of study and area of professional practice updating the previous review article published in 2008. In this substantially extended review, a deeper analysis of the field's evolution and development is presented, charting the growth of the literature, focussing both chronologically and thematically A framework for understanding and creating knowledge about events and tourism is presented, forming the basis which signposts established research themes and concepts and outlines future directions for research. In addition, the review article focuses on constraining and propelling forces, ontological advances, contributions from key journals, and emerging themes and issues. It also presents a roadmap for research activity in event tourism.

Typology of planned events and venues: An event-tourism perspective.

…

A framework for studying knowledge on event tourism (After Getz, 2005, 2013a).

…

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Progress in Tourism Management

Progress and prospects for event tourism research

Donald Getz

, Stephen J. Page

The University of Calgary, Canada

Faculty of Management, Bournemouth University, UK

highlights

Event tourism as a growth area has expanded exponentially since 20 08.

The review documents the main changes in the event tourism literature.

Event tourism as a response to planned events is evaluated from a social science perspective.

Event tourism is categorised and the literature critically evaluated.

article info

Article history:

Received 15 January 2014

Accepted 14 March 2015

Available online 14 May 2015

Keywords:

Event tourism

Trends

Research

Theory

Ontology

abstract

This paper examines event tourism as a ﬁeld of study and area of professional practice updating the

previous review article published in 2008. In this substantially extended review, a deeper analysis of the

ﬁeld's evolution and development is presented, charting the growth of the literature, focussing both

chronologically and thematically A framework for understanding and creating knowledge about events

and tourism is presented, forming the basis which signposts established research themes and concepts

and outlines future directions for research. In addition, the review article focuses on constraining and

propelling forces, ontological advances, contributions from key journals, and emerging themes and

issues. It also presents a roadmap for research activity in event tourism.

license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The ﬁeld of event studies, reviewed by Getz (2012a, 2012b)

depicts the expanding ﬁeld of event management and the wider

social science contribution to this interdisciplinary area of study,

heralded as a major success story in terms of its educational pro-

vision within higher education, its expansion of research activity

and its contribution to tourism development within the commer-

cial arena. Within the context of tourism and the tourism system

(Leiper, 1990), events comprise a key element in both the origin

area (i.e. events are an important motivator of tourism) as well as

within the destination area (i.e. events feature prominently in the

development and marketing plans of most destinations). Events are

both animators of destination attractiveness but more fundamen-

tally as key marketing propositions in the promotion of places

given the increasingly global competitiveness to attract visitor

spending. To use Leiper's analogy of the tourism system, events

have become a core element of the destination system where ac-

commodation, attractions, transport and ancillary services have

been utilised or speciﬁcally developed (e.g. the provision of infra-

structure for mega events) to enhance the destination offer thereby

expanding the tourism potential and capacity of destinations

beyond a narrow focus on leisure-based tourism (e.g. holidays).

Recent research (e.g. Connell, Page, &Meyer, 2015) also demon-

strates the critical relationship that exists between events as a

bridge between the market for visitor attractions created by tour-

ists and the use of events to ﬁll the gap left in the off-peak season by

a seasonal drop in tourism demand, as residents and domestic

visitors provide a substitutable form of demand stimulated by

events. In this respect, events have a wider remit than destination-

related tourism although the focus of this article is primarily on the

destination-related issues of event tourism and the studies asso-

ciated with this area.

Interestingly, place marketing, often referred to as boosterism

(where events are used to ‘boost’visitor numbers and appeal) has

emerged as a key feature associated with events to develop a

unique selling proposition that differentiates the destination from

*Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: getz@ucalgary.ca (D. Getz), spage@bournemouth.ac.uk

(S.J. Page).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.03.007

Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631

the competition. With its nineteenth century origins (Pike and Page

2014) event-led place marketing and development initially pro-

moted in the USA (Ford &Peeper, 2007) has continuously utilised

conventions and events to achieve key tourism and other visitation

objectives linked to place development, although the analysis of its

wider contribution to tourism development as both a ﬁeld of study

and area of critical research is a more recent outcome of the evo-

lution of event studies (Getz, 2008). In the previous review of event

tourism, Getz (2008) outlined many of the principal themes around

the growth of event research and subsequent studies (e.g., Getz,

2012a, 2012b) expand upon the nature of the contributing disci-

plines that are coalescing to create an event knowledge base. Yet

synthesising this knowledge is no easy task and this review ex-

amines the evolution, progress and future prospects for event

research within a tourism context, focused on the notion of the

planned event within tourism.

Planned events in tourism are created for a purpose, and what

was once the realm of individual and community initiatives has

largely become the realm of professionals and entrepreneurs. Fig. 1

provides a typology of the four main categories of planned events

within an event-tourism context, including the main venues asso-

ciated with each. Business events (or the MICE sector) require

convention and exhibition centres, including numerous, smaller

private parties and functions held in restaurants, hotels, or resorts.

Sports also require special-purpose facilities including athletic

parks, arenas and stadia. Festivals and other cultural celebrations

are less dependent on facilities and can use parks, streets, theatres,

concert halls and all other public or private venues. Entertainment

events, such as concerts, are generally provided by the private

sector and utilize many types of venue.

It was only a few decades ago that ‘event tourism’as a phe-

nomenon became established as a recognisable term within the

tourism industry and research community, so that subsequent

growth of this sector can only be described as spectacular. One

indication of the progress can be gauged from searches of the sci-

entiﬁc literature since 2007 when the initial Getz (2008) review

was undertaken. SCOPUS results based on a search for the period

2008eOctober 2014 report over 1000 articles using the search

terms ‘event’þ‘tourism’, with an increasingly interdisciplinary

focus within the literature. If one then assumes that even 10

references in each article are from events-related literature (and

the bibliographies of these articles typically cite a much more

comprehensive events related literature than that), thenwe see the

ﬁeld is drawing upon a burgeoning literature base of over 10,000

items as a conservative estimate, probably nearing 15,000 items.

This makes producing a second synthesis of the research literature

increasingly challenging and requiring certain parameters to be

established to draw out the essence of growth in the ﬁeld since

2007, the end date when the previous review was undertaken

(Getz, 2008). For this reason, the review is necessarily selective in

what it draws upon citing major studies in the leading interdisci-

plinary and specialist journals in cognate ﬁelds (e.g. tourism, lei-

sure, hospitality) as well as the increasing move towards new areas

(e.g. risk, travel medicine, history, planning and cultural studies)

where the focus is related to event tourism. Clearly this requires a

certain academic judgement on what to include and not include

(i.e. excluding conference papers). Therefore, the purpose of the

review is to demonstrate this expanding nucleus of knowledge that

continues to assist in our understanding of event tourism, building

upon elements of the previous article that remain valid in 2015. We

deliberately exclude the debates on event studies (see Getz, 2012a,

2012b) and event management (Bowdin, Allen, Harris, McDonnell,

&O'Toole, 2012) as sub-ﬁelds, deliberately structuring the review

around germane concepts and approaches to event tourism that

help in our synthesis of this large knowledge base that is expanding

across the social sciences. Critics may point to missing themes,

articles or studies and we accept that achieving a comprehensive

coverage from the volume of material is impossible even in an

article of this extended length.

1.1. Structure of the paper

To aid the reader, the paper is structured in three discrete sec-

tions: the conceptualisation of event tourism and then progress in

the research literature and then a model of the event tourism

system: We commence the ﬁrst section by discussing the episte-

mology and ontology of event tourism to outline some of the key

propositions around events tourism so as to highlights it signiﬁ-

cance to tourism, in much the same way that previous reviews (e.g.

Ashworth &Page, 2011 on urban tourism) have done. Following on

Fig. 1. Typology of planned events and venues: An event-tourism perspective.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631594

from the propositions, the conceptualisation of event tourism is

discussed in terms of “the tourism perspective”is examined where

event tourism is deﬁned from both a demand and supply

perspective, utilising Leiper's (1979) tourism system model. A

number of event tourism career paths are identiﬁed (Fig. 3) which

arises from the event tourism nexus. This is followed by a more

focused discussion of the destination perspective in which an event

portfolio model is examined (Fig. 4) and role of tourism organisa-

tions. This strategic approach can help shape evaluation, planning,

and policy for events. An event-centric perspective on event

tourism is discussed, referring to how many events are marketed to

attract tourists. The conceptual section concludes with a brief re-

view of major trends in the context of propelling and constraining

forces, and this helps to explain the phenomenal growth of events

and event tourism.

The second part of the review then reviews “Event tourism in

the research literature”commencing with a review of key journals,

then a chronological summary that reveals the origins and evolu-

tion of event tourism within the context of both tourism and event

management. Developments subsequent to 2007 have been added,

with citations, primarily from journals (although some books are

referred to when they are advancing the ﬁeld forward as major

syntheses). A thematic approach is then taken by assessing litera-

ture speciﬁc to the four general categories of events and related

venues (i.e. business, sport, festivals, and entertainment) that

dominate praxis and have attracted the most attention from

researchers.

The last section of the paper presents a model (Fig. 5) of the

event tourism system emanating from the synthesis of the concepts

and literature. The core phenomenon (event experiences and

meanings) is introduced followed by the antecedents and choices

(including motivation research), planning and managing event

tourism, patterns and processes (including spatial, temporal, policy

making and knowledge creation), outcomes and the impacted.

Tables 2e10 provide a summary of established research themes and

key concepts and terms within event tourism, categorized by

reference to the main elements in the framework. Each table also

considers future directions by pinpointing emerging or desired

lines of research, as well as methodologies, so that these can be

viewed as a research agenda. The paper concludes with a discussion

of implications for the practice of event management and tourism

as well as in advancing theory in event tourism.

2. The epistemology and ontology of event tourism

From the point of view of professional praxis, or industry, we are

dealing with the nexus of event and tourism management. But is

there a distinct and substantial body of knowledge that justiﬁes

treatment of event tourism as a ﬁeld of study? Ontologically, this

question requires the identiﬁcation of distinct claims to knowledge,

core concepts and terminology, leading to the conclusion that event

tourism is a sub-ﬁeld of both event and tourism studies. This

ontological analysis is quite different from epistemological con-

siderations where we examine the foundation disciplines and their

theories and methodologies.

A set of core propositions that started as reﬂections upon

observable phenomena have subsequently shaped the entire event-

tourism discourse. These propositions are well established in the

literature, with plenty of research support, but they are not pre-

dictive or explanatory theories; they are a stage in theory devel-

opment and can readily be turned into hypotheses for testing. For

example, while it is obvious that events attract many tourists

around the world, generating huge expenditures and helping to

overcome seasonality and animate places, one cannot use this

knowledge to predict the speciﬁc outcomes of any given planned

event or event-tourism strategy.

The discourses associated with events and tourism and the

ontological mapping of event studies have been discussed by Getz

(2012a, 2012b). In that paper consideration was given to the

theoretical and methodological contributions of various foundation

disciplines, along with public policy implications. This has led to

the evolution of event studies that has evolved to a more social

science informed subject area passing through a series of phases of

growth as will be highlighted in Section 3later. What Fig. 2 depicts

is the way in which event studies now incorporates a wider

perspective of event scholarship in which event management and

event tourism are situated as foundation blocks for event studies.

This suggests why the exploration of the nexus of event and leisure

Fig. 2. Event studies, event management and event tourism.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 595

studies is of considerable relevance beyond the event tourism focus

as leisure is a more all-embracing paradigm in which tourism is

situated. The leisure dimensions were illustrated by Page and

Connell (2010a) and Patterson and Getz (2013) where the

contributing concepts and underlying focus is on entertainment,

consumption and the desire to attend events in modern society.

2.1. The core propositions

The core propositions of event tourism essentially deﬁne an

instrumentalist sub-ﬁeld. The ontology of event tourism consists of

claims to knowledge related to these propositions, together with

concepts and terminology speciﬁc to them. These can also be

viewed as goals to pursue or as development roles played by events.

The logic is cascading, starting with the observable phenomenon

that events attract tourists (See Table 1).

Embedded in the core propositions in Table 1 are many related

propositions or assumptions that are rooted in event and tourism

studies. Since the starting point is the observable phenomenon that

events attract tourists, there has emerged research themes on

motivation and what makes events needed and attractive. The

beneﬁts of event tourism are both generic to leisure and travel, and

speciﬁc to special interests. Meanings attached to event tourism

cover the spectrum from personal identity and development to

economic, social and cultural development, but are highly depen-

dent upon one's perspective; often it is the distribution of costs and

Fig. 3. Event tourism career paths.

Fig. 4. The Portfolio approach.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631596

beneﬁts that should be of paramount concern. Distinct concepts

and terms do exist in the ontology of event tourism, and these are

identiﬁed throughout the paper. They include terms linked to the

functionality of events (i.e., destination, hallmark, mega, regional

and iconic event), and those related to event tourists, such as the

event-tourist career trajectory.

Ontological mapping, in which claims to knowledge are iden-

tiﬁed, is quite different from the listing of things to know and skills

to possess that constitute professional standards such as EMBOK

(the event management body of knowledge esee www.embok.

org/) and MBECS (Meeting and Business Event Competency Stan-

dards esee www.mpiweb.org/MBECS). Both these projects lend

themselves to development of curriculum and certiﬁcation pro-

cesses, but do not establish knowledge or the means to acquire it.

2.2. The emergence of event tourism as a research paradigm

The term ‘event(s) tourism’was not widely used, if at all, prior to

1987 when The New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department

(1987) reported: “Event tourism is an important and rapidly

growing segment of international tourism”.Getz (1989) developed

a framework for planning ‘events tourism’. Prior to that, conven-

tional reference to special events, hallmark events, mega events

and speciﬁc types of events dominated the discussion. Therefore,

1989 marks a watershed in the recognition of the term ‘event

tourism’, generally recognized as being inclusive of all planned

events in an integrated approach to development and marketing.

As with all forms of special-interest travel, event tourism can be

categorised into demand and supply issues. ‘Special’in this context

refers to the experiences of tourists who are motivated by partic-

ular interests (Trauer, 2006) and not what is offered by way of

products. This deﬁnition suggests that only intrinsically motivated

travel qualiﬁes, but this cannot be true as many trips to events

combine intrinsic (i.e., freely-chosen leisure) and extrinsic moti-

vations (i.e., arising from the demands or expectations of others,

including work and career advancement, or in pursuit of offered

rewards). A demand-side or consumer perspective (see Getz,

2013a) requires determining who travels for events and why, and

also who attends events while traveling. Additional attributes to

assess are what ‘event tourists’do and spend. Included in this de-

mand studies are the assessments of the value of events in pro-

moting a positive destination image, place marketing in general,

and co-branding with destinations. In supply terms, destinations

develop, facilitate and promote events of all kinds to meet the

multiple goals discussed in the core propositions. This can be called

‘industry’, but it is more appropriately thought of as a strategic area

of tourism and place-marketing praxis (Leiper, 2008).

Fig. 5. A framework for studying knowledge on event tourism (After Getz, 2005, 2013a).

Table 1

Core propositions of event tourism.

a) Events can attract tourists (and others, such as sponsors and the media)

who otherwise might not visit a particular place; the spending of event

tourists generates economic beneﬁts; event tourism can be leveraged for

maximum value in combatting seasonality of demand, spreading tourism

geographically, and assisting in other forms of urban and economic

development; portfolios of events can be designed for maximum impact,

especially by appealing to multiple target segments.

b) Events can create positive images for the destination and help

brand or re-position cities.

c) Events contribute to place marketing by making cities more

liveable and attractive.

d) Events animate cities, resorts, parks, urban spaces and venues of all kinds,

making them more attractive to visit and re-visit, and utilizing them more

efﬁciently.

e) Event tourism acts as a catalyst for other forms of desired development

(including urban renewal, community capacity building, voluntarism and

improved marketing), thereby generating a long-term or permanent legacy.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 597

There is no real justiﬁcation for considering event tourism as a

separate ﬁeld of study. The constraint is that both tourism and

event studies are necessary to understand this kind of experience.

There are sub areas like sport and cultural tourism (in which

intrinsic motivations prevail) and business travel (mostly extrinsi-

cally motivated) that also focus on the event tourism experience

(for example, see Music Events in Gibson &Connell, 2012). In a

similar vein, Deery, Jago, and Fredline (2004) asked if sport tourism

and event tourism are the same thing. Their conceptualization

showed sport tourism as being at the nexus of event tourism and

sport, with both sport tourism and event tourism being sub-sets of

tourism in general. Indeed, there is almost limitless potential for

sub-dividing tourism studies and management in this manner.

Event tourism is not usually recognized as a separate profes-

sional ﬁeld. Mostly it is seen as an application of, or speciality

within national tourism ofﬁces (NTOs) and destination marketing/

management organizations (DMOs). Event development agencies

(as opposed to agencies focused on protocol, arts and culture which

also deal with planned events) embody event tourism completely,

and there are a growing number of associated career paths or

technical jobs, as illustrated in Fig. 3.

Research on event-tourism careers has been minimal. McCabe

(2008, 2012) has examined careers and career planning and

development for the convention and exhibition industry, while

Ladkin and Weber (2010) looked at the Asian context in the same

sector. Baum, Deery, Hanlon, Lockstone, and Smith (2009) exam-

ined work in events and conventions. Proﬁles of professionals

documented by Getz (2013a, 2013b) demonstrate how direct

experience in the event sector, especially organization and mar-

keting, was essential for those occupying private and public-sector

positions. A more recent review by Getz (2014) has also highlighted

wider debates associated with the evolving nature of such path-

ways and Barron and Leask (2012) focused on the wider debates

around event education. University education for event-tourism

careers is similarly underdeveloped, with Indiana University e

Purdue University in Indianapolis offering the only named degree

in Event Tourism, being at the Masters level. Many degree programs

in tourism that feature event management do combine the sub-

jects, such as the Master's Degree in Event Management for

Tourism at Universidad Europea de Madrid.

2.3. The destination perspective on event tourism: the portfolio

approach

The speciﬁc role of a DMO (destination marketing organization)

is generally to promote tourism eboth business and leisure

motivated (see Pike and Page 2014 for a detailed review). Con-

ventions are considered business travel and participation sport

events or festivals are part of leisure travel. In a study of Canadian

visitor and convention bureaus (Getz, Anderson, &Sheehan, 1998),

events were revealed to be one of the few areas of product devel-

opment engaged in by DMOs; typically their membership (often

dominated by commercial accommodation operators and attrac-

tions) want visitor demand all year round. Yet the contribution to

events to inbound tourism growth through time via sport events,

for example, is often one approach utilised to justify the importance

of such events (see Nishio, 2013). Adopting a comprehensive

portfolio approach leads to greater emphasis on creating new

events and attracting them through competitive bidding although

this is not without its critics as it depends upon the political

economy and mandate for such bidding (see Sant, Mason and

Hinch, 2013 and the Vancouver 2010 Games). Similarly, Liu,

Broom and Wilson (2014) point to the legacy for Beijing 2010 and

the support from residents in other cities to adopt such an approach

to destination development.

The portfolio approach (see Fig. 4) is similar to how a company

strategically evaluates and develops its line of products and ser-

vices, or how ﬁnancial assets are managed. It is goal-driven, and

value-based (Ziakis 2010). Ziakas (2013:14) deﬁned “An event

portfolio …[as] …the strategic patterning of disparate but inter-

related events taking place during the course of a year in a host

community that as a whole is intended to achieve multiple out-

comes through the implementation of joint event strategies.”

Destinations must decide what they want from events (the bene-

ﬁts), and how they will measure their assets' short-term and

accumulating value within the prevailing political economy of

public funding for such public sector interventions in a locality.

Public acceptance of such strategies and localised beneﬁts remain a

contested area of study and run in parallel to the historical debates

on how destinations leveraged public sector support for tourism

promotion in the nineteenth century (See Pike and Page 2014) and

events. Interesting studies from the history of sport have demon-

strated these debates in the case of the Stockholm 1912 Olympic

Games (Edvinsson, 2014) and at a local level (e.g. No€

el, 2008). More

recently, the debates associated with bidding for and hosting Eu-

ropean City of Culture (Richards and Palmer, 2010) continue these

debates over the use of public funds to bid for and then invest in the

infrastructure in host cities to leverage long-term tourism devel-

opment initially via events. Therefore, the notion of the event

portfolio remains a key concept in seeking to assess “The return or

beneﬁt realised on the investment in an events portfolio is various

and distributed over time”(O'Toole, 2011: 6). Portfolio manage-

ment is therefore strategic and quite different from typical project

management as applied to events. Asset management theory has a

key role to play in event tourism, argued O'Toole, including the

matter of how to dispose of non-performers.

Within the portfolio model, two terms are notable: ‘Mega

events’, with a long history of their use to enhance tourist attrac-

tiveness and related image-making or developmental roles (e.g.,

Gripsrud, Nes, &Olsson, 2010; Grix, 2012). Indeed, this was the

subject of an AIEST conference in 1987. The perceived successes of

mega events, including the Brisbane World's Fair and America's Cup

Defence in Perth, Australia, deﬁnitely stimulated the creation of

event development agencies, research, and event management

programs, helping position Australia as a world leader. A similar

consequence of staging major events has been observed in other

countries, including New Zealand (Gnoth &Anwar, 2000). The

other notable term is ‘hallmark event’which has various meanings.

Ritchie (1984, p. 2) published the ﬁrst general discussion of their

impacts and referred to them as ‘‘Major one-time or recurring

events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the

awareness, appeal and proﬁtability of a tourism destination’’

adopting a typology that included World Fairs/Expositions, Unique

Carnivals and Festivals, Major Sport Events, Signiﬁcant Cultural and

Religious Events, Historical Milestones, Classical Commercial and

Agricultural Events and Major Political Personage Events. C.M. Hall

(1989: 263) deﬁned hallmark events this way, incorporating the

key consideration of international stature: “Hallmark tourist events

are major fairs, expositions, cultural and sporting events of inter-

national status which are held on either a regular or a one-off basis.

A primary function of the hallmark event is to provide the host

community with an opportunity to secure high prominence in the

tourism market place.”In his subsequent book on Hallmark Events,

Hall added (1992: 1): “Hallmark events are the image builders of

modern tourism …”, but he also equated the term with “mega or

special events”.

Getz (2005, p. 16) used the term in a manner more speciﬁcally

tied to image making, place marketing and destination branding

where ‘hallmark’describes an event that possesses such signiﬁ-

cance, in terms of tradition, attractiveness, quality, or publicity, that

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631598

the event provides the host venue, community, or destination with

a competitive advantage. Over time, the event and destination can

become inextricably linked, such as Mardi Gras and New Orleans.

While occasional mega events are generally perceived to be a

means to pump-prime or boost image, tourism, and development

in general, hallmark events may, for a fraction of the cost, provide

permanent beneﬁts that are valued by the entire community (see

for example, the classic sociological study by Duvignaud, 1976 on

festivals). Getz and Andersson (2008) and Getz, Svensson,

Pettersson, and Gunnervall (2012) argued that events that

become permanent institutions have assured resources and polit-

ical support, and are viewed as valued traditions, and perform

essential roles within the community (see Jepson, Clarke, &

Ragsdell, 2014; Jepson and Clark, 2014 for recent examples of

such events).

‘Local’and ‘regional’events, occupying the base levels of the

portfolio pyramid, are problematic from a tourism perspective.

Some of these events have tourism potential that can be developed,

requiring investment, and some are not interested in tourism per

sedperhaps even feeling threatened by it. If local events are pri-

marily community or culturally oriented there is a good argument

to be made for not exploiting them. Certainly the issue of preser-

ving cultural authenticity (e.g. Matheson, Rimmer, &Tinsley, 2014)

and local control emerges whenever tourism goals are attached to

local and regional events and the Scottish Highland Games is a case

in point (Brewster, Page and Connell 2009) where the tourism

potential varies according to the scale of the event, its history and

organising committee and its reliance upon volunteerism (e.g.

Benson, Dickson, Terwiel, &Blackman, 2014; Wang &Yu, 2015). In

addition, Brida, Disegna, and Scuderi (2014) highlight the impor-

tance of the ‘local’in Christmas markets. There are also important

strategic differences to be drawn between event tourism activity

that has longevity versus that which is based upon a short-term fad

as illustrated by Chang and Mahadevan (2014) using contingent

valuation methods to distinguish between the willingness to pay

for long-term performing arts compared to visual arts that were

seen as faddish.

When contemplating generic event development strategies,

some destinations appear to over-emphasize mega events to the

detriment of a more balanced portfolio, while others pursue the

promotion of one or more events as destination hallmarks to signify

both quality and other brand values. Santos (2014) points to the

history of Brazil with its bidding for mega events such as the 1919

South American Football Cup through to the 2014 hosting of the

World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games. Santos also analysed this

strategy in terms of the country's principal approach to interna-

tional politics in the twenty-ﬁrst century. A related strategy is to

deliberately seek to elevate existing events into those with hall-

mark status, a process that can be said to ‘institutionalize’events.

This was demonstrated by Lavenda (1980) in the political analysis

of the Carnival of Caracas, Venezuela where the old Carnival was

transformed into a highly organised, European mass event. As

Lavenda (1980) illustrated, the wild, rowdy and attitude of a

barbaric event was pilloried in the media to justify the creation of

the civilizing model which was modelled on the Carnivals in Ven-

ice, Paris and Rome (i.e. masked and with ﬂoats) to create a directed

and institutionalised events in which around 30% of the population

became involved. A more recent trend is for DMOs and event

development agencies to create and produce their own major

events as part of a sophisticated branding strategy. An important

consideration is that the typology of events in the portfolio model is

based on functionality; this is the degree to which certain eco-

nomic, tourism or political goals can be met through hosting and

marketing events. As such it represents a discourse dominated by

speciﬁc developmental and political assumptions that might run

counter to an events strategy based on fostering community

development, culture, sport, leisure, health or other aims which

may require long-term research activity to assess (e.g. see Benedict

&Dobkin's, 1983 anthropology of World Fairs) for localities.

It is also possible to classify events on the basis of their place

attachment, being the degree to which they are associated with, or

institutionalized in a particular community or destination, epi-

tomised in the Scottish Highland Games worldwide. Mega events

are typically global in their orientation and require a competitive

bid to ‘win’them as a one-time event for a particular place (see Lai,

2015). By contrast, ‘hallmark events’cannot exist independently of

their host community, and ‘local’or ‘regional’events are by deﬁ-

nition rooted in one place and appeal mostly to residents. As the

number, size and signiﬁcance of events and event-tourism in-

creases, greater attention to the dynamics and management of

portfolios and whole populations of events is required. Population

studies have been scarce, with research in Norway leading the ﬁeld

(e.g. Getz, Andersson, &Mykletun, 2013; Jaeger and Mykletun,

2013). The application of organizational ecology theory helps

explain how the fate of individual events is dependent upon pro-

cesses of competition versus co-operation, resource limits, ﬁnding a

sustainable niche, or being a generalist versus a specialist in terms

of resources and target markets. The event development agencies

that exist in every state and major city in Australia certainly led the

way in developing a collaborative model for event tourism devel-

opment. For example, EventsCorp Western Australia and Queens-

land Events Corp (now Queensland Tourism and Events), have

strategies, policies and programs for attracting, bidding, developing

and assisting events primarily to foster tourism. Getz (1997, 2005)

proﬁled the Queensland agency, while Getz and Fairley (2004)

examined media management issues surrounding the state agen-

cy's two major ‘owned’events on the Gold Coast.

A substantial part of the event tourism business of DMOs and

event development agencies is bidding on events that have owners.

This process has been described as a special-purpose marketplace

by Getz (2004b) who studied the event bidding goals, methods and

attributed success factors of Canadian DMOs. Bidding has also been

studied by Emery (2001), Persson (2002), and Westerbeek, Turner,

and Ingerson (2002), Berridge (2010), and Foley, McGillivray, and

McPherson (2012).Lockstone-Binney, Whitelaw, Robertson,

Junek, and Michael (2014) have extended this rather neglected

line of research by focussing on the roles of ambassadors in the

bidding process.

Gnoth and Anwar (2000) examined New Zealand's event

tourism initiatives and offered a framework for developing an

effective strategy. Although it is obvious that resources have to be

committed, perhaps a more important issue was determining how

to measure the country's return on investment and to coordinate

the various stakeholders necessary to become competitive. Getz

(2003b) provided speciﬁc advice on planning and developing

sport event tourism, including a case study from Seminole County,

Florida, to illustrate supply, demand and process issues. Higham

(2005) is an excellent source of practical planning and marketing

advice on that sector, while O'Toole (2011) features festival tourism.

Additional examples include the study by Getz (2013) which

derived examples from EventScotland, representing a national

event tourism strategy and program, Visit Denver as a city that

produces its own events, and also Calgary Sports Tourism Authority

and Northern Ireland Tourist Board. A systematic comparison of

organizational and strategic approaches to event tourism should be

a research priority to begin to appreciate the various approaches

possible for organisations to aid organisational learning for desti-

nations. For example, in addressing peripherality and to achieve

place branding outcomes, Jutland's food and lobster festival created

both local and external audiences (Blichfeldt &Halkier, 2014).

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 599

To be most effective, the DMO or event agency has to establish

relationships with the event sector and individual events, hence a

network approach is useful as Frew and Williams (2014) study of the

tourism relationships with sport, dance and events. This reiterates

many of the ﬁndings of other studies such as Whitford's (2004a,

2004b) research in Australia which documented the development

of event tourism policies and programs, particularly as a tool in

regional development, a classic theme that can be dated to

Coppock's (1977) seminal study of tourism. In one region, Whitford

(2004a) found that policies did not give adequate recognition to the

roles of events in fostering regional growth, being largely socio-

cultural in nature. This revealed a gap and disconnect between

local authority policies and those of states and the nation that

aggressively pursued event tourism for its economic beneﬁts.

Similarly, Stokes (2004) studied the Australian event development

agencies from the perspective of stakeholder networks, collabora-

tion, and strategy making, and speciﬁcally looked at the relevance of

the concept of knowledge networks. Stokes' (2008) analysis revealed

the dominance of a corporate orientation in which event-related

strategy and decisions were made at the state level. A ‘soft’or

informal network of stakeholders existed, dominated by a core of

inﬂuential governmental agencies which varied depending on

whether the agency was engaged in event bidding, development or

marketing. This approach contrasted with the community orienta-

tion found at the regional-authority level, where more formal

networking occurred between public agencies and private organi-

zations for the purpose of actually producing events. Phi, Dredge, and

Whitford (2014) also examined the role of Q method in resolving

problems in the planning and management of events amongst

different stakeholders (also see Andersson &Getz, 2009 for a fuller

discussion of the scope of organizations involved in event tourism).

Most strategy, development and marketing research in the

event-tourism sector has been developed from a supply perspec-

tive, that is focused on selling space in venues, marketing existing

events, and bidding on one-time events. Achieving competitive

advantage in this global marketplace requires increasing invest-

ment in infrastructure and bidding capabilities, with the result of

increasing power for the owners of popular events and the division

of destinations into 'leagues' deﬁned by the size and quality of their

venues and other resources. Global cities are now the only ones

able to compete for the most desired mega events. A demand

perspective offers greater scope for innovation and growth,

potentially at much lower costs and risks. This strategy is based on

market intelligence to gain greater understanding of the motiva-

tions and social worlds of special-interest groups. Leisure and

sports in particular present almost unlimited potential for growth,

as involvement in any sport, hobby, artistic expression or lifestyle

pursuit leads to event-related travel (Getz &Patterson, 2013), often

mediated by formal organizations such as DMOs, travel companies

and clubs. For example, DMOs such as Visit Denver produce their

own events to ﬁll gaps in its event portfolio.

2.4. An event-centric perspective on event tourism

Many planned events are produced with little or no thought

given to their tourism appeal or potential since that is not always

the intended outcome. Sometimes this is due to the organizers'

speciﬁc aims, and sometimes there is simply no relationship

established between events and tourism. In Calgary, case study

research (Getz, Andersson, &Larson, 2007) found that seven fes-

tivals were overlooked by the DMO that had limited or no interest

in their tourism potential. This situation had evidently arisen

because of the absence of both a tourism plan and a comprehensive

events policy. It appeared that the long-standing promotion of one

hallmark event, the annual Calgary Exhibition and Stampede,

results in small festivals being perceived as insigniﬁcant, over-

shadowed in the media, and somewhat deprived of sponsor-

shipdaccording to the festival managers.

Festivals and events desiring the support or cooperation of

tourism agencies, or simply looking for increased respect, tend to

conduct tourism and economic impact studies to ‘prove’their value

in economic terms. A signiﬁcant number of such studies were also

undertaken in the early new millennium by Scottish Enterprise

with its involvement in using events as a means to address market

failure in visitor markets and to intervene to stimulate off-peak

growth (Page and Connell 2012). This saw many events reach the

ﬁrst stage of growth, which can broadly be labelled as becoming a

tourist attraction, then the next stage would be to use that posi-

tioning to gain legitimacy or foster growth. In the context of

stakeholder and resource dependency theory, events must secure

tangible resources and political support to become sustainable,

giving up a degree of independence in the process and creating

long-term value in the event transaction and offer.

Creating and marketing events as tourist attractions, or as image

makers and catalysts, requires a marketing orientation and

commitment to customer service. Destination events, those that

are intended to attract tourists, have to be positioned and branded

in such a way as to be attractive both to those seeking generic

beneﬁts such as entertainment, socializing and escapism eoften

these will be residents eand those with special interests who seek

very speciﬁc beneﬁts. For example, Tkaczynski and Toh’s (2014)

analysis of visitor motivation at a multicultural event highlighted

many of these broad beneﬁts in their factor analysis identifying

people, escape, culture and enjoyment as key elements within their

segmentation study. In this context hallmark events satisfy both

beneﬁt categories, being established traditions for residents, while

iconic events hold symbolic value for special-interest travellers.

Models consisting of goals and processes for developing hall-

mark and iconic destination events have been published in Getz

et al. (2012) and Getz (2013a, 2013b). When events are purpose-

fully established to be tourist attractions, market intelligence e

especially to understand special interest groups within their social

worlds eis the key. But when they are also intended to become

permanent institutions, a much broader consideration of stake-

holders and community beneﬁts is necessary as Pappas (2014)

observed with the London Olympics in 2012. Yet such planned

growth also has to be set against constraining forces or inhibitors

that will certainly slow or halt growth. The most problematic are

climate change (see Scott, Steiger, Rutty, &Johnson, 2014) and

rising fuel costs which can impact leisure and tourism simulta-

neously. Jones (2012) argued that a combination of public-sector

cuts owing to recession, higher energy costs and regulations

stemming from worries about climate change make the events

sector vulnerable; retrenchment might be imminent. Hall (2012),

amongst others, questioned the sustainability of mega events and

noted that it is unlikely that the convergence of political and

corporate interests that favour mega events will adapt steady-state

sustainability principles. New research perspectives on constraints

or inhibiting factors are being better understood from the inter-

disciplinary growth of work from tourist health and safety, espe-

cially travel medicine with its focus on risk and disease. For

example, van Panhuis et al. (2014) examined the risk of dengue

fever among visitors to the World Cup 2014 estimating risk rates of

getting the disease given the local immunity to the disease.

3. Event tourism in the research literature

The ensuing discussion aims to be systematically comprehen-

sive, leading to identiﬁcation of theoretical and research themes

and gaps. First, a chronological review is provided, showing how

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631600

this sub-ﬁeld originated and evolved. Then a thematic review is

undertaken, looking speciﬁcally at types of events and ‘mega-

events’. Earlier literature reviews have been consulted. These

include reviews of research in the event management ﬁeld by

Formica (1998), Getz (2000b), and Harris, Jago, Allen, and Huyskens

(2001).Hede, Jago, and Deery (2003) reviewed special events

research for the period of 1990e2002. Sherwood's doctoral

dissertation (2007) also entailed a large-scale review of pertinent

literature and speciﬁcally examined 85 event economic impact

studies prepared in Australia. A review by Mair and Whitford

(2013), employing the Q-sort technique to elicit expert opinion,

concluded that the majority of outputs had focused on economic

impacts. Yet Mair and Whitford (2013) acknowledged that the most

important topics for future research were socio-cultural and com-

munity impacts, then environmental impacts and sustainability

issues as well as the policy dimensions of event tourism.

3.1. Review of key journals

Events are a very well established theme within tourism, with

the ﬁrst event-related articles appearing in the 1970s. Most tourism

journals contain articles of relevance to event-tourism, but a

complete review of all of them has not been attempted. Geographic

coverage is expanding, in part owing to the spread of event tourism

around the globe, and in a part a reﬂection of the growing number

of scholars interested in event studies. There have been surges in

research tied to mega-events in particular, and this has had the

effect of greatly increasing event scholarship within, and external

interest in host countries.

The most consulted tourism journals are Annals of Tourism

Research (Annals),Journal of Travel Research (JTR) and Tourism

Management (TM).Kim, Boo, and Kim (2013) conducted a review of

event-related articles published in these three, consisting of 178

research papers from 1980 to 2010. They found 25% were published

in Annals, 30% in JTR and 45% in TM. Of these, the most frequently

covered were sporting events (22.5%). The authors were surprised

to learn that only 41% of the papers examined the event-tourism

perspective (as opposed to organisational/management topics)

with impact assessments dominating as well as a focus on

international-scale events, such as the Olympics which have

created their own genre of books and journal outputs across the

social sciences. Interest in participants, residents and tourists had

also increased over the 30 years, JTR having a greater focus on

behaviour and economic impacts, while Annals addressed a wider

range of topics, and TM published papers focused on the planning

and management of event tourism. Kim et al. (2013) argued that

more research was needed on the individual behavioural and

psychological factors of event tourists and on non-economic

impacts.

The event-focused journals are primarily management oriented,

but Event Management (called Festival Management and Event

Tourism from its inception in 1973 through the ﬁrst ﬁve volumes

until 2000) has contained tourism-speciﬁc articles from the very

ﬁrst issue. North American content has dominated, but it has

become increasingly international in scope. Tourism-related con-

tent from 2012 through 2014 (vols. 16e18) covered a wide range of

topics including papers on: golf, music and festival tourism, social,

image and economic impacts, visitor motivation, experience and

spending, event quality and tourist satisfaction, capacity building,

event-tourism development and legacies, support for events,

mega-event sustainability, and destination and venue selection for

conventions. As examples of geographic coverage, Pechlaner, Dal

B

o, and Pichler (2013) examined destination images and cultural

events in Italy, Ble

si

c, Pivac, Stamenkovi

c, and Besermenji (2013)

researched music festival motives in Serbia, and Avgousti (2012)

reviewed event tourism in Cyprus. Oh and Lee (2012) studied

festival tourism in Korea, Trost and Milohnic (2012) looked at

management attitudes towards event impacts in Croatia, Mohan

and Thomas (2012) focused on team identiﬁcation and sport-

event travel in the USA. Kruger and Saayman (2013) undertook

research on music festivals in South Africa, while Whitford and

Dunn (2014) reported on research concerning indigenous festivals

in Papua New Guinea and Tikkanen (2008) examined the inter-

nationalisation of such festivals. There were other articles focused

on Singapore, Canada, Australia, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden,

Finland, Norway, Italy, Serbia, England and Scotland. There are now

many Chinese scholars studying events and tourism but China-

speciﬁc publications in English-language journals have so far

been few.

Convention and Event Tourism has a mandate to cover both event

operations and event tourism. Given its previous name, Convention

and Exhibition Management, this journal features more content on

MICE or business events, and somewhat less on sports and cultural

productions. The International Journal of Event and Festival Man-

agement does not focus on tourism, yet many articles are pertinent.

Event-tourism content is also found in the International Journal of

Event Management Research (a free, online journal) and the Journal

of Policy Research in Tourism,Leisure and Events. Given the magni-

tude of sport-event tourism it is no surprise that various sport

journals extensively cover event-tourism topics, with the Journal of

Sport and Tourism being the most prominent.

3.2. A chronological review of the event tourism literature

Important concepts and terminology are highlighted, with

particular reference to seminal contributions. The review ends with

articles and books published by early 2015, including volume 18(3)

in Event Management. Given the ever-increasing number of perti-

nent articles and books complete coverage has become nearly

impossible, but more important is the identiﬁcation of themes, is-

sues and trends.

3.2.1. The formative years

Formica (1998) found a limited number of papers on events

management or tourism published in the 1970sdwith a total of

four in Annals of Tourism Research and Journal of Travel Research.

Events were not yet ‘attractions’within the tourism system of

Gunn's (1979) landmark book, Tourism Planning, although in pass-

ing he did mention ‘places for festivals and conventions’. In the

1960s and 1970s the events sector was not recognized as an area of

separate study within leisure (Page and Connell 2010b), tourism or

recreation, all of which were rapidly growing in the academic

community and in professional practice. Boorstin (1961),

a historian, ﬁrst drew attention to the phenomenon of ‘pseudo

events’created for publicity and political purposes. Attention was

paid to festivals as anthropology, sociology and art. For example,

Greenwood's (1972) study of a Basque festival from an anthropo-

logical perspective lamented the negative inﬂuence of commodi-

ﬁcation for tourism purposes on authentic cultural celebrations.

The authenticity of events, their socialecultural impacts, and ef-

fects of tourism on events remain enduring themes as the ante-

cedents were outlined earlier in this paper with classic studies by

Benedict and Dobkin (1983), Duvignaud (1976) and Lavenda,

1980). J.R.B. Ritchie and Beliveau (1974) was the ﬁrst to specif-

ically focus on event tourism illustrating how ‘hallmark events’

could combat seasonality of tourism demand, with a case study of

the Quebec Winter Carnival. The paper included citation of an

unpublished study of the economic impacts of the Quebec Winter

Carnival dated 1962, which is perhaps the earliest such study

recorded in the research literature. Most of the pioneering

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 601

published studies were single-event economic impact assessments,

notably Vaughan's (1979) study of the 1976 Edinburgh Festival and

Della Bitta, Loudon, Booth, and Weeks (1978) which has now

developed as the Edinburgh Festival Impact Study (Edinburgh

Impact Study).

3.2.2. The 1980s

Event Tourism expanded dramatically as a research topic in the

1980s. A number of extension studies at Texas A&M focused on

events and tourism including the Gunn and Wicks (1982) report on

visitors to a festival in Galveston. Two notable research articles

from early in this decade include those by Gartner and Holocek

(1983) on the economic impact of an annual tourism industry

exposition, and J.R.B. Ritchie's (1984) treatise on the nature of im-

pacts from hallmark events, which remains a classic in terms of

citations and inﬂuence on the subject. A major study of festival

visitors and the economic impacts of multiple festivals in Canada's

National Capital region was conducted in the latter part of this

decade (Coopers and Lybrand Consulting Group, 1989), followed by

a similar major study in Edinburgh (Scotinform Ltd., 1991). These

remain landmarks in terms of their scope and cross-event

comparisons.

By the mid 1980s, Mill and Morrison's (1985) USA-based text

The Tourism System explicitly recognized the power of events. The

1985 TTRA Canada Chapter conference was themed ‘International

Events: The Real Tourism Impact’(Travel and Tourism Research

Association &Canada Chapter (TTRA), 1986), with the impetus

coming from the planned 1986 Vancouver World's Fair and the

1988 Calgary Winter Olympics. Internationally, the AIEST (1987)

conference produced a notable collection of material on the gen-

eral subject of mega events. Hall (1989) also reviewed the growing

number of student dissertations in the ﬁeld in the 1980s.

Australian scholars have always been prominent in event-

tourism research. Prior to the America's Cup Defence in Perth in

1988, the People and Physical Environment Research Conference,

1987, was held under the theme of the Effects of Hallmark Events

on Cities and other papers (e.g. Cowie, 1985; Shaw, 1985) examined

impacts. Soutar and McLeod (1993) later published research on

residents' perceptions of that major event. One of the most inﬂu-

ential research projects of that period was the comprehensive

assessment of impacts from the ﬁrst Adelaide Grand Prix (Burns,

Hatch, &Mules, 1986; Burns &Mules, 1989). At the end of the

1980s, Syme, Shaw, Fenton, and Mueller (1989) The Planning and

Evaluation of Hallmark Events was a landmark review of the

research ﬁeld that has seen a substantial growth. Another seminal

study was also published by C.M. Hall (1989) which noted the need

for greater attention to social and cultural impacts. Other key

studies were by Ley and Olds (1988) on world fairs and Jackson's

(1988) analysis of carnivals, a theme expanded substantially by

Ferdinand and Williams (2013).

3.2.3. The 1990s

1990 was a pivotal year in the event management literature.

Goldblatt's (1990) Special Events:The Art and Science of Celebration

was published, followed by Festivals,Special Events and Tourism

(Getz, 1991) and a year later Hall's (1992) Hallmark Tourist Events.In

the early 1990s academics were clearly leading the way, as at that

time there were few if any degree programs, and few courses

available anywhere, that featured event management or tourism. In

the USA George Washington University pioneered event manage-

ment education, leading Hawkins and Goldblatt (1995) to address

the need for event management education. They also asked how

events should be treated within a tourism curriculum. The mid-to-

late-1990s were the ‘take-off’years for academic institutionaliza-

tion of event management, and with it a more legitimized

advancement of scholarship on event tourism and event studies.

This process has been roughly 25e30-years behind the equivalent

for tourism, hospitality and leisure. There is also no doubt that

leisure, tourism and hospitality provided a large part of the foun-

dation, by having adapted discipline-based theory and methodol-

ogy, supporting event-speciﬁc courses, and by spinning off event

management degree programs.

Festival Management and Event Tourism (later renamed Event

Management) started publishing in 1993, and many of its articles

have advanced event tourism research and theory. Uysal, Gahan,

and Martin (1993) in the very ﬁrst issue began an enduring

discourse on why people attend and travel to festivals and events.

Two other vital event tourism research themes were established

early in this journal, including Bos (1994) who examined the

importance of mega-events in generating tourism demand, and

Crompton and McKay's (1994) on measuring the economic impacts

of events. Crompton's (1999) related contributions Measuring the

Economic Impact of Visitors to Sport Tournaments and Special

Events continued this theme. A very large number of research

projects were commenced in Australia in preparation for the Syd-

ney 2000 Summer Olympic Games. Faulkner et al. (2000) reported

on this impressive initiative; Australian research on tourism and

events has remained substantial, in large part funded by the Sus-

tainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre (STCRC) which

operated from 1997 through 2010. The permanent site www.

sustainabletourismonline.com provides a repository of relevant

research reports including the pioneering ENCORE Event Evalua-

tion Toolkit.

3.2.4. After 2000

As the 20th century closed, the world celebrated with numerous

special events. This undoubtedly boosted the events sector and its

tourism value. Since then we have witnessed unprecedented

growth in event tourism accompanied by immense investments in

bidding, especially for mega events, and destinations relying on

impressive new infrastructure for events. Global media coverage of

events (see Ritchie, Shipway, &Chien 2010) has been facilitated by

both mass and social media (e.g. see Potwarka, Nunkoo and

McCarville's 2014 use of planned theory to understand television

of the 2010 Winter Olympics), and the rise of a vibrant private

sector in event production and marketing is noteworthy. Events

and event-tourism have become mainstream, accepted as ordinary

parts of contemporary lifestyle, and as legitimate research topics in

many disciplines and applied ﬁelds reﬂected in the growing nu-

cleus of articles in wider social science journals such as Urban

Studies.

Signalling this acceptance, the peer reviewed Routledge Hand-

book of Events (Page and Connell, 2012) is a compendium largely

concerned with event management topics. The Getz article on

event studies discusses the event-tourism “discourse”, and Weed's

article on an interdisciplinary research agenda for sport, tourism,

leisure and health stresses the outcomes expected of events and

event tourism. Frost's article emphasises events within a destina-

tion planning and development context, with mega and hallmark

events being featured, plus business events and sports. Other

tourism-related topics discussed in the Handbook include events as

attractions, safety and security, and tourist development and urban

regeneration.

Other recent advances in the ﬁeld include Event Tourism (Getz,

2013), designed as a comprehensive textbook on the subject, and

Eventful Cities (Richards &Palmer, 2010), which assesses the mul-

tiple roles and planning of events in city cultures and tourism.

Tourism Economics and Policy (Dwyer, Forsyth, &Dwyer, 2010)

essentially codiﬁes all knowledge of tourism and event-tourism

economics. Books devoted to meetings, conventions and

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631602

exhibitions contribute signiﬁcantly, although they are seldom

framed as event tourism. General and topic-speciﬁc textbooks on

event management, as updated periodically, also help advance the

study of events and tourism. Perhaps surprisingly, The Routledge

Handbook of Tourism Research (Hsu &Gartner, 2012) has no content

speciﬁc to events, but the six-volume collection of re-printed arti-

cles called Tourism (Page and Connell, 2010b) includes a six-article

section on Event Tourism in Vol. 6. In the editors' introduction

entitled The Evolution of the Subject of Study, Page and Connell

(2010b,p. xiv) argue that “The period since the 1970s saw the

gradual evolution of an enduring area of study eevent tourism”

marking its legitimacy within the comparative recent history of

tourism research. Given the vastness of relevant literature, a the-

matic review now follows, starting with event types and continuing

through a systematic framework for understanding events and

tourism, emphasising ontological development, that is key con-

cepts and terminology.

3.3. Literature speciﬁc to event types

Although all types of planned events have tourism potential,

including even the smallest wedding or reunion (see Kruger,

Saayman, &Ellis, 2014), larger events dominate in the literature

and in event tourism development. In this section attention is given

to the four general categories illustrated in Fig. 1.

3.3.1. Business events and tourism

Interest in the tourism value of business events, including

meetings, conventions, and exhibitions (both trade and consumer

shows) has a long pedigree given that almost all major cities now

possess impressive convention and exhibition facilities (see Boo,

Koh, &Jones 2008), along with agencies devoted to selling the

space and bidding on events (see Kim, Yoon, &Kim, 2011 on the

competitive positioning strategies of event convention centres in

East Asia). The ﬁrst convention bureau in the USA was established

as far back as 1896 (Spiller, 2002) and the Destination Marketing

Association International traces its origins to 1915 (www.

destinationmarketing.org/) as highlighted in the Introduction.

Often referred to as the MICE industry, that is, meetings, incentives,

conventions and events/exhibitions (Schlentrich, 2008), there is

some doubt about the validity of including incentive tours; Fenich

(2005) prefers MEEC for Meetings, Expositions, Events and Con-

ventions. Weber and Chon (2002) assessed this sector in Convention

Tourism:International Research and Industry Perspectives. Other

books on the subject of business-event tourism include those by

Davidson and Cope (2003), Davidson and Rogers (2006), Davidson,

Holloway, and Humphreys (2009), and Mair (2013).

Weber and Ladkin (2004, 2008) explored trends in the

convention industry including government's increasing awareness

of its economic beneﬁts. Review articles have covered convention

tourism research (Yoo &Weber, 2005; Mair 2012) and convention

and meeting management research (Lee &Back, 2005) including

the tourism dimension. Lee and Lee (2014) reviewed research ar-

ticles on exhibitions and discussed themes related to exhibitors in

particular. Lee and Palakurthi (2013) conducted research on how

constraints inﬂuenced exhibition attendance. Mair (2012) reviewed

144 articles from the business-event literature for the period 2000

through 2009; the vast majority of which were published in the

Journal of Convention and Event Tourism. Mair concluded that it

remained difﬁcult to obtain adequate statistics on this sector. Major

themes in this literature include the meeting planner, technology,

economic impact assessments, venue selection, evaluation of

satisfaction, the role of destination image on attendance, and the

decision-making processes of attendees (also see Jiu and Weber

2013; Whitﬁeld, Dieko, Webber and Zhang, 2014). Research needs

were identiﬁed by Mair (2012) focused on social and environmental

impacts; climate change effects; incentive travel, and qualitative

research such as the experience and meanings attached to events.

The economic value of business events has been the subject of

many studies (e.g. Deng &Li, 2014; Wang, Li and Peng 2014),

including at the city level (e.g., Melbourne Convention and

Exhibition Centre, 2010), for rural areas (Grado, Strauss, &Lord,

1998) and for entire countries (e.g., Convention Industry Council,

2012 for the USA, and Hanly (2012) for Ireland. Dwyer (2002) dis-

cussed six facts about MICE impacts, all of which support and

elaborate upon the core propositions of event tourism. The

fundamental “facts”are that international convention-goers spend

more and are often accompanied by others. The “yield”of event

tourists is generally found to be higher than visitors with more

general travel motives. In 2011 the Convention Industry Council

released a study entitled The Economic Signiﬁcance of Meetings to the

U.S.Economy, revealed that “the U.S. meetings industry directly

supports 1.7 million jobs, a $106 billion contribution to GDP, $263

billion in spending, $60 billion in revenue, $14.3 billion in federal

tax revenue and $11.3 billion in state and local tax revenue”. In-

terest has recently expanded to include a broader social and eco-

nomic legacy, with Foley, Schlenker, Edwards, and Lewis-Smith

(2013) focussing on how business events promote knowledge

diffusion, networking, new collaborations leading to innovation,

and educational outcomes. There can also be effects on raising

awareness and proﬁling, showcasing and destination reputation

building, and providing a platform for intercultural understanding.

It might be assumed that extrinsic motivators explain most

business-event travel, that it is necessitated by doing business or to

advance one's career. However, business events and pleasure travel

do mix, and the connection has been examined by Davidson (2003).

Research in the UK suggested that 40% of business travellers and

their families or colleagues return to the hosting destination as

leisure visitors in the future (Business Tourism Partnership, 2004).

Furthermore, the mix of business and pleasure, particularly the lure

of speciﬁc destinations, can be a crucial factor in decisions. The

motives and decision-making of business-event travellers have

been frequently studied, such as for trade or consumer shows (Lee,

Harris, &Lyberger, 2010; Lee, Yeung, &Dewald, 2010; Park, 2009;

Rittichainuwat &Mair, 2012) and convention attendance (Jago &

Deery, 2005; Mair &Thompson, 2009). Attendee decision-

making, satisfaction and loyalty are also major topics of re-

searchers (e.g., Bauer et al., 2008; Breiter &Milman, 2006; Lu &Cai

2011; Mair &Thompson, 2009; Severt, Fjelstul, &Breiter, 2009;

Severt, Wang, Chen, &Breiter, 2007; Tanford, Montgomery, &

Nelson, 2012; Yoo and Chon; 2010). Rittichainuwat, Beck, and

LaLopa (2001) studied motivations, inhibitors and facilitators for

attending international conferences (also see Ramirez, Laing, &

Mair, 2013 on inentions to visit). Oppermann and Chon (1997)

examined convention tourism from the perspectives of both asso-

ciation and attendees' decision making including locational factors,

intervening opportunities, personal and business factors, associa-

tion and conference factors, experiences and their evaluation.

Ngamsom and Beck (2000) researched motivations and inhibitors

affecting event-travel decisions by association members. Recent

research includes a study of the Millenial Generation and what they

want from meetings and events (Fenich, Halsell, Ogbeide, &

Hashimoto, 2014).

MICE tourism cannot exist without special-purpose venues, but

research on this critical input has been limited. Nelson (2006) and

Nelson, Baltin, and Feighner (2012) examined issues surrounding

public ﬁnancing of convention hotels and the beneﬁts cities can

realize, while Clark (2006) looked at the additional requirements

imposed on cities once a convention centre has been built.

Krugman and Wright (2006) discussed special considerations for

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 603

international business events, and Wan (2011) assessed Macao's

competitiveness as a MICE destination. The competitiveness of the

Italian convention industry was framed in the context of clusters by

Bernini (2009). How meeting planners and associations or corpo-

rations make locational and venue decisions has been the subject of

repeated studies, including those by Oppermann and Chon (1997),

Crouch and Ritchie (1997), Jago and Deery (2005), DiPietro, Breiter,

Rompf, and Godlewsk (2008) and Elston and Draper (2012) (also

see Meeting Planners International, n.d.).

Jin and Weber (cited in Getz, 2013a, 2013b) documented how

China has become a dominant player in the Asia Paciﬁc exhibition

market, with indoor exhibition space in 2011 totalling 4.7 million

square meters, or 15% of the world total. China ranks 2nd among

the countries with the highest venue capacity, following the U.S.A

and preceding Germany (UFI, 2011, 2012), but actual utilization is

much less than global averages. Park, Wu, Ye, Morrison, and Kong

(2014) speciﬁcally studied meeting-planner perceptions of Beijing

as a destination. Major international congresses attract large

enough attendance for them to be considered mega events, at least

from the tourism perspective; media coverage is often minimal,

however. World's Fairs, or expos, certainly qualify as mega events,

particularly as they often last six months and can therefore draw

huge numbers of tourists as well as media.

World's fairs and their tourism connections have been examined

by Mendell, MacBeth, and Solomon (1983), Dungan (1984), Lee

(1987), Hatten (1987), Dimanche (1996), and de Groote (2005),

yet tourism remains a minor topic in this context. Most literature

on world's fairs deals with historical, sociological and anthropo-

logical themes as already discussed with reference to classic

studies, urban development or advances in technology. Tourism is,

however, discussed in the Encyclopaedia of World's Fairs and Expo-

sitions (Findling &Pelle, 2008). In a recent contribution to this sub-

ﬁeld, Lee, Mjelde, Kim, and Lee (2014) examined the intention-

behaviour gap for attendance at a major exposition in Korea.

3.3.2. Sport events and tourism

In a recent review article, Alexandris and Kaplanidou (2014)

intimated that “Sport tourism is one of the fastest growing forms

of special tourism internationally”, and certainly the pertinent

literature on sport event tourism has been expanding at a fast pace.

Sport tourism is globally well established (e.g. Presenza &Sheehan,

2013), and sports as ‘big business’is an enduring theme. A growing

number of books now exist on sport tourism, both theoretical and

applied in nature, and sport events ﬁgure prominently (see:

Gammon &Kurtzman, 2002; Gibson, 2006; Higham, 2005;Hinch &

Higham, 2011; Hudson, 2002; Ritchie &Adair, 2004; Standeven &

De Knop, 1999; Turco, Riley, &Swart, 2002; Weed &Bull, 2009).

Weed's (2012a, 2012b) Olympic Tourism and Sport and Tourism:A

Reader (2009) provide extensive coverage of sport-event tourism.

Throughout North America, almost every city has a sport tourism

initiative, often with dedicated personnel and agencies, and global

competition to bid on events and attract the sport event tourist is

ﬁerce. In 1992 the US National Association of Sport Commissions

was established, with the well-publicized experience of Indian-

apolis leading the way. The Travel Industry Association of America

(TIAA) in 1997 conducted a survey that examined sport-related

travel, providing vastly improved understanding of this market

(TIAA, 1999). An early published contribution by Rooney (1988)

remains a classic geographical analysis of sport (Page, 1990), spe-

ciﬁcally in the form of a paper on mega sport events as tourist at-

tractions at the 1988 TTRA Montreal conference. The journal of

Sport and Tourism, founded in 1993 (after 7 years in electronic

format) as the Journal of Sport Tourism and edited by Joseph

Kurtzman as an initiative of the new Sports Tourism International

Council. Gibson (1998) provided the ﬁrst assessment of sport

tourism research and Weed (2006) reviewed the literature from

2000 to 20 04, examining what exactly sport tourism is and its place

in academia.

The nature of the sport tourism motivation has received

considerable attention. Active and passive sport tourists were

identiﬁed by Gibson (1998, 2006), while Robinson and Gammon

(2004) examined primary and secondary motives for sports-

related travel. Nostalgia as a motivator has been examined by

Fairley and Gammon (2006), and this ties in with the notion of

community of interests or sub-cultures (Green, 2008; Green &

Chalip, 1998; Pitts, 1999). Petrick, Bennett, and Yosuke (2013)

examined satisfaction and loyalty. Runners and triathletes have

been studied repeatedly in the event-tourism context, including

papers by Miller (2012), Shipway and Jones (2007; 2008). Motives,

satisfaction and behaviour intentions of youth sport-event tourists

were examined by Prayag and Grivel (2014).

According to Shipway and Jones (2007) amateur distance

running is often serious leisure. Applying social identity theory and

employing a quasi-ethnographic methodology, greater explanation

of the running careers of participants was achieved. Berridge (2014)

also employed ethnographic research to examine the event expe-

riences of cyclists in a Gran Fondo event. Chen (2006) provided a

review of the literature on sport fans behaviour, experiences and

values, concluding that most studies suggest that personally rele-

vant values (from needs and the beneﬁts sought), and “identiﬁca-

tions”(such as social identity) explain why fans become highly

involved and committed to teams. Theoretical perspectives on the

sport fan include the following: Wann (1995) and Wann, Schrader,

and Wilson (1999) who developed the most frequently-cited Sports

Fan Motivation Scale; Wann, Grieve, Zapalac, and Pease (2008)

compared motivations across different sports. Related work has

been completed by Milne and McDonald (1999) on the motivation

of sport consumers, Trail and James (2001) who developed a

Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption, Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa,

and Hirakawa (2001), Funk, Ridinger, and Moorman (2003) and

their Sport Interest Inventory, a motivational comparison across

sports by James and Ross (2004), Mehus (2005) with an Enter-

tainment Sport Motivation Scale, and Koo and Hardin (2008) on

emotional attachment.

Funk (2008;2012) and Funk and James (2001; 2006) employ

self-concept in their approach to studying consumer behaviour for

sports and events, namely as an integral part of the “psychological

continuum model”. Awareness, attraction, attachment or alle-

giances are the progressive steps open to consumers and partici-

pants. Self-concept connects speciﬁcally to identifying with a sport,

event or team. Funk, Toohey, and Bruun (2007) employed structural

equation modelling to demonstrate that international participation

was motivated by a combination of factors including prior running

involvement and a favourable image of the host destination. Weed

and Bull (2009) elaborated upon and revised a Sports Tourism

Participation Model (its origins being with the English Sports

Council) for different products, including both spectator and

participation sports tourism. A number of studies of sport events

suggest that this market is quite different from cultural tourism.

Leibold and van Zyl (1994) noted that sport enthusiasts attending

the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984 came primarily to see the Games

but generated very little revenue in dining and sightseeing. They

concluded that sport tourists might be less afﬂuent and spend less

on entertainment than average travellers.

The connections between sport, events, venues and urban

development or renewal have become a major theme. For example,

Rozin (2000) described Indianapolis as a ‘classic case’of how sports

can generate a civic turnaround. Sports Business Market Research

Inc. (2000, p. 167) observed that in the 1980s and 1990s Amer-

ican cities “put heavy emphasis on sports, entertainment and

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631604

tourism as a source of revenue for the cities.”Gratton and

Kokolakakis (1997) believed that UK sports events had become

the main platform for economic regeneration in many cities, with a

wide ranging reviews apparent in Smith (2012).Carlsen and Taylor

(2003) examined how Manchester used the Commonwealth Games

to heighten the city's proﬁle, giving impetus to urban renewal

through sport and commercial developments, creating a social

legacy through cultural and educational programming. Legacy is a

major theme in Shipway and Fyall (2012).

Venues for sport events are often a controversial topic. While all

communities want facilities for their own residents, there are

substantial additional costs involved to be able to compete for

major sport events, to subsidize professional teams, and to employ

sport tourism as a tool in urban re-development. Rosentraub (2009)

and Rosentraub and Joo (2009) have argued for sports as a tool is

inner-city redevelopment (as opposed to locating arenas and stadia

in the suburbs) and for public-private partnerships to ﬁnance them.

Cities can be ranked according to their sport venues (i.e., their va-

riety, size and quality) and their success in hosting major events,

leading to competitions for titles such as Ultimate Sport City. Dolles,

quoted in Getz (2013a: pp.239) observed that: “Today's modern

stadia and large-scale events usually have an extraordinary positive

impact on the host region in terms of one or more of the following

dimensions: tourist volumes, visitor expenditures, publicity, and

related infrastructural and administrative developments which

substantially increase the destination's capacity and attractive-

ness.”Cities might want to be renowned as a sport capital or win an

accolade like “SportBusiness Ultimate Sport Cities”(www.

sportbusiness.com). SportBusiness provides internationally recog-

nized rankings of the world's top sports hosts, as initiated by in-

dependent industry consultant Rachael Church-Sanders in 2006,

and such rankings reward cities possessing the best infrastructure

and track records in bidding and hosting major events.

Economic impacts of sport events is a major research theme and

the subject of a growing discourse on costs and beneﬁts as illus-

trated in Table 2.

Researchers have been attracted to the subject of resident

perceptions of impacts and support for, or opposition to sport

events (see Backman, Hsu, &Backman, 2011). Lee and Krohn

(2013) studied Indianapolis residents prior to hosting the Super

Bowl, and this and other studies point out how perceptions of

positive impacts dominate in the pre-event stage. A considerable

and disproportionate amount of research has been directed at

mega sport events, given their global prominence and infra-

structure costs, but is somewhat irrelevant when it comes to

providing useful lessons for developing an event-tourism portfolio

in most cities and destinations. Historically, a great deal of

attention has been paid by researchers and theorists to the

Olympics. Their magnitude, political and economic importance,

prominence in the media and frequent controversies make them

popular subjects. Although mega-sporting events have never been

more sought after, the discourse has increasingly featured scep-

ticism over claimed beneﬁts and legacies (see for example, re-

views by Coates and Humphreys (2008) and Mills and Rosentraub

(2013)). Exaggeration of expected beneﬁts seems to be the norm,

and there are few legitimate attempts made to demonstrate

achievement of forecasts; costs are often hidden, and distribu-

tional effects (i.e., who gains and who pays) and externalities are

typically ignored.

Legacy planned as non-economic beneﬁts is a relatively new

emphasis. Harris (2014) was able to demonstrate how the

Olympics in Sydney was leveraged for education on sustainabil-

ity. Gibson et al. (2014) examined the legacy of the World Cup on

South Africans in terms of psychic income ﬁnding signiﬁcant

increases in pride and euphoria post-event, while there were

mixed results regarding social capital formation (also see

Jamieson 2014). Less optimistically, the much-claimed beneﬁtof

increasing sport participation through the demonstration effects

of sport events has yet to be proven.

The Olympics-related literature is huge, fuelled in part by

Olympic research centres around the world. Numerous themes are

covered as documented in Table 3.

Hosting the Olympics and other mega events has become

controversial. Gursoy and Kendall (2006) found that resident sup-

port depends most on perceived beneﬁts, not negative impacts.

Prayag, Hosany, Nunkoo, and Alders (2013) addressed the issue of

resident attitudes towards the London Olympics, determining that

perceived economic and socio-cultural impacts (positive and

Table 2

Key studies on the economic impacts of event tourism.

Reviews on sport-event impacts include:

Andersson, T., Armbrecht, J., &Lundberg, E. (2012). Estimating use and

non-use values of a music festival. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and

Tourism. 12 (3), 215e231.

Crompton, J. (1999). Measuring the economic impact of visitors to sports

tournaments and special events. Ashburn, Virginia: Division of Professional

Services, National Recreation and Park Association.

Turco, D., Riley, R., &Swart, K. (2002). Sport tourism. Morgantown,

WV: Fitness Information Technology Inc.

Gratton, C., Dobson, N., &Shibli, S. (2000). The economic importance of major

sports events: A case study of six events. Managing Leisure, 5, 14e28.

Daniels, M. &Norman, W. (2003). Estimating the economic impacts of seven

regular sport tourism events. Journal of Sport Tourism, 8(4), 214e222.

Preuss, H. (2004). The economics of staging the Olympics: a comparison of the

Games 1972e2008. Edward Elgar Publishing.

Preuss, H. (2005). The economic impact of visitors at major multi-sport

events. European Sport Management Quarterly, 5(3), 281e301.

Preuss, H. (ed.) (2007). The Impact and Evaluation of Major Sporting Events

London: Routledge.

Preuss, H. (2009). Opportunity costs and efﬁciency of investments in mega

sport events. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events,

1 (2), 131e140.

Higham, J. (1999). Commentary: Sport as an avenue of tourism development:

An analysis of the positive and negative impacts of sport tourism. Current

Issues in Tourism, 2(1), 82e90.

Gibson, H. (Ed.). (2006). Sport tourism: Concepts and theories. London:

Routledge.

Weed, M. (2006). Sports tourism research 2000e2004: A systematic review of

knowledge and a meta-evaluation of methods. Journal of Sport and Tourism,

11(1), 5e30.

Weed, M. (2009). Sport and Tourism: A Reader. London: Routledge.

Dwyer, L. (2002). Economic contribution of convention tourism: Conceptual

and empirical issues. In K. Weber, &K. Chon (Eds.), Convention tourism: In

ternational research and industry perspectives (pp. 21e35). New York:

Haworth.

Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., &Spurr, R. (2005). Estimating the impacts of special

events on an economy. Journal of Travel Research, 43(4), 351e359.

Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., &Spurr, R. (2006). Assessing the economic impacts of

events: A computable general equilibrium approach. Journal of Travel

Research, 45(1), 59e66.

Dwyer, L., &Forsyth, P. (2009). Public sector support for special events.

Eastern Economic Journal, 35(4), 481e499.

Dwyer, L., Mellor, R., Mistillis, N., &Mules, T. (2000a). A framework for

assessing ‘tangible’and ‘intangible’impacts of events and conventions. Event

Management, 6(3), 175e189.

Dwyer, L., Mellor, R., Mistillis, N., &Mules, T. (2000b). Forecasting the eco

nomic impacts of events and conventions. Event Management, 6(3), 191e204.

Masterman, G. (2009). Strategic sports event management. Abingdon:

RoutledgeAbingdon: Routledge.

Hinch, T., &Higham, J. (2011, 2nd. ed.). Sport tourism development. Bristol:

Channel View.

More methodological chapters are contained in Page and Connell (2012).

Kennelly and Toohey (2014) focused on how strategic alliances between

events, sports and tour operators could enhance ﬁnancial outcomes and

beneﬁts to sport tourists.

Lee et al. (2015) have examined how repeat attendance and travel distance

link to event-related expenditure.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 605

negative) inﬂuence overall attitude, but perceived environmental

impacts were not. Without doubt the Olympics are a fertile ground

for research, but this has tended to overshadow other mega events

like world's fairs and international sport championships. Mega-

events, as discussed earlier, were the subject of an AIEST confer-

ence in 1987, and a conference with subsequent book edited by

Andersson, Persson, Sahlberg, and Strom (1999).Roche (2000,

2006) widely cited papers on both the Olympics and mega events

in general have been situated in an analysis of globalization. Hiller

(2000b) adopted an urban sociological perspective on mega events,

while Carlsen and Taylor (2003) focused on mega events and urban

renewal. A special issue of Asian Business and Management, edited

by Dolles and S€

oderman (2008), summarized the history of mega-

sporting events in Asia. Maennig and Zimbalist's (2012) edited

handbook on the economics of mega sporting events, featured ar-

ticles on bidding, costs, beneﬁts and methods.

3.3.3. Festivals and other cultural celebrations

Festivals in society and culture, pertaining to their roles,

meanings and impacts, is the best developed discourse, rooted

ﬁrmly in sociology and anthropology. Festivals and tourism has

been reviewed in depth by Getz (2011) in a study that identiﬁed the

following classical themes pertaining to festivity: myth, ritual and

symbolism; ceremony and celebration; spectacle; communitas;

host-guest interactions (and the role of the stranger); liminality;

the carnivalesque; authenticity and commodiﬁcation; pilgrimage;

and a considerable amount of political debate over impacts and

meanings. Festival tourism is a mainstream subject of research (e.g.,

Anwar &Sohail, 2004; Donovan &Debres, 2006; Formica &Uysal,

1998; McKercher, Mei, &Tse, 2006; Nurse, 2004; Robinson, Picard,

&Long, 2004; Saleh &Ryan, 1993). Occasionally art exhibitions and

tourism have been examined (e.g., Mihalik &Wing-Vogelbacher,

1992). Much of the discourse has been subsumed in the literature

on cultural tourism (e.g., McKercher &du Cros, 2002; Richards,

1996, 2007). Festivals have been examined in the context of place

marketing, urban development, tourism and more recently social

change (e.g., Picard &Robinson, 2006a). Some of the growth in

festival numbers and variety has been attributed to diaspora (Basu,

2005; Laing &Frost, 2013), that is the mass-migration of people

who carry traditions with them.

A special issue of Tourist Studies on music and tourism (see

Lashua, Spracklen, &Long, 2014) points to the rapid growth of

music festivals and concerts as cultural and touristic phenomena.

Topics covered by contributors include the festival experience,

fandom, authenticity versus commercialisation, self-identity and

place marketing. Gibson and Connell's (2012:16) Music Festivals and

Regional Development in Australia observed that “Since the 1980s, in

Australia and elsewhere, some music festivals have been linked to

local tourism strategies, their growth nothing short of dramatic and

their economic potential considerable.”Pegg and Patterson (2010)

conducted visitor research on one such festival that has become

the hallmark event of a country town. Gelder and Robinson (2009)

compared motivations at two popular UK music festivals. The vital

importance of festivals in other forms of special-purpose tourism

has been examined in the context of fashion (Williams, Laing, &

Frost, 2013), foodies and food tourism (Getz, Robinson,

Andersson, &Vujicic, 2014), and food and wine (Cavicchi &

Santini, 2014).

Critical discourse is expanding illustrated by the chapters in

Merkel (2013). Themes discussed by contributors include contested

mega events, power and politics, events as propaganda, discourses,

ideology, protests, and festival impacts. Festival tourism and ‘fes-

tivalization’has become an issue in cultural studies (Quinn, 2006;

Richards, 2007). Generally framed in a negative sense, festivaliza-

tion has no precise meaning, but generally authors refer to the

festivalization of urban policy and spaces and resultant authenticity

loss, and an overemphasis on tourist demand versus resident needs

and beneﬁts. Concern over commodiﬁcation and loss of authen-

ticity through festival tourism was an early theme, and often-cited

is Greenwood's (1972) study of a Basque festival from an anthro-

pological perspective which lamented the negative inﬂuence of

tourism on authentic cultural celebrations. MacCannell (1976) is

almost always cited in discussions of tourism authenticity. In

another early study, Buck (1977) advocated staged tourist attrac-

tions, such as festivals, for protecting vulnerable cultural groups.

Cohen (1988) addressed commodiﬁcation and staged authen-

ticity in the context of tourism, and whether tourists could have

authentic experiences, arguing that authenticity is negotiable and

depends on the visitor's desires. Emergent authenticity occurs

when new cultural developments (like festivals) acquire the “patina

of authenticity over time”. Although Cohen (1988) is not explicitly

about festivals it is highly relevant, as is Cohen (2007) as it

addressed the authenticity of a mythical event in Thailand. A

limited number of authors have examined the authenticity of

ethnic festivals, including Hinch and Delamere (1993) on Canadian

native festivals that served as tourist attractions. Xie (2003) studied

traditional ethnic performances in Hainan, China in terms of the

relationship between commodiﬁcation and authenticity. Chhabra,

Healy, and Sills (2003) and Chhabra (2005) addressed authen-

ticity issues by reference to goods sold at a festival and the per-

ceptions of visitors. Muller and Pettersson (2006) focused on a Sami

festival in Sweden, while Neuenfeldt (1995) adopted a sociological

approach to the study of an aboriginal festival in Australia, viewing

the performance as social text. Aboriginal Corroborees were also

examined by Cahir and Clark (2010).

On the positive side are links to the preservation of traditions,

group identity building and legitimation, communitas among sub-

cultural groups, generation of social and cultural capital, and the

value of celebrations in establishing place identity and civic pride.

De Bres and Davis (2001) determined that events held as part of the

Rollin' Down the River festival led to positive self-identiﬁcation for

local communities. Derrett (2003) argued that community-based

festivals in New South Wales, Australia, demonstrate a commun-

ity's sense of community and place. Costa (2002) described “festive

sociability”at the Fire Festival in Valencia, Spain, as being central to

Table 3

Key studies on the Olympics and Event Tourism.

Economic costs and impacts (e.g., Cicarelli &Kowarsky, 1973; Glos, 2005;

Kasimati, 2003; Taylor &Gratton, 1988).

Tourism markets for Olympics have been explored by Pyo et al. (1988)

Tourism and urban regeneration issues (Hughes, 1993)

Tourism impacts of the Olympics (Faulkner et al. 2000; Kang and

Perdue 1994; Teigland, 1996)

Sociological perspectives (e.g. Hiller, 2012 adopted an interactionist approach

to the study of Olympic host cities); Poynter and MacRury (2009) examined

London as an Olympic host.

Gold and Gold (2010) adopted an historical approach to Olympic cities,

covering the period 1896 through 2016.

Tourism marketing and Olympics was reviewed by Leibold and

van Zyl (1994).

Other topics include Olympic bids, politics, and urban boosterism

(Hiller, 2000a); the Olympic legacy (Ritchie, 2000); host population

perceptions of Olympics (Hiller &Wanner, 2011; Mihalik, 2001; Ritchie &

Smith, 1991); sponsorship and Olympic impacts (Brown, 2002) and business

leveraging surrounding the Olympics (O'Brien, 2006). Toohey and Veal (2007)

took a general social science perspective to Olympic studies, and a critical

evaluation of the Olympics has been provided by Waitt (2003; 2004).Dansero

and Puttilli (2010) considered the Turin Olympic legacy, while Ziakas and

Boukas (2012) similarly focused on Athens. Sant, Mason, and Hinch (2013)

considered leveraging and the legacy of the Vancouver winter games. A

special issue of the Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change has been devoted to

the Olympics and tourism (see Ploner &Robinson, 2012).

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631606

the transmission of tradition. Matheson (2005) discussed festivals

and sociability in the context of a Celtic music festival; the back-

stage space is the realm of authentic experiences and communitas.

Hannam and Halewood (2006) determined that Viking themed

festivals gave participants as sense of identity and reﬂected an

authentic way of life. Other studies (e.g. the Travel Industry

Association of America and Smithsonian Magazine (2003) and

The National Endowment for the Arts (USA) proﬁle events as part of

traveller experience). Some festivals attract pilgrims, and others are

an essential part of pilgrimage (in a religious or spiritual sense) to

holy places. Ahmed (1992) studied the Hajj in terms of its tourism

importance and organizational challenges. Díaz-Barriga (2003)

studied a pilgrimage festival in Bolivia which has become a point

for political controversy and contested meaning. Nolan and Nolan

(1992) studied religious sites in Europe that act both as festival-

pilgrimage and secular tourist attractions, stressing management

implications. Ruback, Pandey, and Kohli (2008) compared the dif-

ferences between religious pilgrims to a festival in India and non-

religious visitors on their perception of the Mela. Hindu festivals

at sacred sites were the subject of Shinde (2010), and Buzinde,

Kalavar, Kohli, and Manuel-Navarrete (2014) interrogated pil-

grims' motivations, activities and experiences of the 2013 Kumbh

Mela. Matheson et al. (2014) sought to determine if spirituality

motivated visitors to a Celtic-themed ﬁre festival in Edinburgh.

Several researchers have sought to determine the marketing

orientation of festivals (Mayﬁeld &Crompton,1995; Mehmetoglu &

Ellingsen, 2005; Tomljenovic &Weber, 2004). Carlsen and Getz

(2006) provided a strategic planning approach for enhancing the

tourism orientation of a regional wine festival. Why people attend

festivals was quickly established as an enduring research theme

(e.g., Backman, Backman, Uysal, &Sunshine, 1995; Baker &Draper,

2013; Brown, 2010; Chang &Yuan, 2011; Crompton &McKay, 1997;

Formica &Murrmann, 1998; Getz &Cheyne, 2002; Lee, I., Arcodia,

&Lee, 2012; Lee, S., Arcodia, &Lee, 2012; Lee, Kim, &Parrish, 2012;

Lee, Kyle, &Scott, 2012; Mohr, Backman, Gahan, &Backman, 1993;

Scott, 1996; Thrane, 2002). Review articles on festival motivation

have been published by Lee, Lee, and Wicks (2004), Li and Petrick

(2006), and Wooten and Norman (2008).Quinn (2010) examined

festival tourism growth in the context of cultural policy and urban

studies. Savinovic, Kim, and Long (2012) reviewed at audience

motivation, satisfaction, and intention to re-visit an ethnic minority

cultural festival. The links between motivation, satisfaction and

behaviour remain a popular topic, including a segmentation of

festival-goers on the basis of psychological commitment by Lee and

Kyle (2014).

Cross-cultural festival motivation research has been conducted

by Kay (2004), Schneider and Backman (1996), and Dewar, Meyer,

and Li (2001) who collectively found that there are generic moti-

vations. Seeking and escaping theory (Iso-Ahola, 1980, 1983) has

largely been conﬁrmed as explaining festival tourism motivation in

many studies. Researchers have demonstrated that escapism leads

people to events for the generic beneﬁts of entertainment and

diversion, socializing, learning and doing something new (i.e.,

novelty seeking). Nicholson and Pearce (2001) studied motivations

to attend four quite different events in New Zealand: an air show,

award ceremony, wild food festival, and a wine, food and music

festival and concluded that multiple motivations were the norm.

While socialization was common to them all, it varied in its nature.

Event-speciﬁc reasons (or targeted beneﬁts) were tied to the nov-

elty or uniqueness of each event.

Serious leisure (as used by Mackellar (2009, 2013) based on the

theories of Stebbins (1982, 2006) and involvement theory (e.g., as

employed by Kim, Scott, &Crompton,1997) offer great potential for

exploring event-speciﬁc motives, connecting directly to the event-

tourist career trajectory. A number of speciﬁc motivational issues

have been researched. Junge (2008) looked the motivations

explaining heterosexual attendance at Gay events, while Kim,

Borges, and Chon (2006) employed the New Environmental Para-

digm Scale to examined motivations of people attending a ﬁlm

festival in Brazil that was created to foster awareness of environ-

mental issues. Yuan, Cai, Morrison, and Linton (2005, 2008) and

Dodd, Yuan, Adams, and Kolyesnikova (2006) studied wine festival

attendees on their motivations, while Yuan and Jang (2008)

explored the wine festival attendee's satisfaction and behavioural

intentions. With regard to host-guest encounters during a festival,

Giovanardi, Lucarelli, and Decosta, (2014) studied an Italian event

in a mass tourism destination, and this is a neglected line of

research.

Despite their enduring popularity and institutional status in

many cities across North America (they are called shows in

Australia and New Zealand), the tourism appeal and roles of state

fairs and similar exhibitions has been an under-researched topic.

Mihalik and Ferguson (1995) indicated that hundreds of millions of

visitors have attended a state fair in the past 12 months making it

one of the largest leisure spectator activities in the United States.

State Fairs seem to capture the essence of agricultural shows, fes-

tivals, and exhibitions rolled into one. In the case of the Calgary

Exhibition and Stampede (see Getz, 1993, 2005 for cases on its

marketing) it also includes a rodeo, parade and community events.

In a 2013 article Lillywhite et al. provided a “portrait”of the US fair

sector.

3.3.4. Entertainment

Stein and Evans (2009) deﬁned the entertainment industry as

including media (TV, radio), recorded music, video games, ﬁlm,

publishing, theatre, sports, theme parks, casinos and gambling,

travel and tourism, museums, shopping, and special events. This is

so inclusive that it deﬁes measurement, but there is no doubt that

theatre, concerts, shows and spectacles are a big part of event

tourism. Certainly any aspect of sport or celebration has enter-

tainment value, as does the spectacle associated with ﬁreworks or

parades. Anything can be entertaining that is found to be pleasur-

able, diverting or fun, although Hughes (2000), made the case that

the “arts”are usually associated with reﬁnement and “high culture”

while entertainment performances are more mainstream, or pop-

ular. Entertainment is usually provided by the private sector, for

proﬁt, but distinctions between arts and entertainment are mostly

a matter of judgement (Du Cros &Jolliffe, 2014). Research on

entertainment events has lagged, perhaps because of the fact that

so many events contain or feature entertainment, and many so-

called festivals are really packages of concerts.

The classic study by Easto and Truzzi (1973) examined the na-

ture of carnivals in the USA ‘as an entertainment with side shows,

rides, games and refreshments, usually operated by a commercial

enterprise’that were travelling shows. Easto and Marcello tracked

the historiography of research to reviews dating to 1881 and 1932,

which were differentiated from circuses. These carnivals ranged in

scale from small events to those employing up to 800 staff, with 45

railroad cars to transport the event around the USA. Easto and

Marcello estimated that in the 1950s these events attracted 85

million visitors a year each time they visited towns and cities. In

contrast, Reid (2006) studied the politics of city imaging in the

context of the MTV Europe Music Awards in Edinburgh and Kruger

and Saayman (2012a, 2012b) researched motivation and segmen-

tation for music tourism in South Africa. Conversely, Che (2008)

examined the case of Detroit to illustrate how entertainment dis-

tricts are being employed to re-position cities.

The term “destination music”was used in a UK study of music

festivals and concerts eThe Contribution of Music Festivals and

Major Concerts to Tourism in the UK by UK Music (available online at:

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 607

www.ukmusic.org). From analysis of 2.5 million ticket purchases,

the study conservatively estimated that 7.7 million visits were

made to over 5000 festivals and concerts; music tourists made up

41% of audiences at large concerts and 48% at music festivals.

Research has also been conducted in North America in the form of

Attending Rock Concerts and Recreational Dancing, from the Travel

Attitudes and Motivation Study (TAMS) by Tourism Canada (Lang

Research, 2007). That large-scale study concluded that over the

previous two years 11.8% (26,005,373) of adult Americans went to

rock or pop music concerts or went recreational dancing while on

an out-of-town, overnight trip of one or more nights. In some cities,

notably London, Las Vegas, Toronto and New York, theatrical per-

formances and a permanent theatre district are huge tourism at-

tractions. Special events are a part of the attraction, ranging from

touring shows to ﬁlm festivals (Gilbert &Lizotte, 1998). Touring art

exhibitions are associated with museums and galleries and have

been studied by Mihalik and Wing-Vogelbacker (1992), Carmichael

(2002), and Bracalente et al. (2011). Small towns that feature

theatre tourism have also been researched (Mitchell &Wall, 1986,

1989). Historical re-enactments straddle the boundaries of cul-

tural celebrations and entertainment. Carnegie and McCabe (2008)

focused on how re-enactments as presentation of cultural heritage

create interactions between landscapes, local communities, tourists

and heritage organisations. Other studies have been undertaken by

Ray, McCain, Davis, and Melin (2006) on re-enactment tourists and

Wallace (2007) on war weekends.

4. A framework for knowledge creation and theory

development in event tourism

Fig. 5 provides a framework for systematically studying and

creating knowledge about event tourism. The discussion begins

with the core phenomenon which deﬁnes event tourism as a sub

ﬁeld. Figure 6 through 10 summarize the discussion by listing major

themes, concepts and terms associated with each element in the

framework, including future research directions at the intersection

of each section of the review.

4.1. The core phenomenon: event tourism experiences and

meanings

Pine and Gilmore's (199) The Experience Economy ushered in an

era of research on tourism and event experience dimensions, epi-

tomised in marketing with the move to service dominant logic

approaches (Vargo &Lusch, 2004, 2008). Both the event and the

travel experience have to be understood in parallel. Attending an

event in one's own home community is experientially different

from travelling to an event, both where travel is a necessary con-

dition (i.e., the event motivates travel, and the costs/risks of travel

might deter attendance) and where travel to an event is an integral

part of a pleasurable experience. Application of theory and methods

from psychology and anthropology are particularly helpful in this

regard. Theorists, relying heavily on social psychology, have pro-

vided many of the insights we need, at least with regard to

intrinsically motivated event tourism behaviour. Much less is

known about extrinsically motivated event and travel experiences.

The range of potential event experiences is quite broad, from the

fun and revelry of entertainment, carnival and party, to the solemn

spirituality of religious pilgrimage and celebratory rituals. Many

events are about learning or aesthetic appreciation, while others

foster competitiveness and commerce. For example, sport partici-

pation is about challenge, yet sport events encompass sub-cultural

identity as well as nostalgia on the part of fans. Pilgrimage is a

journey by deﬁnition, and generally entails a visit to a sacred site

plus a special event. Other forms of event tourism can take on the

form of secular pilgrimages, with events or places of high symbolic

value and personal meaning becoming destinations. For example,

cities that host mega events have, like Barcelona and the Olympics,

turned event venues into places of pilgrimage. In the discourse

pertaining to pilgrimage and event tourism, so-called secular pil-

grimages (e.g., Gammon, 2004) are sometimes contrasted with

religious and spiritual pilgrimages (e.g., Singh, 2006; Timothy &

Olsen, 2006), raising the issue of authenticity.

Experiences should be conceptualized and studied in terms of

three inter-related dimensions (Mannell &Iso-Ahola, 1987): what

people are doing, or behaviour (the ‘conative’dimension), their

emotions, moods, or attitudes (the ‘affective’dimension), and

cognition (awareness, perception, understanding). And we want to

understand the event tourism experience holistically, from the

needs, motivations, attitudes and expectations brought to the

event, through the actual living experience (the ‘doing’,or‘being

there’) all the way to reﬂections on the event, including meanings

attached to it and inﬂuences on future behaviour. A starting point

can be the classical work of anthropologists Van Gennep (1909) and

Turner (1969, 1974, 1982) who advanced the concept of ‘liminality’.

This has been found to be relevant to both travel and event expe-

riences (Ryan, 2002). In terms of one's involvement in rituals this

state is characterized by humility, seclusion, tests, sexual ambiguity

and ‘communitas’(everyone becoming the same). ‘Liminoid’

described the same state but in profane rather than sacred terms, so

that it might apply to carnivals and festivals, emphasizing the

notion of separation, loss of identity and social status, and role

reversals. In this state people are more relaxed, uninhibited, and

open to new ideas. Jafari's (1987) ‘tourist culture’is based on socio-

anthropological theory concerning liminality and Falassi's (1987)

notion of festivity as a time that is ‘out of ordinary time’. Essen-

tially, people willingly travel to, or enter into an event-speciﬁc place

for deﬁned periods of time, to engage in activities that are out of the

ordinary and to have experiences that transcend the ordinar-

ydexperiences only available to the traveller or the event-goer.

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and Csikszentmihalyi and

Csikszentmihalyi's (1988) concept of ‘ﬂow’or peak experiences,

from leisure studies ﬁts into this model. Facilitating ‘ﬂow’might be

something the event designer wants to achieve, for maximum

engagement, and something the highly involved might be more

inclined to experience because of their predispositions.

Research supports the existence and importance of communitas

at events. Pitts (1999) studied lesbian and gay sports tourism niche

markets, and Fairley and Gammon (2006) identiﬁed the impor-

tance of sport fan communities, while Hannam and Halewood

(2006) in a study of participants in Viking festivals, concluded

that group identity was fostered, even to the point of establishing a

‘neo-tribal’community. Green and Chalip (1998) study of women

athletes determined that the event was a celebration of sub-

cultural values. In a continuation of that line of research, Xing,

Chalip, and Green (2014) validated a model in which social moti-

vation is inﬂuenced by identiﬁcation with the women's football

subculture, which predicted the sense of community; sense of

community signiﬁcantly predicted spending in the destination.

The meanings attached to planned events and event tourism

experiences are both an integral part of the experience and are

antecedents to future event tourism behaviour. To the extent that

event tourism experiences are transforming, that is they change

beliefs, values or attitudes, then individuals will likely adopt new

behaviours in the future. It may be that multiple event experiences

are required for transformation, or it might occur as part of a social

bonding. Meanings are given to events by social groups, commu-

nities and society as a whole, and are often contested. Individuals

are affected by these meanings, but are also able to make their own

interpretations of events. Event types are to a large extent social

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631608

constructs, with collectively assigned and generally recognized

meanings. Roche (2000, p. 7, see also 2006) saw events, like the

global Millennium celebrations, acting as “important elements in

the orientation of national societies to international or global so-

ciety.”Indeed, many countries have used mega events to gain

legitimacy and prestige, draw attention to their accomplishments,

foster trade and tourism, or to help open their countries to global

inﬂuences. This is much more than place marketingdit is more like

national identity building. Whitson and Macintosh (1996, p. 279)

argued that countries and cities compete for mega sport events to

demonstrate their ‘modernity and economic dynamism. The on-

going discourse on the cultural ‘authenticity’of events, started

with the particular concern that tourism commodiﬁes events and

corrupts their authenticity, but now also reﬂects the fact that many

events are created for commercial and exploitive reasons (see, for

example, Boorstin, 1961; Getz (2000a, 2000b); Greenwood, 1972;

Picard &Robinson, 2006a, 2006b; Ray et al., 2006; Soﬁeld, 1991;

Xie, 2003, 2004). However, an alternative view is that tourism

helps preserve traditions and meanings, with festivals and other

cultural celebrations being prime examples. In the context of

foodies seeking authentic experiences, research by Getz et al.

(2014) determined that festivals and other food-related events

must employ interpretation to ensure that tourists understand

their experiences from a local, cultural perspective.

While the event experience is a well-established theme, new

theoretical perspectives and methods are being employed. Tradi-

tional consumer research is still relevant, but there is clearly a need

to look deeper into the experiential realm through anthropological

methods like participant observation (as employed by Getz, O'Neill,

&Carlsen, 2001, at a surﬁng event), phenomenology (Chen, 2006)

and to use experiential sampling as employed in leisure studies

(Hektner &Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Larson &Csikszentmihalyi,

1983). Coughlan and Filo (2013) employed ethnological and

autoethnological research to understand participants' experiences

at tourism, sport and charity events. Berridge (2014) has employed

observational techniques to apply experience theory to event

design and management, including an examination of the cultural

experiences of cyclists. Emerging themes include the emotional

aspects of event experiences (Lee and Kyle, 2012; Robinson &

Clifford, 2012), events designed to facilitate social experiences

and outcomes (Nordvall, Pettersson, Svensson, &Brown, 2014), the

roles of social media in marketing and shaping the event experi-

ence (Bolan, 2014; Hudson, Roth, Madden, &Hudson, 2015), and

the potential inﬂuences of technology (Sadd, 2014). Scholars have

been looking at how engagement affects experience, and this is

fruitful ground for theory development. For example, how do vol-

unteering, ofﬁciating, organizing or performing in an event differ in

shaping the experience? Designers are increasingly interested in

how they can deliberately shape program, setting and management

to heighten or lessen emotional responses and thereby affect both

satisfaction and behaviour. Biometrics can be employed to test

design and monitor experiences at events. These and other research

challenges are outlined in Table 4.

4.2. Antecedents to event tourism

Planned events have been integral to, and endured in all soci-

eties, and it is therefore reasonable to conclude the people need

events. This position is supported by the continued growth in

numbers, diversity, size and ascribed signiﬁcance of events and

event tourism around the world. Theoretical support comes ﬁrst

from economic exchange theory, in which events facilitate direct

exchange of goods (i.e., markets, exhibitions and fairs) plus

networking, marketing, and professional-development (i.e., meet-

ings and conventions). Hedonism and personal development

occurs through different modes of participation and engagement in

events, including event-tourism careers. Anthropological or sym-

bolic exchange theory (Marshall, 1998) embodies the symbolic

meanings held by events in different cultures, sub cultures, and

social worlds. Social exchange theory is often used to explain atti-

tude towards events, and perceptions of impacts, but also includes

the need for socializing and group experiences. In Maslow's (1954)

well-known hierarchy of needs, planned events can be viewed as

mechanisms for need fulﬁlment at all levels: physiological (health;

earning a living); safety and security (stability, order in society) love

and belonging (socializing, family time, communitas, group iden-

tity building); esteem (gaining recognition and advancing one's

status), and self-actualisation (through realizing one's potential,

meeting challenges and gaining mastery, aesthetic appreciation,

learning). Although the ability to meet needs does not in itself

justify the claim that events of all types are fundamental human

needs, it is obvious that events are so well embedded that doing

without them is simply impossible. While it is normal to talk about

push and pull factors in tourism (e.g., Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1977,

1981), seeking and escaping theory (Iso-Ahola,1980; 1983; Mannell

&Iso-Ahola, 1987) offers greater explanatory power. The main

proposition is that people are both seeking to ﬁnd personal and

interpersonal rewards and hoping to escape aspects of personal and

interpersonal environments that bother or bore them.

Many personal, social and cultural factors will affect event

tourism behaviour, and although there is a substantial body of

literature on leisure and travel in general, the various factors spe-

ciﬁcally affecting event tourism have not been well explored. Both

leisure and work-related factors have to be examined. Benckendorff

and Pearce (2012) discussed the psychology of events and devel-

oped a very useful framework for applying theory to event partic-

ipation, applicable to both fans and athletes. They consider pre, on-

site and post-event experiences, for spectators, attendees, per-

formers and elite participants. Psychological theory on personality,

motivation and involvement are important when looking at ante-

cedents, while role theory, identity, liminality, ﬂow, mindfulness,

emotional and performative labour, and experience analysis can be

applied to the event experience itself. Satisfaction, loyalty, self-

actualization and personal development apply after an event

experience. Personal values have been viewed as antecedents to

event tourism (Hede, Jago, &Deery, 2004), and this line of theory

building connects to ego-involvement and social worlds or sub-

cultures. Researchers have only recently turned their attention

from general motivational studies to the issue of special-interest

beneﬁts. Mackellar's (2006a, 2006b) research speciﬁcally

addressed the differences between special-interest and generic

motivations in attracting people to travel to events. Progress will

follow from established lines of leisure and lifestyle research, and of

necessity will utilize and adapt their theoretical constructs and

methodologies.

Demand for events is notoriously difﬁcult to predict (Mules &

McDonald, 1994; Pyo, Cook, &Howell, 1988; Spilling, 1998;

Teigland, 1996). Major events use long-term tracking studies and

market penetration estimates to forecast attendance, but there

have been notable failures including the New Orleans World Fair

(Dimanche, 1996). An interesting study by Lee et al. (2014) exam-

ining intention-behaviour found that only 50% of those intending to

visit actually did, which highlights the importance of in-depth

understanding of this issue. Lee and Kim (1998) examined event

forecasting, and Xiao and Smith's (2004b) study of world's fair

attendance forecasting concluded with an improved approach. Boo

and Busser (2006) looked at how image enhancement from events

can induce tourist demand to destinations.

Motivational research in the events sector is very well estab-

lished. Li and Petrick (2006) reviewed the literature pertaining to

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 609

festival and event motivations and concluded from many studies

that the seeking and escaping theory (Iso-Ahola, 1980, 1983)is

largely conﬁrmed. These are ‘intrinsic motivators’, with the event

being a desired leisure pursuit. Researchers have demonstrated

that escapism leads people to events for the generic beneﬁts of

entertainment and diversion, socializing, learning and doing

something new, and just plain getting away from it all. Motivational

studies are often combined with, or lead to event-consumer seg-

mentation. The event segmentation literature has been reviewed

by Tkaczynski and Rundle-Thiele (2011), with an unusual approach

being taken by Tkaczynski (2013) who took into account stake-

holder perceptions of their clients. The pull or seeking factors apply

more to those with special interests who want a speciﬁc set of

beneﬁts offered by the event. For example, highly involved runners

need events to compete in (McGehee, Yoon, &Cardenas, 2003) and

professionals have to attend certain conferences because of their

educational content or the unique networking possibilities (Severt

et al., 2007). The exact balance between generic and speciﬁc

desired beneﬁts obtained at any given event will depend on many

personal factors with special considerations including family

decision-making (Foster &Robinson, 2010).

A combination of an event's image and the destinations can

inﬂuence the decision to travel (Kim, Kang, &Kim, 2014; Lai &Li,

2014). Pechlaner et al. (2013) analysed differences in perceived

destination image and event satisfaction, concluding that destina-

tion image, quality of event, and customer satisfaction are highly

related. Interrelationships between resident participation in

events, event images and destination image in Portugal were

explored by do Valle, Mendes, and Guerreiro (2012). When exam-

ining why people attend particular events for targeted beneﬁts, it is

essential to consult several underlying theoretical constructs. Rec-

reation specialization (Bryan, 1977; 2000) has been examined in

the context of birders attending festivals (Burr &Scott, 2004), while

Lamont and Jenkins (2013) employed this construct in segmenting

cyclists in a participation event. Serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982;

2006) helps to explain the nature of involvement and commit-

ment to various leisure pursuits, and it has been increasingly

employed in an event-tourism context (e.g., Jones &Green, 2006;

Mackellar, 2009; 2013). Closely linked is social-world theory

(Unruh, 1980) which has applications to event-tourist careers (Getz

&Patterson, 2013). Ego-involvement theory, has been well-

examined in leisure studies (see: Havitz &Dimanche, 1999; Kyle

&Chick, 2002; Kyle et al. 2007) and has been applied to event-

tourism (e.g., Kim et al., 1997; Ryan &Lockyer, 2002). Involve-

ment is essential to the development of event-travel career theory

but is also employed when examining levels of involvement with

particular products, events or destinations (Filo, Chen, &Funk,

2013).

One additional area of research of signiﬁcance is leisure con-

straints theory (Hinch, Jackson, Hudson, &Walker, 2006; Jackson,

2005; Jackson, Crawford, &Godbey, 1992) which examines

generic categories of constraints including the intrapersonal (one's

perceptions and attitudes), interpersonal (such as a lack of leisure

partners), and structural (time, money, supply and accessibility).

Constraints are increasingly being addressed in the context of event

tourism, with contributions being made by Van Zyl and Botha

(2004) who considered the needs and motivational factors inﬂu-

encing decisions of residents to attend an arts festival, including

“situational inhibitors”.Milner, Jago, and Deery (2004) conducted a

study of why people did not attend festivals and events. Perceived

constraints on attending the Olympics were researched by Funk,

Alexandris, and Ping (2009).Lamont and Kennelly (2011) and

Lamont, Kennelly, and Wilson (2012) explicitly examined con-

straints within triathlon event careers, and Santos-Lewis and

Moital (2013) focused on constraints to attend events across

specialization levels.

Table 4

Future research directions on the experience and meaning of event tourism.

Major themes, concepts, terms: experiences and meanings: Future directions

1: Events þtravel creates a unique experience; the destination plays an

important role; travel in groups is often part of the attraction (i.e.,

socializing, identity building, and nostalgia)

2: Events attract tourists both for generic beneﬁts and those appealing to

special interests; destination events attract people to places they would

not otherwise travel

3: All events are unique owing to combinations of setting, people and

management; 'being there' for a special, time-limited experience is part

of the allure

4: Iconic events hold symbolic value in attracting special-interest tourists

(from subcultures and social worlds); both religious and secular pilgrimage

are dependent upon the symbolic meaning of places and events

5: Events can offer authentic cultural experiences, especially when hosts and

guests share experiences on common ground; the widespread creation of

“pseudo-events”and “staged authenticity”can confound people seeking

authenticity

6: Tourism poses a threat to authenticity by commodifying culture, but can

also be the mechanism for preserving traditions; emergent authenticity

occurs as events become traditions

7: The ritualistic, symbolic and celebratory meanings of events are important;

individuals, groups, and whole societies value events and enjoy sharing

them with visitors; events offer potential for legitimation and pride in one's

place or identity

8: Stakeholders perceive events differently in terms of meanings and value

9: One can view events as texts revealing much about host society and culture

10: Communitas, the belonging and sharing among participants or attendees, is

a powerful experience and a motive for event travel

11: Types and levels of engagement shape the event-tourism experience:

events have separate appeal for fans, active participants, volunteers, ofﬁ-

cials, media, sponsors

12: Anything can be entertaining; entertainment and spectacle can threaten

the cultural signiﬁcance of events

- Limited research has been undertaken on the actual travel component of

event tourism (with an event as the goal, is the trip different? consider

arousal and ﬂow within different event-travel situations)

- Continued theoretical work is needed on the nature of experience (e.g.,

exploring emotions through phenomenology; what makes event-

tourism experiences memorable and transforming? consider each

dimension of experience: conative (behaviour); affective (emotional) and

cognitive)

- Examine types of engagement (e.g., volunteering vs. organising) and ego-

involvement as factors shaping, and inﬂuenced by event-tourism expe-

riences; use ethnological and auto-ethnological research methods; use

netnography to learn how people describe, explain and assign meaning to

event- tourism experiences

- Examine how design can inﬂuence experience and behaviour and to

attract tourists

- Can we describe and explain the formation of personal and social

constructs regarding event tourism experiences?

- How does communitas form and evolve at and after events? can it be

facilitated?

- Systematically compare different event experiences (for all stakeholders,

from paying customers and guests to the general public, and between

types of event, from sport to carnival)

- other under-utilized methods: hermeneutics (analysis of texts; self-

reporting); direct and participant observation; experiential sampling

(diary or time-sampling with standard questions)

- Biometrics offer great scope for testing reactions to design and

understanding behaviour at events (e.g., monitoring the pulse,

temperature, sweating)

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631610

Pearce's (2005) “Travel Career Trajectory”is the starting point

for the hypothetical ‘event travel career’. For example, there is

reason to believe that business and professional practice leads to a

career of necessary and/or desirable meetings and conventions,

eventually resulting in a community of interest shared with others

following similar career paths. The concepts of serious leisure,

recreation specialization and ego-involvement suggest that many

people will ﬁnd intrinsic motivation to travel to events, such as

amateur athletes and competitive events, or art lovers pursuing a

career of volunteer experiences at music festivals. An event travel

career should be evident ﬁrst in terms of motivations (i.e., the

underlying drive to attend events), and precise motives (for speciﬁc

event experiences and events). There should be a progression

through time such as participation in more and different events,

looking for higher-order beneﬁts. Geographic preferences and

patterns should emerge, and this is where destinations can directly

inﬂuence the process, through bidding and developing iconic and

hallmark events. Hypothetically the event travel career will also be

manifested in a progression from local to national and ultimately an

international scale of travel. Evolving preferences for event char-

acteristics and travel arrangements, and ultimately modiﬁed

behaviour are to be expected from the dedicated and experienced

event tourist (e.g., higher-level competition; travel with family and

friends versus alone; combining holidays with events; behaving

differently during events). Evidence supporting the concept and

elements of the event travel career has been accruing, stemming

from research on runners (Getz &Andersson, 2010), mountain

bikers (Getz &McConnell, 2011, 2014) and triathletes (Lamont &

Kennelly, 2012; Lamont et al. 2012). Future research direction are

outlined in Table 5.

4.3. Planning and managing event tourism

Published studies exist on event tourism planning, development

and marketing (e.g., Bramwell,1997a; Getz, 20 03a, 2003b; Gnoth &

Anwar, 2000; Higham, 2005), and this line of inquiry encompasses

the organizations involved, stakeholder networks, policy making,

goals and strategies, impacts and evaluations. Attention to event

stakeholder management, partnerships and collaboration is a

strong area of interest (e.g., Phi, Dredge and Whitford, 2014;Getz

et al., 2007; Larson, 2002; Larson &Wikstrom, 2001; Long, 2000;

Pappas, 2014; Parent &Sequin, 2007; Tkaczynski, 2013; Ziakas,

2013), with research by Whitford (2004a, 2004b) speciﬁcally tak-

ing a stakeholder perspective on event tourism policy making in

Australia. Yaghmour and Scott (2011) also identiﬁed inter-

organizational collaboration as a key success factor in the context

of the Jeddah Festival in Saudi Arabia. Weed (2003) studied sport

tourism policy in the context of stakeholder relationships, while

the book by Weed and Bull (2009) further addresses these issues in

sport tourism policy. Parent and Sequin (2007) used stakeholder

theory in their study of major event failure. Irrational event plan-

ning is a topic seldom addressed (see Armstrong, 1985; Bramwell,

1997b). It relates to the notion of civic or tourism ‘boosterism’

and the exercise of power.

Strategy for event tourism is a relatively new topic for scholars.

Stokes (2004, 2006, 2008) and Stokes and Jago (2007) have

examined this theme in Australia in relation to event-tourism

strategy environment and processes. Baumann, Matheson, and

Muroi (2009) addressed the effectiveness of sports-based tourism

strategies in the Hawaiian context. Ford, Peeper, and Gresock

(2009) examined stakeholder management in strategy-making.

Pacione (2012) reviewed culture and event-led strategies being

employed by cities looking for post-industrial prosperity, con-

nected to the theme of long-term legacy building. Ziakas' (2013)

analysis of event portfolios is of direct relevance, as many event

development agencies and DMOs ﬁnd themselves managing and

marketing numerous events. Increasing attention has been given to

the image-enhancement potential of events and their media

coverage, including how this might generate induced demand for

the destination. Within a place-marketing and urban repositioning

context, the role of events in creating or changing image now seems

to be equal in importance to tourist attractiveness. Pertinent

research has been mostly on how events might change destination

image (e.g., Chalip, Green, &Hill, 2003; Ferreira &Donaldson, 2013;

Hede, 2005; Kim, Ao, Lee, &Pan, 2012; Kim, Kang, et al., 2014; Li &

Vogelsong, 2005; Mossberg, 2000a, 2000b; Ritchie, Sanders, &

Mules, 2006; Shibli &the Sport Industry Research Centre, 2002;

Smith, 2005). Although it can be concluded from the evidence

that events have an image-change effect, the measurement of

media effects remains a difﬁcult problem for evaluators.

Advertising-equivalence measures are predominant, with the ma-

jor shortcoming of only considering quantity and content, not

impact. More attention will have to be given to the evaluation of

media management as discussed by Getz and Fairley (2004). In this

vein, Jutbring (2014) analysed exactly how brand values of the

destination can be encoded in media coverage of events.

Co-branding events and destinations is a related topic (Chalip &

Costa, 2006; Jago, Chalip, Brown, Mules, &Shameem, 2003).

Arellano (2011) examined how the staging of the New France

Festival related to branding of the Province of Quebec. The

leveraging of events for additional beneﬁts is a growing concern

(Chalip &Leyns, 2002; Chalip &McGuirty, 2004; Gratton, Dobson,

&Shibli, 2000; Karadakis, Kaplanidou, &Karlis, 2010; Morse, 2001;

O'Brien, 2006). These topics also connect to the goal of generating a

lasting event legacy (Dimanche, 1996; Hall, 1994; Mihalik, 1994;

Ritchie, 2000) and key research themes on planning and man-

aging event tourism are outlined in Table 6.

4.4. Patterns and processes

The key themes are reviewed in Table 7.

4.4.1. Spatial

The geography of events is fertile ground for both researchers

and marketers. Getz (2004a) reviewed the pertinent literature,

while Higham and Hinch (2006) provided an overview of the

geography of sport and tourism. Janiskee's (1994, 1996)ground-

breaking contributions to event geography have to be acknowl-

edged although his papers mostly examine the spatial and tem-

poral distribution of festivals and what caused these patterns, not

travel to events. Janiskee demonstrated the connection to re-

sources, as in agricultural products that gave rise to festival

themes. He also addressed the question of whether or not a region

or a time-spot could reach its capacity in terms of event numbers.

More theoretical research on the notion of event spaces and how

they are transforming the everyday to something special remain a

fertile area for research developing the interconnections of an-

thropology, sociology, urban studies and behavioural geography.

Supply-demand interactions are fertile ground for event geogra-

phers (e.g. see Hall &Page, 2012). Analysis and forecasting of

demand for a particular event or a region's events will in part

depend on population distribution, competition, and intervening

opportunities. Along these lines, Bohlin (2000) used a traditional

tool of geographers, the distance-decay function, to exam festival-

related travel in Sweden. He found that attendance decreased

with distance, although recurring and well-established events

have greater drawing power. Market potential for events was

examined geographically by Wicks and Fesenmaier (1995).The

market areas and tourist attractiveness of events have also been

studied by Verhoven, Wall, and Cottrell (1998) employing demand

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 611

mapping, and by Lee and Crompton (2003). Travel cost analysis as

a measure of an event's economic value was addressed by Prabha,

Rolfe, and Sinden (2006).Lee, Jee, Funk, and Jordan (2015)

determined that a signiﬁcant difference in expenditure patterns

existed between ﬁrst time and repeat attendees, as well as be-

tween long haul and short haul travellers at an annual event in

Miami, USA.

Getz (1991) illustrated several models of potential event tourism

patterns in a region. One option is clustering events in service

centres, as opposed to dispersing them over a large, rural area.

These are related to the concept of attractiveness and also have

implications for the distribution of beneﬁts and costs. Analysis of

the zones of inﬂuence of events has been undertaken by Teigland

(1996) speciﬁc to the Lillehammer (Norway) Winter Olympics,

Table 5

Research themes associated with the antecedents on event tourism.

Major themes, concepts and terms: antecedents Future directions

1: There are major propelling forces shaping continued growth in the events

sector, both from supply and demand perspectives: globalisation; diaspora;

mass and social media; rising disposable incomes; the experience economy;

destination competitiveness; the legitimation and mainstreaming of all forms

of entertainment and celebration events

2: Planned events meet fundamental human needs for social, symbolic and

economic exchange, plus personal development

3: Cultural differences and personal values affect perceived beneﬁts and

desired types of event experiences

4: Motivation to attend and travel to events involves both intrinsic (leisure)

and extrinsic motivators; both seeking and escaping affect motives; there are

typically a rage of generic (e.g., entertainment, novelty-seeking, escapism,

socializing) and event-speciﬁc motives attracting people to the same events

5: Segmentation studies of event attendees are frequent, based on

socio-demographic variables, resident versus tourist, expenditures, ﬁrst-time

versus repeat visitor, loyalty; (recently popular is the modelling of linked

aspects of consumer behaviour (i.e., motivation, experience, satisfaction, as

inﬂuences on future behaviour including loyalty)

6: Event-tourism behaviour is shaped in part by involvement and commitment

(i.e., serious leisure, recreation specialization, sub-cultures and social worlds)

and by event-tourist experience (e.g., higher levels of involvement generate

event-tourist careers); personal and group constraints have to be overcome to

pursue an event travel career

7: The decision-making and choices of convention and exhibition attendees

and participants reﬂect a blend of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators; place is

an important factor, alongside potential return on personal investment

8: Professional event planners inﬂuence travel through their decisions on venues

and locations, all designed to maximise attendance and return on

corporate/association investment

- Needs: do people believe they ‘need’events? to travel to events?

- Culture: more is needed on cross-cultural comparisons of the antecedents to

event tourism as rooted in culture, sub-cultures, or social worlds and the roles of

events in different lifestyle pursuits and hobbies; what is considered entertaining

or socially acceptable is in part culturally determined and therefore highly

variable

- Economic demand for event tourism: how is it shaped by price, competition,

substitution, policy and other factors?

- Constraints on attendance or participation in various events is an emerging

research theme

- Event-tourist career theory needs considerable testing and reﬁnement, including

comparisons of the ways in which people get involved in leisure and work

pursuits

- Loyalty versus novelty seeking is important to marketers and is insufﬁciently

understood

- Gender perspectives on events and tourism are an emerging theme

- Post-event evaluations of experiences and effects on future intentions should

be developed

- how do different segments use the internet and social media to make decisions?

- Longitudinal studies of event careers and constraint negotiation are absent

- Both religious and secular pilgrimages appear to be on the rise eis this

an important trend?

- Although a well-established research topic, venue and location choice by

professional event planners requires constant monitoring on light of changing

economic and technological conditions

Table 6

Research themes on planning and managing event tourism.

Major themes, concepts and terms: planning and managing event tourism Future directions

1: The typical goals of event tourism are derived from a set of core propositions:

attract tourists and stimulate new spending; combat seasonality; spread

tourism spatially; generate positive images and co-brand with destinations;

be catalysts for development and enhanced marketing; generate a long-

term, positive legacy;

2: Demonstrating the public good arising from intervention is essential to the

justiﬁcation of event tourism

3: Civic/national boosterism and irrational decision-making are frequent ex-

planations for bidding on or creating new events

4: Events can be classiﬁed on the basis of tourism-related functionality:

destination event; mega, hallmark and iconic; regional and media events

5: Events are often favoured because they offer a quicker and cheaper form

of attraction development, however major events are dependent upon

venues, especially purpose-built convention and exhibition centres and

sport arenas and stadia; cities and large resorts consequently hold compet-

itive advantages

6: While it is desirable to sustain a comprehensive portfolio of permanent

events, gaps can be ﬁlled through bidding within a specialized

marketplace; these are called biddable, winnable, or one-time events

7: Planning for a long-term or permanent legacy is overtaking short-term

measures of economic impact in justifying event tourism; halo effects

relate to the short-term image boost; quantum leap means using events to

accelerate growth; capacity building requires consideration of cumulative,

sustainable beneﬁts; repositioning stems from the exploitation of events in

re-branding a destination; leveraging applies to a variety of methods

intended to increase visitor spending and longer-term trade or development

gains

- Conduct more case studies and cross-case analysis of event planning and

destination strategies; encourage benchmarking among destinations

- The dynamics and health of populations and portfolios of events (managed or not)

is largely unknown; how is a sustainable niche deﬁned and achieved for events

and event-tourism destinations?

- A key question is how to increase rationality and professionalism in event

development, bidding and hosting?

- There is a need for measures and methods to evaluate long-term, cumulative and

synergistic impacts of event tourism

- Determine how iconic events form and evolve (they must be symbolically

important within social worlds and sub-cultures)

- Assess how mass and social media inﬂuence perceptions of, and attitudes toward

the costs and beneﬁts of event tourism

- Both practical and theoretical work is needed on event populations and the

planning and managing of portfolios: what is a healthy population? (requires

application of various theories from organizational ecology); success and

sustainability measures are required; interactions of stakeholders in overlapping

portfolios have not been studied

- For DMOs and other organizations examine stakeholder relations and power; how

to foster bottom-up strategies and development is a key question (incorporating

community development)

- Measure the effectiveness of destination event-tourism strategies including

co-branding and leveraging efforts

- Study innovation processes and measures of success (achieving, deﬁning

and sustaining competitive advantages)

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631612

and this method has implications for event planning, especially

regarding mega events with multiple venues. The elements of these

zones of inﬂuence are the gateways, venue locations, tourist ﬂows,

transport management, and displacement of other activities.

Daniels (2007) applied central-place theory to a sport event,

ﬁnding that the economic beneﬁts were quite different in the two

adjacent counties that were co-hosts. The larger population centre

received most of the economic beneﬁts because it was able to

accommodate the service requirements of visitors. Major events

also motivate people to travel to one place as opposed to another, so

that during the World's Fair (Expo) in Vancouver, Canada (1986)

normal travel patterns were disrupted eVancouver and British

Columbia gained, but the rest of Canada lost trafﬁc(Lee, 1987). The

spatial distribution of costs and beneﬁts is of particular interest in

event geography, and so too are issues of social equity. Two very

speciﬁc geographic questions are those of deﬁning the region for

which economic beneﬁts are to be estimated, and measuring the

spatial distribution of spending by visitors as examined by Connell

and Page (2005).Sherwood (2007) obtained data for mapping

travel to events in order to assess an event's ‘energy footprint’.

Recent geographic segmentation studies include those by Warnick,

Bojanic, Mathur, and Ninan (2011) and Bojanic and Warnick (2012).

Smith (2009) pointed out the need for conscious leveraging to

spread beneﬁts of event tourism from core to peripheral areas.

More recent emphasis on rural and regional development

through tourism and event strategies has been of particular interest

to scholars in Australia. Moscardo (2008) examined the roles of

festivals and events in regional (i.e., rural) development. Her con-

tent analysis identiﬁed themes associated with the effectiveness of

festivals and events in supporting regional development, including

building social capital, enhancing community capacity, and sup-

porting non-tourism-related products and services. A landmark

book edited by Gibson and Connell (2011) documents the spread

and nature of festivals and their roles in revitalising rural econo-

mies and towns, together with analysis of related issues. Gibson

and Connell (2012) then focused on music festivals in a separate

book, including proﬁles of towns that had employed them as

branding and development tools. Population-level analysis of fes-

tivals in three Norwegian counties revealed interesting processes of

legitimation and growth of the sector, as well as spatial patterns

(Andersson, Getz, &Mykletun, 2013). Andersson et al. (2013) found

that large events are small in number compared to numerous small

events, reﬂecting a clear hierarchy, and that there were more small

events spread over remote, rural areas (on a per capita basis)

compared to the density of events in cities.

Ecological-impact issues of event tourism can beneﬁtfrom

geographical analysis, such as how to tip the balance between

private and transit-based event travel. Capacity to absorb tourism

is a well-established theme, but capacity to absorb events is not.

A starting point is population ecology and the inter-related issues

of competition for resources, ﬁnding a market niche, and re-

lationships with the host community and other stakeholders.

This requires more complex analysis of an area's capacity for

venues and other infrastructure, and how event tourism alters

the landscape and ecological systems. Events help shape and

deﬁne spaces, both private and public. Higham and Hinch (20 06)

considered how sport relates to place identity, attachment and

dependence. Place identity and attachment linked to events have

also been examined by De Bres and Davis (2001), Derrett (2003),

Robertson and Wardrop (2012) and Laing and Frost (2013).

Further research is needed in the area of place dependence, as in

the context of or the permanence of hallmark events and why

some places foster them while others do not to challenge the

assumption that an event tourism strategy will automatically

lead to a growth in visitors.

Technological advances have made it possible to track move-

ments at the micro level, adding a new dimension to spatial studies.

For example, Pettersson and Getz (2009) and Pettersson and

Zillinger (2011) reported on how global positioning has been

combined with other methods to gain insights on event-goer

movements and the identiﬁcation of experiential hot spots (also

see Nilbe, Ahas and Silm, 2014 on the travel distances of visitors).

Event tourists are now aided by a considerable number of social-

media channels, formal and informal information sources, and

fan-zone entertainment. Drawing upon the concepts of landscape,

servicescape and experiencescape (see O'Dell and Billing, 2005)a

relatively new line of research and theory-building is forming

around the concept of festivalscape (or eventscape). In this context,

Nelson (2009) considered how the event experience can be

enhanced through design, and Yang, Gu, and Cen (2011) brought

together emotion and perceived value in testing the moderating

effect of festivalscape on behavioural intentions. Mason and

Paggiaro (2012) applied the concept to food and wine events. As

the event experience is shaped by interactions of place, setting,

people and management, the implications for design and market-

ing are substantial.

4.4.2. Temporal issues

Seasonality of demand is the main temporal theme in event

tourism, starting with the classic Ritchie and Beliveau (1974)

research paper through to the detailed analysis by Connell et al.

(2015). Events are one important way in which destinations can

combat low tourist demand, yet as revealed by Janiskee (1996),

Ryan, Smee, Murphy, and Getz (1998), and others there is in most

destinations a pronounced peaking of events in the high summer

season, thereby presenting a challenge to the DMO. Yoon, Spencer,

Holecek, and Kim (2000) undertook one of the few studies of the

seasonality of the event tourism market, in Michigan. Higham and

Hinch (2002) looked at sport events as an answer to seasonal

tourist demand. Displacement of residents and other tourists is an

occasionally researched temporal/spatial issue in event tourism

(e.g., Brannas &Nordstrom, 2006; Hultkrantz, 1998). This occurs

when an event ﬁlls up available accommodation, or when publicity

leads to the perception of crowding or high expense and this causes

people to leave town or stay away. Obviously it is a major reason for

bidding on or creating events in the off-peak tourist season.

Displacement is also a critical consideration in estimating economic

impacts of events.

The event life cycle, both in terms of changing market appeal and

long-term sustainability or institutionalization, is an important

temporal theme that has received attention by researchers (see

Beverland, Hoffman, &Rasmussen, 2001; Frisby &Getz, 1989, Getz,

1993, 2000a, 2000b; Getz &Frisby, 1988; Richards &Ryan, 2004;

Soﬁeld &Li, 1998; Soﬁeld &Sivan, 2003; Walle, 1994). Within a

portfolio approach some thought has to be given to the image and

freshness of events appealing to speciﬁc market segments, and the

attractiveness of the overall mix of events. This relates to population

ecology theory in the sense that the health of the portfolio is prob-

ably more important than the sustainability or appeal of individual

eventsdbut only in a strategic marketing sense, and not necessarily

in terms of social and cultural factors. Why events fail (Carlsen,

Andersson, Ali-Knight, Jaeger, &Taylor, 2010; Getz, 2003a)isa

related line of research that is in need of progress, partially addressed

by Connell et al. (2015). Time switching is an important issue in

event tourism, being the propensity of people to alter the timing of

their travel plans to take in an event. They are not necessarily

attracted to travel because of the event and therefore their spending

cannot be considered a beneﬁt of the event (this is part of the general

‘attribution problem’in event impact assessment; see for example

Dwyer, Mellor, Mistillis, &Mules, 2000a, 2000b).

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 613

4.4.3. Policy for event tourism

Hall and Rusher (2004, p. 229) concluded that ‘‘there still re-

mains relatively little analysis of the political context of events and

the means by which events come to be developed and hosted

within communities.’’ However, interest in the policy dimension

has grown rapidly, no doubt reﬂecting both the magnitude of the

event sector and related controversy. Foley, McGillivray, and

McPherson (2011) provide considerable insights to event-tourism

policy, notably in the Scottish context where EventScotland and

Creative Scotland both pursue development strategies, in effect

generating overlapping festival and event portfolios. Getz (2009)

argued for a new events policy paradigm combining sustainabil-

ity and social responsibility, to which Dredge and Whitford (2010)

responded and argued for a more nuanced approach. Dredge and

Whitford (2011) subsequently examined governance issues, or

how stakeholders participate, arguing for public-private decision-

making in which stakeholders deliberate on and take action to

achieve common goals. Policy and strategy is often formulated at

the level of local authorities or municipalities, and Whitford

(2004a, 2004b, 2009) examined local authority policy towards

events in Queensland, Australia, where it was mostly a top-down

process. Pugh and Wood (2004) focused on the strategic use of

events in UK local authorities, while Reid (2006) looked at the

politics of city imaging surrounding an event, and Thomas and

Wood (2004) discussed event-based tourism and local govern-

ment in the UK. O'Sullivan, Pickernell, and Senyard (2009) discov-

ered a gap between the expressed socio-cultural reasons for

supporting festivals and events in Wales and the reliance on eco-

nomic outcome performance measures.

The urban studies and policy literature has generated inter-

esting perspectives such as Gotham (2002), examining Mardi Gras

in New Orleans from the perspective of place marketing,

commodiﬁcation, spectacle, globalization and political economy.

Gladstone (2012) referred to New Orleans events in discussing

policy “regimes”and how they determine tourism strategies.

Merkel (2013) indicates that the emergence of new lines of critical

theory are now apparent. Weed's (2003) research in the UK

revealed tensions between the two communities of sport and

tourism including funding and resources, top-down policy-making,

organization and professionalization, internal focus, and project-

based liaison. Results showed how development of this policy

network (i.e., sport plus tourism) can be made sustainable. Devine,

Boyd, and Boyle (2010) also examined the sports tourism policy

arena, highlighting the need for collaboration. Stakeholder analysis,

networking and power relationships have been conceptualized as a

political market square by Larson and Wikstrom (2001) and Larson

(2002), while Larson (2009) employed the metaphors of the jungle,

the park and the garden to highlight the varying dynamics of event

networks. Robertson and Wardrop (2012) developed a conceptual

model called the “spatial domain of politics and policy relating to

festivals and other events”which notes the many interrelated

policy aims connected to six dimensions: quality of life; place

identity; culture; tourism; economy, and social capital. Scotland is

used as a case in point, and EventScotland has also been proﬁled in

Getz (2013a) as an exemplar of event-tourism strategy, organisa-

tion and development at the national level.

Research on social-cultural impacts and resident perceptions

and attitudes has been evolving into research on resident support

or opposition (e.g., Boo, Wang, &Yu,2011;Richards,deBrito,&

Wilks, 2013). Open, public discourse on the costs and beneﬁts

of events and event tourism is rare, and generally ill-informed.

The proponents of mega events in particular either shut down

dissent or cynically manipulate debate through emphasis on in-

tangibles like national pride. Tourism is often appropriated by the

proponents as a major beneﬁciary, allegedly leading to jobs and

prosperity, yet opportunity costs are ignored. Full accounting is

absent after the event. Overall, the most crucial public-policy

issue facing event tourism is that of justifying intervention,

whether in the form of direct provision of events, building and

subsidizing event venues, bidding on one-time events, or man-

aging sustainable event portfolios. Unless ‘public good’can be

demonstrated through complete transparency and accountability

on the part of all the agents, event tourism is likely to garner

increasing opposition for its more obvious costs and perceived

problems.

4.4.4. Knowledge creation

Knowledge creation in this ﬁeld has largely been ad hoc and

fragmented among diverse interest groups. Review articles like this

one have as one of their main purposes the integration of pertinent

literature, as do the growing number of textbooks. However,

research on the process and actors in knowledge creation for event

tourism is largely absent. Stokes (2004) examined knowledge

networks in the Australian events sector. In advancing knowledge a

number of important actors have to be involved, and perhaps some

new collaborative processes developed. Event and tourism studies,

like other immature ﬁelds of inquiry, are mostly multi-disciplinary

in nature, drawing theory, knowledge, methodologies and methods

from many established disciplines. It is also accomplished indi-

rectly, by drawing on closely related professional ﬁelds like leisure

studies. When two or more disciplinary foundations are applied to

the problem we enter the realm of interdisciplinary research, with

the long-term goal being to establish unique, interdisciplinary

theory and knowledge. Anyone undertaking research on events

should view the established disciplinary perspectives as a legiti-

mate starting point. Even if the research problem is rooted in a

policy or management need, it is highly possible that geography,

economics, or another discipline already provides a solid founda-

tion for conducting the research. However, within these disciplines

the study of events and tourism is often incidental to a broader

issue or theoretical problem and Table 7 outlines some of the future

research themes that need to be addressed in terms of dynamic

processes.

4.5. Outcomes and the impacted

Event tourism is primarily driven by the goal of economic

beneﬁts, but we need to examine outcomes and impacts at the

personal and societal levels, and also in terms of cultural and

environmental change. Event tourism should be viewed inan open-

system perspective, identifying ‘inputs’(what it takes to make

events happen, including the costs of bidding, facility development

and marketing), ‘transforming processes’(events as agents of

change), and ‘outcomes’(desired and undesired impacts, including

externalities). Depending on one's perspective, outcomes and

change processes might be interpreted as a positive or negative

impact. As so much research and applied work has been devoted to

economic impacts, other outcomes were neglected for many years,

along with development of suitable and convincing measures of

intangible impacts and event value or worth. However, social and

cultural outcomes are now fairly-well understood and a range of

indicators are available. And although the environmental effects of

events and tourism are also being addressed by researchers,

incommensurability is hampering the utilization of a triple-

bottom-line approach to event-tourism evaluation. In short, it is

generally easier and often more politically effective to put out-

comes into monetary terms.

Carlsen, Getz, and Soutar (2001) sought to establish broader

measures of event impacts, and Sherwood, Jago, and Deery (2004,

2005) and Sherwood (2007) advanced a triple bottom line

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631614

approach to event sustainability. Fredline, Raybould, Jago, and

Deery (2005) recommended use of the ‘event footprint’as a

concept of triple-bottom-line accounting. This graphical technique

plots scores from key indicators on three dimensions. To make

progress in both impact assessment and evaluation of worth, a

more comprehensive system will be needed, one that allows

comparison of multiple dimensions without resorting to purely

monetary measurement. This could be accomplished by a goal-

attainment approach in which progress towards attaining speciﬁc

outcomes, and broader sustainability and management goals is

periodically undertaken.

The notion of event legacy planning has become ﬁrmly estab-

lished, particularly with regard to mega events that cannoteasily be

justiﬁed in terms of tourist expenditure, project ﬁnances, or by

reference to any short-term measures. Thomson, Schlenker, and

Schulenkorf (2013, 111) stated the concept “has attracted limited

critical analysis”, and identiﬁed ﬁve key considerations: deﬁne the

period of time early on, with a clear vision; plan the legacy from the

concept stage; consider outcomes at all stages of the event life

cycle; consider different perspectives on what is positive or nega-

tive; engage all stakeholders to ensure maximum reach for the

desired outcomes. Clifton, O'Sullivan, and Pickernell (2012) took a

different approach by linking a theme year to capacity building.

Veitch (2013) explored mythology as a hallmark-event legacy, with

reference to the lasting inﬂuence of the America's Cup on Fre-

mantle, Western Australia. Many observers, and critics of mega

events in particular, point to the credibility gap between what is

promised and is actually delivered. For example, Minnaert (2012)

Table 7

Future research themes associated with dynamic processes in event tourism.

Major themes, concepts and terms: dynamic processes Future directions

Spatial:

1: The distribution of festivals as linked to humaneresource interactions

such as agriculture and other resource exploitation

2: Central-place theory applies (i.e., the concentration of events and event tourism in

larger centres with venues and tourism infrastructure); core-periphery economics

is a related construct as it is difﬁcult to spread positive beneﬁts away from main

event venues

3: Hierarchies of events appear to develop naturally, ranging from numerous local

events through fewer regional events and a relatively small number with global

attractiveness (i.e., the size pyramid)

4: Distance-decay: travel distance, time and cost affects event-tourist demand

and shapes market areas

5: Events have zones of inﬂuence measured in newly generated travel, displacement

effects, and short-term and long-term impacts

6: Capacity (there are limits to event numbers or size in peak time periods and

particular areas)

7: Events play a role in fostering place identity; Hallmark events are dependent upon

their place of origin ethey are 'attached' or 'anchored'

Temporal:

1: Festivals tend to concentrate in good-weather and holiday periods (as in the

peak festival season)

2: Iconic events have the power to attract dedicated event tourists in the off-peak

3: Event life cycles have been explored, raising concern for renewal or planned

obsolescence

4: The sustainability of events and event-tourism portfolios is of increasing

importance

5: Time switching is an essential consideration when attributing tourism demand

and expenditure to events

- Population dynamics and the health of event populations is a new area

for researchers (start by conducting a census of events in a given area and

looking for resource dependencies)

- Future studies should be applied to event tourism, resulting in scenarios

for strategy and theory-building purposes

- For the life cycle, determine factors which factors most shape their evolution?

- Capacity or saturation: do communities or destinations inevitably reach

event and event tourism saturation? can populations be managed to

ensure growth?

- Adaptation strategies: how do events adapt to changes in their

environment? (connect to niche theory in population ecology);

- Why events fail is a largely unexplored issue

Policy:

1: Events and event tourism have been legitimized as policy instruments across

economic, social, cultural and environmental domains; this has led to criticism of

the 'festivalization' of urban policy and spaces and the generation of sameness (or

loss of authenticity)

2: Justiﬁcation of event tourism usually rests on purported tourism and economic

beneﬁts; longer-term legacy effects are of increasing signiﬁcance

3: Events focus attention on how power, the interests of elite groups, and irrational

decision-making shape policy and underscore decisions

- What are the ways in which stakeholders exercise power, and negotiate,

to develop event tourism and related policy? who gets

excluded or marginalised?

- How can an open, public discourse on costs and beneﬁts of event

tourism be fostered?

- Governance: how can public-private policymaking be made to work?

- Evaluation: how do we know when event tourism policies are

effective and efﬁciently administered?

- Which justiﬁcations for public involvement in event tourism are supported,

and why?

- What are the ideological foundations of event tourism policy?

Knowledge creation:

1: Many well-established lines of research support the core propositions of

event tourism

2: There has been an over-emphasis of knowledge creation in the realm of economic

impacts, although the discourse has been broadening quickly

3: Although fashionable, a consumerist perspective on event demand and decision

making (i.e., modelling simple expressed motives with measures of satisfaction

and future intentions), overlooks fundamental needs, event meanings, and

complex antecedents

4: Interest in events continues to expand within all closely-related ﬁelds and many

foundation disciplines, giving rise to new theoretical perspectives and useful

methodologies

- Each of the core propositions of event tourism should lead to

interdisciplinary theory development

- Ontology: continued assessment of claims to knowledge, concepts and

terms will help develop the ﬁeld

- Epistemology: advances are required in adapting methodology from

foundation disciplines and closely-related ﬁelds

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 615

argued the Olympics generally bring few beneﬁts for socially

excluded groups, although these supposed beneﬁts are often

important justiﬁcations.

4.5.1. Economic outcomes

As discussed earlier in the paper, the earliest journal articles

were by Della Bitta et al. (1978),andDavidson and Schaffer

(1980).Theﬁrst truly comprehensive event impact research

was conducted on the Adelaide Grand Prix (see Burns, Hatch, &

Mules, 1986). Since then, a number of scholars have lamented

the lack of consistency used in event impact studies (Dwyer,

Forsyth, &Spurr, 2005; Sherwood, 2007; Uysal &Gitelson,

1994), but there is now so much literature available that practi-

tioners should be able to avoid the main pitfalls. Several note-

worthy articles were published at the turn of the century,

including state-of-the-art commentary and methodology for

conducting economic impact assessments by Dwyer et al. (2000a,

2000b). These more or less laid to rest any debate on what

needed to be done, and how to do it validly.

Projects funded through the Cooperative Research Centre for

Sustainable Tourism in Australia resulted in the ENCORE toolkit,

whichinitsﬁnal version adopted a triple-bottom-line approach.

Jago and Dwyer (2006) documented all the basic methods and

issues, but economists have subsequently debated the validity of

using inputeoutput as a foundation for estimating secondary

and induced income. Dwyer et al. (2010) include state-of-the-art

thinking on event tourism impacts and their assessment, within

the broader tourism context. Although income and value-added

multipliers are typically used when converting direct (in-scope)

event tourism spending into gross economic impacts, others

have used econometric modelling and most recently economists

have been recommending use of General Equilibrium Models

(Dwyer &Forsyth, 2009; Dwyer, Forsyth, &Spurr, 2006).

Research concerning the economic impacts of single events

dominates the literature (e.g., Peeters, Matheson and Szymanski,

2014; Saayman &Saayman, 2012) but various types of events are

well studied. Grado et al. (1998) examined conferences and

conventions, and Dwyer (2002) provided an overview of conven-

tion tourism impacts. Solberg, Andersson, &Shibli, 2002 examined

‘business’travellers to events, notably the media and ofﬁcials. Im-

pacts of events on the public sector have been studied (Andersson

and Samuelson, 2000) and it is especially noteworthy that tax

beneﬁts for all levels of government constitute one of the biggest

beneﬁts of event tourism (Turco, 1995). Fundamental to event

impact assessment is detailed analysis of visitor spending, with

appropriate methods reviewed by Case, Dey, Hobbs, Hoolachan,

and Wilcox (2010), Case, Dey, Lu, Phang, and Schwanz (2013).

Wicker and Hallmann (2013) continued this line of research by

employing willingness to pay measures for marathon runners.

Davies, Coleman, and Ramchandani (2013) argue for the Direct

Expenditure Approach to event impact assessment, which is simply

a calculation of direct tourist expenditure attributable to an event,

minus ﬁrst-round leakages and taking into account organizational

spend and surplus or deﬁcit.

A number of authors have called for more comprehensive cost

and beneﬁt evaluations (Burgan &Mules, 2001; Mules &Dwyer,

2006; Whitson &Horne, 2006). As early as 1973 Cicarelli and

Kowarsky conducted a cost-beneﬁt evaluation of the Olympics.

These are, very regrettably, seldom conducted, perhaps owing to the

broad scope and the difﬁculty of comparing tangibles with in-

tangibles. But there is also good reason to believe that full ac-

counting of mega-project costs is not desired by proponents, and

that after the event it is easier and more politically safe to let people

believe that initial forecasts of costs and beneﬁts were realized

rather than to prove that they were. As the discourse broadens from

economic to more comprehensive impact assessments, the more

fundamental question has arisen of how society, politicians, and

various other stakeholders value, or determine the worth of events

and event-tourism portfolios. Within this debate are considerations

of opportunity costs, gigantism (in terms of costs and incurred debt)

and questionable sustainability (Hall, 2012; Preuss, 2007, 2009).

In order to avoid “black-box”models based on different as-

sumptions and multipliers, and to achieve standardization in

forecasts and post-event impact assessments, there is a move

Table 8

Future research issues associated with the economic effects of events.

Established concepts and terms: economic outcomes Future directions

1: Numerous economic-impact studies of single events, and a few on multiple

events have established how event-tourism changes consumption patterns,

generates income/wealth, has a minor role in creating employment, and

contributes to other forms of economic and urban/rural development

2: Analysis frequently reveals the dedicated event tourist to be a high-yield

visitor with distinct consumption patterns; this varies, depending on the

event and the target markets

3: Taxation makes governments at all levels the primary beneﬁciaries of new

event-tourism demand

4: The traditional reliance on multipliers (income, value, employment) to

estimate total direct, indirect and induced economic impacts has received

a lot of criticism for exaggerating beneﬁts; furthermore, studies have

revealed that direct event-tourist spending accounts for the vast majority of

income beneﬁts; multipliers are sometimes misused on purpose; their basis

in Input-Output tables has been challenged owing to a propensity to exag-

gerate beneﬁts

5: Cost/beneﬁt evaluation methods are rarely applied; many event supporters

do not want a full accounting of costs; many costs are hidden (e.g., security,

transport infrastructure) or are falsely claimed as beneﬁts; externalities such

as pollution or social problems are typically ignored

6: The attribution of new or incremental spending to dedicated event tourists

(who travel because of the event) is the key to calculating tourism

beneﬁts; in-scope expenditure refers to both the speciﬁc event(s) and the

geographical area for which costs and beneﬁts are to be calculated; casual

event tourists (those already in the area) must be discounted, unless they

stay longer or spend more because of an event

7: Displacement effects (by types of visitor, by economic sector, and spatially)

can be substantial and must be deducted from gross tourist income

- Generalized Equilibrium Models are becoming preferred over multipliers,

but more applications are needed

- The distribution of costs and beneﬁts among persons and groups and between

cities and regions/countries remains a key issue

- Full triple-bottom-line impact assessments are still in their infancy; commensu

rability remains a problem

- Destinations and events always need fresh market intelligence on who are the

high-yield event tourists, and how they should be attracted ethis has theoretical

implications in the context of event-tourist careers

- In micro-economic terms, how does sustainability apply to the ﬁnancial viability

of the event and the event organization? of portfolios of events?

- Long-term, cumulative economic impacts and legacy effects require study

- Opportunity costs are seldom built into feasibility and impact studies; the same

goes for externalities such as amenity loss

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631616

towards adopting a set of key performance indicators. Is it neces-

sary for an event to forecast and account for every new dollar

brought into the destination, or is it more important to know if local

suppliers were used and their businesses enhanced? Do we need to

prove that every event puts money into local government coffers, or

is it better to measure the distributional effects of event-related

expenditures? As the ﬁeld matures, politicians demanding val-

idity and standardization will increasingly pinpoint the economic

and other outcomes they want measured and future research issues

are outlined in Table 8.

4.5.2. Personal, social, cultural, and political outcomes

There are difﬁculties involved in distinguishing between per-

sonal, social, and cultural outcomes, all of which can have political

repercussions. It is often impossible to prove cause and effect in

these areas, moreover the impacts felt by people might be attrib-

utable to the holding of events, participation in them, or the

tourism dimension. Media reports can greatly inﬂuence percep-

tions and attitudes. Tourism-related outcomes can be complex and

hard to assess, starting with the travel dimension (e.g., it can

impose congestion, pollution, noise, accidents), to host-guest in-

teractions (such as servitude or expansion of social networks), or

more intangible effects stemming from resident perceptions of

their place in the world (e.g., their identity, place meanings and

civic or national pride). Sharpley and Stone (2012) considered

“social-cultural impacts”to be the simplest way of labelling this

broad category, although they pointed out that social pertains to

effects on people's day-to-day life and cultural impacts relate to

beliefs, values, norms and traditions of groups. Research on social

and cultural impacts of event tourism has its roots in anthropo-

logical studies (e.g. Greenwood, 1972), who raised the enduring

issue of commodiﬁcation of cultural traditions, and a consequent

loss of authenticity. A conceptual overview was provided by Ritchie

(1984), and a noteworthy piece of sociological research was con-

ducted by Cunneen and Lynch (1988) who studied ritualized rioting

at a sport event. The literature on resident perceptions has also

grown substantially as Table 9 illustrates.

Social capital is a relatively new theme in the events literature

(e.g., Arcodia and Whitford, 2007; Finkel, 2010; Schulenkorf,

Thomson, and Schlenker (2011); Sharpley &Stone, 2012), and

features prominently Richards et al. (2013). However it is some-

times unclear if it is an input necessary for establishing and sus-

taining events, or eif it is an outcome ewhether it accrues from

engagement with an event (as volunteer, organizer or participant)

or can be a general effect of the networking and relationship

building inherent in producing events. And where tourism exactly

ﬁgures into the social-capital equation is somewhat of a mystery.

Cultural change is usually less evident than social impacts, and

therefore has been less subject to empirical research. Examples

include Garcia (2005) on the cultural effects of Glasgow's City of

Culture year. Stevenson (2012) focused on the cultural legacy of the

Olympics. More speciﬁc links between event tourism and culture

can be found in the context of religious pilgrimage (Singh, 2006;

Timothy and Olsen, 2006), the events held by social worlds and

sub cultures (Getz &Patterson, 2013), and of course arts events and

their legacies (Quinn, 2009, 2010).

While the list of potential outcomes and positive or negative

impacts felt by people and groups is long, there cannot be any cer-

tainty that event-tourism generates any one in particular. That is

why it is necessary to understand the mechanisms by which change

is initiated, and how people perceive the results (Kim, Jun, Walker, &

Drane 2015). A number of theoretical perspectives are being taken to

explain the socio-cultural impact processes and resident reactions to

events or event-tourism. Exchange theory is the most widely cited.

For example, Jackson (2008) found that residents are generally in

favour of events that contribute socially and economically to the

destination; residents are willing to cope with negatives as long as

the perceived beneﬁts are greater. Social representations, such as

those communicated by media coverage, affect perceptions and

attitudes. This has been explored in the event context by Fredline

and Faulkner (2002b) and Cheng and Jarvis (2010). Other theoret-

ical perspectives including personal and group identity and legiti-

mation, place meanings, attachment and identity have been

developed (Boyko, 2008; De Bres &Davis, 2001). A feminist, critical-

theory approach is rarely taken, but examples include studies by

Eder, Staggenborg, and Sudderth (1995), Coughlin (2010) and

Fullagar and Pavlidis (2012),whileEvans (2007) employed post-

colonial theory in examining a ﬁlm festival. There is a clear gap in

the research on political outcomes of event tourism. These could

include corruption, changes in government, the evolution of

governance (i.e., new models involving stakeholders), or the politi-

cization of decision-making about events and tourism. Henderson

(2007) discussed the dilemma of how to deal with the question of

demonstrations that are affected by prevailing political cultures, and

it can be asked if growing opposition to mega-events (e.g., in Rio de

Janeiro) will have any impact on praxis or politics and future

research themes are outlined in Table 10.

Table 9

Resident and social impact studies on event tourism.

Residents' perceptions of, and attitudes towards events emerged as a major

research and theoretical theme, although the tourism-speciﬁc dimensions

have not been fully examined in this context. Key studies include:

Soutar and McLeod (1993)

Delamere (1997, 2001)

Delamere, Wankel, and Hinch (2001)

Fredline and Faulkner (1998, 2000, 2002a, 2002b)

Mihalik (2001)

Fredline, 2006; Fredline, Jago, and Deery (2003, 2005)

Cegielski and Mules (2002)

Small et al. (2005)

Wood (2005)

Ohmann, Jones, and Wilkes (2006)

Xiao and Smith (2004a)

Gursoy and Kendall (2006)

Lim and Lee (2006)

Rollins and Delamare (2007)

Bull and Lovell (2007)

Reid (2007)

Jackson (2008)

Small (2007)

Wang and Pﬁster (2008)

Zhou and Ap (2009)

Zhou (2010)

Chen (2011)

Lorde, Greenidge, and Devonish (2011)

Balduck, Maes, and Buelens (2011)

Pranic, Petric, and Cetinic (2012)

Prayag et al. (2013).

A number of speciﬁc social impact studies have been conducted including:

Barker, Page, and Meyer's (2002a, 2002b, 2003) papers on event-related crime

and perceptions of safety during an event. Even so Schroeder and Pennington-

Grey (2014) argued that perceptions of crime at the Olympics lacked research

despite the major security exercises surrounding such events.

Woosnam, Van Winkle, and An (2013) sought to conﬁrm their festival social

impact attitude scale in Texas.

Di Giovine (2009) considered how a destination event facilitates resident

communitas and urban regeneration.

Robertson, Rogers, and Leask (2009) sought to develop a set of indicators for

socio-cultural festival impact assessments.

Deery and Jago (2010) dealt with anti-social behaviour at events.

Kaplanidou et al. (2013) tested perceived satisfaction with quality of life by

residents in South Africa before and after the World Cup.

Focussing on how publicity in advance of the Olympics shaped resident

support, Chien, Ritchie, Shipway, and Henderson (2012) concluded that at-

titudes were shaped by perceived fairness of the coverage, taking into account

imputed beneﬁts and forecast costs or negative impacts.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 617

4.5.3. Environmental

The environmental impacts of events and tourism have

remained a largely neglected area of academic research. For

example, Sherwood (2007) examined 85 event economic impact

studies prepared in Australia, and while the economic impact

assessment was inconsistent but well established, social and cul-

tural event impacts were being given more and more attention, but

there was still a great need for advancing environmental impact

assessment. According to Sherwood, only two published papers by

May (1995) and Harris and Huyskens (2002) had dealt explicit with

the environmental impacts of events, and only one of 85 event

impact studies actually employed a triple bottom line approach.

The research literature on environmental outcomes has been

expanding slowly. Ahmed, Moodley, and Sookrajh (2008) looked at

the environmental impacts of beach sport tourism in South Africa

surrounding a surﬁng event, including the potential for environ-

mental education. Collins and Flynn (2008) and Collins, Jones, and

Munday (2009), Collins, Munday, and Roberts (2012) have tested

different ways of measuring the environmental sustainability of a

major sporting event. Recent additions to the literature on green

and sustainable events include books by Raj and Musgrave (2009),

Jones (2010) and Goldblatt and Goldblatt (2012).Case (2013) covers

relationships between events and the environment comprehen-

sively, while Pernecky and Luck (2012) examine event sustain-

ability in its many dimensions, including case studies. Case (2012)

chronicled the Olympic movement and environmental issues and

proﬁled the 2012 London Olympics in the context of sustainability.

Theodoraki (2009) studied ofﬁcial communications on the impacts

of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games, ﬁnding that at the bid stage the

efforts were directed at building a positive image for the games,

while accounts of post-game economic beneﬁts were unsophisti-

cated and unveriﬁable. In an effort to overcome the problem of

incommensurability in triple-bottom-line approaches to impact

assessment, festival-related research by Andersson, Armbrecht and

Lundberg (2012) and Andersson and Lundberg (2013) placed a

monetary value on the use and non-use values expressed through

willingness to pay by event tourists and residents, and on the

ecological footprint of the event. Footprint analysis, which focuses

on consumption and waste, including carbon, offers the prospect of

making it possible to compare events systematically and to monitor

their sustainability efforts.

In terms of standards and certiﬁcation, the main development is

that of ISO, 2012 which “provides the framework for identifying the

potentially negative social, economic and environmental impacts of

events by removing or reducing them, and capitalizing on more

positive impacts through improved planning and processes.”

Standards like these impose management and reporting systems

but do not answer the question 'what is a sustainable event'?

Standards and practices for green events and venues are now

widely implemented, but the literature does not provide any

comparative evidence of results. As argued by Case (2013), who

considered the entire set of relationships between planned events

and the environment, it is necessary to consider resources

consumed, and the micro and macro environmental outcomes. To

focus on tourism we need to question the additional resources

consumed, and outcomes generated by tourists, as well as any

modiﬁcations introduced by the tourism dimension. In particular,

this systems approach leads to the critical issue of transportation

and energy consumption, but might also focus attention on the

peculiar eating and purchasing habits of event tourists, different

patterns of destination activities, and preferences for particular

forms of accommodation. It might also be the case that event

tourists bring different values and attitudes to a place, resulting in

conﬂicts with residents.

As Table 11 demonstrates on concepts and future research is-

sues, there are few established concepts and terms speciﬁc to event

tourism and the environment. The location and setting of events

certainly has an effect, with purpose-built venues permanently

changing the landscape and generating on-going costs and

resource demands. More attention should be given to achieving

positive environmental outcomes, including the role of event

tourism in nature conservation through education and interpreta-

tion. In this context the notion of ecotourism events is relevant;

that is events that are designed to attract ecotourists who expect to

make a positive contribution and a model for ecotourism events has

been developed by Getz (2013b). However, more generically the

literature on future studies and events has remained a largely un-

developed area and so it is pertinent to brieﬂy review this area and

its contribution to the long-term development of event tourism

research.

4.5.4. Future studies and event tourism: a neglected area for further

research?

There is a growing body of knowledge emerging within tourism

management on the value of future studies and their contribution

to understanding the future changes to demand and supply issues

and how they may impact tourism. The extant literature in event

studies is still in its infancy with much of the tourism and broader

Table 10

Future research themes on the personal, social and cultural outcomes of event tourism.

Major themes, concepts and terms: personal, social, and cultural outcomes Future directions

1: Many resident-perceived impacts (both positive and negative) have been

identiﬁed at the personal and community levels

2: Exchange theory helps explain why many people are supportive of event-

tourism, or not (because they perceive beneﬁts or costs accrue to them)

3: Proximity effects: being close to events and venues is potentially an

important explanatory factor

4: Social representation through media coverage affects perceptions

and attitudes

5: Commodiﬁcation through event tourism is a threat to cultural authenticity

6: Events can help preserve traditions, foster civic and national pride,

develop participation in and support for the arts

7: Events are sometimes platforms for protests, demonstrations, anti-social

behaviour; these effects are often connected to the extent of media coverage

8: Legitimation and identity building for groups occurs through organizing

or participating in events

9: Voluntarism and other forms of engagement fosters personal development

and group identity

10: Production of, and engagement with events can create social and cultural

capital eespecially through increased personal and institutional networking

- More is needed on personal development through event engagement and

participation (e.g., how do people describe and explain why event tourism

experiences are satisfying, memorable or transforming? what are the personal

and social consequences of negative event tourism experiences?)

- Evaluation tools and measures are needed for intangible effects and long-term,

cumulative social/cultural legacies

- Establishing cause and effect in social and cultural change is always problematic

(e.g., does commodiﬁcation of an event cause loss of tradition or authenticity?

does gigantism and mega-event costs/debt generate social discontent?)

- Compare discourses on costs and beneﬁts (e.g., post-colonial, feminist, power

and politics, stakeholder interactions)

- How are social representations of events formed and communicated?

- How does the nature and extent of community involvement inﬂuence event

tourism success and outcomes?

- What strategies work best for maximizing community beneﬁts?

- The politics of event tourism and response to perceived impacts requires study

- Explore the process of how events contribute to place identity and attachment

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631618

management literature providing the foundations for the analysis

of event futures. As Page, Yeoman, Munro, Connell, and Walker

(2006) outlined, the UK Cabinet Ofﬁce Performance and

Innovation Unit (2001) suggested that when examining futures

issues there are three principal questions we need to pose: what

may happen (possible futures), what is the most likely to happen

(probable futures) and what would we prefer to happen (preferable

futures). For this reason, a number of distinct approaches exist

which can be employed in futures research as outlined by Page et al.

(2006) based on the growth in this area within management sci-

ence from softer (often qualitative techniques) through to much

harder techniques. In fact Cornish's (2004) overview of futures

techniques illustrates the breadth of futures research highlighted

which comprise environmental scanning, trend analysis, trend

monitoring, trend projection, scenarios, polling, brainstorming,

modelling, gaming, historical analysis and visioning (i.e. looking

more than 10 years ahead). This underlines the importance of the

type of futures research question one wishes to ask eand whether

you are looking for certainty and ambiguity, with the much harder

techniques lending themselves to a greater element of certainty. In

terms of the harder techniques that principally focus on fore-

casting, they were grouped by Calentone, Benedetto, and Bojanic

(1987) into four types: exploratory forecasting based on extrapo-

lating past trends using regression and similar techniques;

normative, integrative and speculative forecasting (see Song &Li,

2008 for a review of their use in tourism). In terms of the qualita-

tive area, Lin and Song (2014) examined the comparative neglect of

the use of Delphi techniques as a way of understanding futures

using more qualitative tools while several uses of scenario planning

have been employed in the tourism literature (see Page et al. 2006;

Page, Yeoman, Connell, and Greenwood, 2010) for a detailed re-

view) which document the emergence and use to understand

possible futures to pose the ‘what if’question to managers.

Within the ﬁeld of event tourism, there are a wide range of

challenges facing managers which futures research will help in a

greater understanding of what are the key trends and factors

affecting those trends (e.g. drivers of change) and the main issues

which might occur in an event setting (e.g. the occurrence of

random events such an extreme event such as a heatwave through

to more atypical events such as terrorism through to more

commonplace safety and security risks). Recent studies such as

Yeoman, Robertson, McMahon-Beattie, Smith, and Backer (2014)

map out some of the issues which future event tourism research

will have to face and a useful summary of the key drivers of con-

sumer behaviour in event tourism are outlined in Table 12 based on

Yeoman (2013).

What Table 12 illustrates is the scope of probable drivers of

change that managers will need to understand in terms of demand

although from a supply perspective a number of other challenges

exist as outlined by Adema and Roehl (2010), Mair (2011) and

Yeoman et al. (2014) where the following drivers of event tourism

may include (as also highlighted in Tables 2e11):

Environmental and green issues

The impact of climate change and the need for venues and event

stagers to consider the capacity to adapt to and mitigate the

impacts

Security and safety issues

Globalization and the global audiences for event tourism.

5. Conclusions

Event tourism is a sub-ﬁeld at the nexus of tourism and event

studies as demonstrated in Figures 1 and 2, and its growing

importance as an economic activity with various development

Table 11

Future research issues on environmental outcomes and event tourism.

Major themes, concepts and terms: environmental

outcomes

Future directions

1: Event-tourism is a major consumer of energy and other

resources, generating high

ecological and carbon footprints

2: Event types and settings inﬂuence environmental

impacts (e.g., indoor versus outdoor,

festival versus sport); reliance on private automobile

access is a major issue; some events

drastically alter consumption patterns, such as spending

on travel, food, accommodation

3: Practices and standards have been established for the

“greening”of events and

sustainable venues

- There is an on-going need to advance environmental impact evaluation methods

(e.g. ecological footprint; carbon footprint)

- Cumulative, long-term impacts and ecological sustainability of event populations

are unexplored

- Compare event types, formats and locations in terms of propensity to harm or beneﬁt

the environment

- Evaluate the effects of green and sustainability certiﬁcation and standards

- Are ecotourism events suitable for sensitive environments?

- Advance interpretation and environmental education at, and through events

Table 12

A summary of consumer trends shaping future events and festivals.

Trend term Summary

Everyday

exceptional

An increase in celebration and the transformation

of the everyday experience into some more

extraordinary and exceptional events

Magic nostalgia A greater focus on reminiscence and celebration of the

past in events and festivals

Leisure upgrade The aspiration for leisure participation increases with

afﬂuence and events offer a new form of social capital

where participation is celebrated as an experience

Mobile living We are living in more connected societies and living more

connected lives which also transcends our leisure lives in

which events (and non-leisure events) occur

Performative

leisure

We are increasingly witnessing people celebrating their

involvement in events and enjoyment through sharing

the experiences via social media and mobile technology

Authentic

experience

Consumers are seeking to accumulate more authentic

leisure experiences and events and festivals offer one way

to do this, increasingly through co-creation

Afﬂuence Consumers are becoming more demanding in terms of

their needs and consumption within the experience

economy

Ageless society The rising age of the population in the developed world,

due to greater life expectancy, has transformed the

participation in events and festivals

Consuming

with ethics

Consumers are starting to recognise the challenge of

green issues and their own carbon footprint in everyday

life and this may start to shape leisure consumption in the

future around participation in event tourism

Accumulation

of social capital

Consumers want to celebrate their achievements and

participation in key events and festivals and this is part of

the desire to accumulate experiences as part of their social

capital repertoire

Source: Developed from Yeoman (2013).

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 619

roles has resulted in substantial global competition. It is instru-

mentalist in nature, meaning that events and tourism are valued

for many purposes, both in the public and private sectors. A set of

core propositions have been identiﬁed (see Section 1.2), and

these collectively explain why event tourism is considered to be

important, as well as generating goals for its development. The

pertinent literature is vast. Indeed it is too big and diverse to

thoroughly cover, but in this systematic summary we have

attempted to signpost key developments and areas of research

that have evolved and areas for further development. One of the

central challenges is that many other disciplines and ﬁelds have

taken an interest in event-related phenomena, contributing to

many discourses and research topics that link events and tourism

in an interdisciplinary manner. The review process has been

shaped by a framework (see Fig. 5)thatcanalsobeusedby

managers and policy makers to shape their overall understand-

ing and approach to event tourism. The tables in the paper

summarize knowledge in this ﬁeld by identifying major themes,

concepts and terms being employed in each of the elements of

the framework: the core phenomenon (experience and mean-

ings), antecedents, outcomes, planning and management, and

dynamic patterns and processes.

While a complete ontological mapping of event tourism remains

to be attempted, this review has identiﬁed major claims to

knowledge that delimit event tourism, with insights on how this

knowledge has been determined through various research

methods. This process has also provided a research agenda by

suggesting new and emerging topics and speciﬁc methods that can

prove useful. To make progress ontologically will require a sys-

tematic analysis of all the pertinent literature, both from the

research journals and from praxis, with the aim of pinpointing all

claims to knowledge (including all concepts being employed), and

an effort made to codify and standardize terminology.

5.1. Trends

By focussing on changes in the literature a number of hot topics

and trends can be identiﬁed. First, strategy for event tourism is

attracting more attention from researchers and theorists, and in

particular a new emphasis has emerged on developing and man-

aging portfolios of events. Most of the literature pertains to single

events, their planning, management and impact; but growth in the

events sector combined with global competitiveness means that

most cities and destinations possess numerous events with long-

term and synergistic effects. Application of portfolio concepts

from the investment ﬁeld, and testing of various propositions from

population and organizational ecology will advance praxis and

foster interdisciplinary theory for event tourism. There is a need to

study the ever-expanding roles of events as they have become

legitimized as instruments of varied government policies, corpo-

rate marketing, and industry strategy. While the impetus for event

tourism in most cases was that of tourist attractiveness, related to

overcoming seasonality and generating economic impacts. The

image enhancement and co-branding roles of events have become

equally or more valued. A major source of concern for events and

destinations is how to measure real effects of media coverage and

whether or not image enhancement translates into future demand

or growth. Greater attention to media management is warranted,

speciﬁcally how images and brand values can be conveyed to target

audiences through the planned-event medium.

The roles of events in urban regeneration and re-positioning go

well beyond place marketing and image effects. Links between

events, travel and health are under-researched and this should

become a priority research topic eespecially directed at youth.

How do events, and the development of event travel careers,

engage youth and keep people active throughout their lives? Do

owners and organizers of events establish health goals and evaluate

outcome? The oft-claimed effects of sport-events that they

generate increased participation have been challenged and longi-

tudinal research is therefore required. Who exactly participates

more as a consequence of events, and can we distinguish between

the effects of publicity (e.g., merely watching an event on T V) actual

participation as a volunteer or athlete, and other forms of

engagement such as educational programmes attached to events?

Among key themes for future development are the following.

Special-Interest Event Tourism: The range of special interests

generating events and tourism continues to expand, from yoga and

food to ever-diversifying participation sports. How involvement is

established and leads to event-tourist careers is of direct relevance

to both understanding this trend and to taking advantage of it for

competitive reasons. While traditions and the institutionalization

process give rise to permanent hallmark events, special interests

generate numerous targeted events and a number of Iconic events

that hold special meaning for the highly involved.

Understanding the travel experience has always been a theme,

advanced most recently through ethnographic accounts, but now

experience design is the very popular topic.

Increasingly it will be necessary to ‘custom-design’highly tar-

geted event experiences, and this has to be based on greater

knowledge of the planned event experience in all its dimensions

(by type of event, setting and management systems). A variety of

research approaches and many comparisons will be required, from

evaluations of those attending events to qualitative studies of what

people are looking for, meanings they attach to their experiences,

and inﬂuences on future attitudes and behaviour. In this demand-

side approach, market intelligence equates with more and better

research and theory development on the roles of event tourism in

social worlds connected to leisure, sport and lifestyle.

Evaluation and Impact Assessment: Inevitably the rise of event

tourism is generating a greater need for accountability, trans-

parency, and comprehensiveness in evaluation of policies, strate-

gies, investments and interventions. This applies to bidding,

developing a comprehensive portfolio, and construction or

replacement of venues. Researchers have made great strides in

developing theory and methods for non-economic impact topics,

most recently by stressing social capital, use and non-use values,

footprint calculations and taking a multistakeholder approach. But

full cost and beneﬁt evaluations are rare and it is exceptional to

see proper consideration of opportunity costs or key externalities

like security and infrastructure costs for mega events. Long-term

evaluation of leveraging and legacy effects is needed. Key in-

dicators are being developed to both reﬂect triple-bottom-line

thinking and encourage standardization of impact assessments

and forecasts.

A primary need is to focus attention on the bigger evaluation

questions of what an event is worth, how to value events within a

portfolio, and the relative value of permanent versus one-time

events.

Running in parallel to developments in evaluation and impact

assessment has been a rise in critical discourse related to events

and event tourism (e.g. see Merkel, 2013). This reﬂects the

growing scholarly interest in contested meanings and the worth of

events, how ideology, power and politics shape event tourism,

events as propaganda, protests, and the distribution of costs and

beneﬁts.

Sustainability: Certainly this is not a new theme, but its rele-

vance will not diminish. While there is no single deﬁnition or

approach to achieving sustainability that is accepted by all, there

has been recognition that it is much more than a “greening of

events”and in this sense the discourse is closely related to

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631620

evaluation of worth, justiﬁcations for public-sector intervention,

portfolios and populations, and to various lines of argument within

critical discourse. Many critics ﬂatly reject the notion that mega

events can ever be green or sustainable.

Futurism. Tourism forecasting is a well-established theme, but

we are now seeing more interest in future studies applied to the

events sector (e.g. Yeoman et al. (2014) highlighting the signiﬁ-

cance of trend analysis.

Finally it is pertinent to conclude with a focus on education for

event tourism. Event management education is now well estab-

lished in many countries, but it is inevitable that event tourism will

ﬁnd a place of its own. This is in part a function of the increasing

number of jobs speciﬁc to event tourism indicative of the potential

drop in student demand for tourism and value in combining

tourism and closely related studies like events more closely. The

synergistic effects of these new (or perhaps re-invented) mergers

offer students more choices and bring applied management ﬁelds

closer together as advocated by Getz (2014).

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D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631630

Professor Don Getz Is Professor at the University of

Queensland School of Business and Emeritus Professor,

Haskayane School of Business, University of Calgary, Can-

ada. He is the most pre-eminent academic in the ﬁeld of

event studies and has written many of the leading books in

the ﬁeld. His current research is exploring the nexus be-

tween food and events.

Professor Stephen Page is Professor in the Faculty of

Management, Bournemouth University and is Associate

Editor (Europe) and Reviews Editor for Tourism Manage-

ment. His current research cross cuts the tourism, leisure

and events ﬁeld and he is involved in several research

projects associated with creating dementia friendly com-

munities. He is also co-editor of the Routledge Handbook

of Events.

D. Getz, S.J. Page / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 593e631 631

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